Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive instruments and ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could hardly have been a pleasant experience.
The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.
Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death chamber.
A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act or question.
The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife of Orpheus, who, killed on herwedding night, was redeemed on condition that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world. Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.
The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by Aëdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty. Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled; therefore he lost her a second time.
The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and devotion.
As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in abandonment.
A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards. She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit her on that day.
Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.
The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual world, but also extended toinanimate objects which were sometimes invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of Iceland.
More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition, Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre.
Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by Queen Morgan la Fay.
Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural origin;e.g., the sword ofSiegfried, the name of which was Balmung or Gram (literally “griefâ€).
The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces.
Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing the sheath, though he retained the sword.
Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired. In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.
Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa with the Promethean unguent.
Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.
This probably is a poetic allusion to early employmentof defensive armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be unprotected.
Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic significance,e.g., “Three†the “perfect†number, expressive of Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.
That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to be under the rule of three gods—Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts—Neptune, the Trident, and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.
Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.
The Muses were three times three as follows:
The world is compounded of three elements—Earth, Water and Air.
Man also is three—Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of Nature—Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.
There are three Christian Graces—Faith, Hope and Charity, and three enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.
The number “Four†symbolises the quarters of the World—the Winds—the Gospels—the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.
“Five†signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.
“Seven†has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the world.
Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the Deities.
The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter; the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic games had a wreath of wild olive—of green parsley in the Nemean games, and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.
The Ancients believed that the laurel communicatedthe spirit of prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.
The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace, an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art is generally borne by the martyr—indicating victory over Death. The Lily—which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of Eve as she went forth from Paradise—is the emblem of Chastity, Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow.
In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.
The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion—the leaf symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords or whips; thecolumn or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails; the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx, the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,†the blue “Heaven,†and the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.
Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and the lion to Vulcan.
The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead, and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it receives life.
Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.
Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a man.
Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle—the former because his gospel opens withthe priests sacrificing in the Temple, and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the divinity of the Logos.
In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.
The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and, considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.
In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.
The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief†is the source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief thereby slew a dragon.
The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also a poetic allusion to flood or inundation.
The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion to the power of the sun drying upthe overflow, as also the deliverance of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille (waterspout) which lived in the Seine.
In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable occurrences have been handed down—in many cases completely transformed—by reason of this poetic license;e.g., the legend of Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.
The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the respective superiority of the instruments—the Dorian mode in the worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of the river Marsyas.
Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos, King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos. All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly in sieves from a deep well.
The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.
The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached inthe tradition of Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog—both slain by Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two tribes.
Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains—a Greek myth based on the peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to two ships which acted as supporters.
A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.
The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.
Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:
The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus, appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from its breast caught in a chalice.
The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of its breast.
The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred years, is the symbol of the Resurrection.
The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.
The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in general shape.
Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the association of qualities—animal and human; and probably had their origin in an early belief in Totemism.
Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous, resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer.
The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.
The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage or mentality.
The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for protection or menace.
The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.
Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering, the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes Intelligence, and bird claws—Ferocity.
The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position, is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power.
The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her destruction was accomplished by Å’dipus, who solved the riddle that had resulted fatally for his predecessors.
The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the wings suggesting mobility or ever-present.
The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the ears.
The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.
The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the head being the crater, the goatrepresenting the mountain slopes, and the snake tail the morass at the foot.
The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted issuing from the mouth.
Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the Chimeræ, also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.
In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head, with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events.
Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers) of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing.Failing to entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves.
The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing harps or lutes.
The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean. The Dolphin has the same significance.
A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity displayed in creation and pervading all things.
Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.
To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.
The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an embodiment of the Thessalonianhorsemen. The Epic sculptures of the Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when entertained as guests.
The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its employment as the crown, orb and nimbus.
In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string substituted for the asps.
The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority, not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in pagan times.
It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre, and sometimes is triangular in form.
The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is sometimes used to envelop the whole figure.
Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.
The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.
The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone†is one of the tests of strength.
Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre, mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a form which is still retained in the official mace.
The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to reward or punish.
The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome—two joined hands signifying concord.
Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending from the fingers in token of divine Grace.
The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of violence, and is so expressed on theshield of Ulster. An allusion to the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung it ashore.
The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in harmonious accord.
The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which the serpents twined in peaceful amity.
The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is employed as an emblem of commerce.
A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine) with the new wine to make it keep.
It has also been attributed to a strategy of war,when Bacchus made a successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities took place at night.
The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use, are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.
Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it symbolised the four cardinal points.
Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life generally.
There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice extends equally over the four quarters of the world.
The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm, sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith, Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all Christian virtues.
The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with twotransverse arms, when it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.
The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.
The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T—frequently used in Byzantine representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.
The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.
In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical suffering belongs to a later period.
It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St. Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his execution.
The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both being indicative of authority.
Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as attributes and as a means of identification.
As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear, lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc.
In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond—Invulnerable Faith, the Sardonyx—Power, the Sapphire—Hope, Gold represents Power or Glory, and Silver—Purity.
Black represents Grief or Death, Blue—Hope and Divine Contemplation, pale blue—Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience, Green—Faith, Gladness, pale green—Baptism, Grey—Tribulation, Purple—Justice or Royalty, Red—Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet—Fervour, and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet—Penitence, and White—Purity, Temperance and Innocence.
Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a mere shell of the immortal soul. Theyare also used to indicate a pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or form of spoon.
Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.
Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.
The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē, was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of Athenē. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus.
The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival, was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired. The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably accompanies the representations of Ceres.
Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter implement, though generally acceptedis more strictly the emblem of Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe the sickle would be more appropriate.
Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.
The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the Bird of Wisdom.
Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements, sheaves of corn and fruit.
Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.
Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.
Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way difficult.
Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass effect and variety.
A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French Renaissance.
It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers, especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to which there could be little objection if the employment of such details were justified by conditions.
Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and to invest modern art—wherever possible—with meaning.
In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and display of pictures and sculpture.
The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.
The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any progress must necessarily be very slow.
THROUGH the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by phases of colour and form, varying in individuals according to temperament. The artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to natural faculty, though much may be acquired by intelligent study.
In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the eye. Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are essential, these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of paramount importance, and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the layman.
The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of subject and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical attitude than that of the artist, to whom—as a craftsman—the interest is often merely that of technique. These possibly represent the two extremes; the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the ideal without consideration of schools and isms.
Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined knowledge than from the actual visual aspect—are apt to take forms for granted, toassume, for example, that an object is round when it is really subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence, being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and direction. Many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a form as a right angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained, it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile combinations. It is the business of the teacher to train the vision so that the perceptive faculties are developed, and instil in the mind of the student that art is only concerned with appearance. Any fact not visually apparent should be ignored.
The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience, forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations, and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and tradition. Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the surface by a line or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions. When shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid in the suggestion of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more lucid explanation, the work remains a convention if colour and atmosphere are rendered in monochrome.
It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright colour to the child and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations are only appreciated by comparatively few, the faculty for colour being extremely rare.
The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average woman is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume certainly do not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour selection evidently the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of these colours being to excite the complementaries, is hardly favourable to the misguided wearer.
The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he is observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive dislike to anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take the initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex.
In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a lining for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may be influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and upholstery that is associated.
The colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the particular apartment. A sunny room should be treated differently to one with anorth-east aspect, in which an appearance of warmth is desirable. Furniture, too, must be considered, reds being an unsuitable setting for oak as a rule, while mahogany is best associated with delicate greens and greys.
It is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should result in greater discrimination, and when the exercise consists of representing, it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and values. In original design the harmonious effect depends on the individual, who, in early attempts in colour, jumps at it, being unconscious of any guiding principle.
It would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various natural aspects apparent to all, would surely influence selection; that it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation. Nature left alone never makes mistakes, and the colouring in flowers, land, sky, and water, the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena, is always harmonious if seen in original environment. When the balance and correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference, as is evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and horticulturist.
In decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one colour, and the contrast is merely that of tone; in other words, of lighter and darker phases. This method of colouring, which is quite suitable in some instances, is fairly safe, as the latitude for error is greatly reduced, but certainly is not courageous.
The problem arises, when the scheme involves the use of more than one colour, and the successful effect depends on judicious association and balance. The simple rule is never to display two only of the primary colours in juxtaposition, the presence of the third being essential to harmonious and satisfactory effect.
This, as a principle, forms the basis of much of the Moresque decoration, in which the details were picked out in blue and red of positive hues, and separated or outlined with gold.
More consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in request, and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative. As any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category, so those associated should be proportionately remote.
Respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small part of the surface, when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas. For such contingencies it is impossible to give exact formulæ, as the pigments employed are not always constant. In the case of manufacturers of mixed paints, it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or season, and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint in subsequent mixing. The same applies where coloured papers and textiles are concerned; therefore judgment based on principle and experience can be the only guide.
The Primary colours are Red, Yellow and Blue; admixture of any two of these result in the Secondary colours which form the complementaries of the Primaries not involved. Thus blue and yellow combinedresult in green, which is the complementary of red, the complementary of yellow being purple, and that of blue, orange.
Intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably, and this variation should be proportional in other tints associated. Part of the charm of colour often depends on its complexity, in natural aspects due to atmosphere and varied phases of light. Pure colours should at times be avoided, that is, in the sense in which they are obtainable as pigments.
Students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing before taking the study of design seriously, though probably part of the early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that direction. Undoubtedly, too, many enter on this phase of study without adequate preparation, having little appreciation of the underlying geometric construction, not only in design but in all form.
This, on investigation, can always be found, and either the general mass or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing the more intimate details. Correct approximation and placing are essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing. Too often through lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away, without the necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes.
The study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective designers. Subjects should beselected as season or opportunity permit, not merely from plant and floral growth, but any form available, animate or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental treatment.
Students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a stumbling-block, and in making their studies from nature cannot at first grasp the idea that selection should be exercised, and that only those phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded. Design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as pattern, and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should be dealt with. To perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both time and energy.
In too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is recorded, even without any regard to natural attitude. It may be a spray of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub, which is fixed up in any position that comes handy. For this there is no excuse; the spray should not only be placed consistently, but to the best advantage, the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of decorative development.
In design it is conditional that each individual detail should be primarily effective as a silhouette, surface interest being of secondary consideration.
Any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to satisfactorily comply with this condition, and this can easily be achieved by slightly shifting the point of view, as it is generally due to extremeforeshortening, or perspective that is confusing in appearance.