Purpose

No. 134. Forms of Mouldings.

Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not only in Architecture, but in structural form generally. In flat decoration they have to some extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate widths of which are governed by similar rules.

Of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms, though the individual character of these curves is subject to great variation in treatment.

As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact, functional features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning, Bracketing or Supporting, and Binding.

In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be taken into consideration.

The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve be refined or robust.

In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful in other than purely architectural design.

Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or Fillets, the employment of which is universal.

The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved profiles to indicate relative proportion.

There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta.

The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice, and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle.

The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the contention.

For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances terminates with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice, is yet at the top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft is similarly treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this, though an exception to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity.

The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and the crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total height, preferably the latter.

The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning member of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other positions, notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed position.

The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the whole.

The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa.

The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or slightly elliptic, which in height isequal to projection; and a fillet at base one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet.

As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or facia, and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is justified.

The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure, and is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The projection is equal to the height of curved profile.

The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the column forms the support for the entablature.

It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders.

The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a base moulding.

The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is decided by the curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet.

The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the base of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger. It is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding beneath the Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead or astragal.

This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions its purpose should be equally evident.

The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the base.

The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of curved profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being about one-fifth the total height.

The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles, but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in composition.

The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with externalface vertical or slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings.

With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than its height.

When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face is generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top fillet of supporting moulding.

Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it is reconciled by a Cavetto curve.

The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved profile to which it is in valuable contrast.

Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period.

When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the original surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in the case of mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the Ovolo, and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light.

The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with vertical features.

No. 135.

The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature or profile line.

Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg and Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating the profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart.

As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some instances grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise.

Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the Bead or Astragal.

The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the relief, in consequence, comparatively slight.

When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle.

The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto, though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the relief is comparatively slight.

The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form being sufficiently effective.

The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various ways.

The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of its function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or cable. Leaves suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed at intervals with ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of binding.

The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should, following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical flutings, or the key detail, both of which are used.

Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the category of supporting members.

In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite projection.

In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half the width.

The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like in shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and downwards, or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the Dentils the supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a fillet.

Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings,license which is permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind. The concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and absence of variety. The vertical tendency resulting from the bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable, and in happy contrast to the horizontal direction of the moulding, while it also emphasises the sense of structural support.

DETAIL OF THE DENTILNo. 136.

DETAIL OF THE DENTIL

No. 136.

The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being a matter of attitude and discretion.

When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in furniture, considerable latitude is permissible.

It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from light and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic curves will be more effective than more rounded sections, which are most suitable to remote positions.

In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated with regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the shapes of profiles, but also in their respective heights.

MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVENo. 137.

MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVE

No. 137.

Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not appear in elevation but inperspective; and not only the respective heights will be visible, but also the projections.

When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice.

Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be considered as to bind or enclose.

In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects, which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only on a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is left in the original plane. A treatment that is effective and comparatively economical.

CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONENo. 138.

CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONE

No. 138.

Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally necessary, as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some method of building up.

Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work generally are constructed of stiles

No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and rails.B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple moulded edges.D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and rails.E. Later Jacobean Panelling.F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection type.

No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.

A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and rails.

B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple moulded edges.

D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and rails.

E. Later Jacobean Panelling.

F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection type.

and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the panels.

The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the profiles became more distinct in contour.

These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at mainly by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame.

Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period, and the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point of view, though effective if not overdone.

No. 140. Applied Mouldings.

In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and contours employed should be contrasting, and that all curved sections be divided by fillets.

As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform, it is obvious that mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines.

With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings may generally be one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect, robust or refined.

No. 141. Part of Dresser.Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.

No. 141. Part of Dresser.

Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.

When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the Bolection Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of inner frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels, but was more commonly an applied moulding.

No. 142. Bolection Moulding.

In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap the framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of light and shade.

Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox enrichments or variants based on them, but should always be in contrast to the panels they enclose.

In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many positions can be regulated by functional considerations. In horizontal positions, such as in tables and sideboards, where personal contactis possible, any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious reasons.

TABLE TOP MOULDINGSNo. 143.

TABLE TOP MOULDINGS

No. 143.

In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil. When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is originally modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic nature, such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or other forms.

Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed.

TURNED WOODNo. 144.

TURNED WOOD

No. 144.

Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the formative process involved.

Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster form. As a rule thereis little variation between the maximum and minimum diameters.

The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by their position protected from damage.

Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to general form and finished in the lathe.

No. 145.

The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that the material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply defined and delicate in detail.

The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method little more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases show some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after the vessel had been formed on the wheel.

No. 146. Moulded Vase in Terra-cotta.

In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety,but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision due to turning.

In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness.

ROLLED METAL MOULDINGSNo. 147.

ROLLED METAL MOULDINGS

No. 147.

By either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable provided they are not undercut.

Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes in iron, brass, bronze, and silver.

Where special sections are required, the cost of the tools necessary for their production would have to be taken into account.

DRAWN METAL MOULDINGSNo. 148.

DRAWN METAL MOULDINGS

No. 148.

Though the employment of rolled or drawnmouldings is usual in wrought iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character. Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and method of working.

No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding.No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.

No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.

In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the necessary draw plates being made by the workman.

No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.

Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which undercutting is not permissible.

SPUN METALNo. 152.

SPUN METAL

No. 152.

They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and lack the precision that marks the mechanical production.

In architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential, the profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined.

Architectural designs, which should always be drawn to scale, are expressed geometrically, that is in plan, elevation and section. The actual effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by those familiar with the arbitrary form of expression. Perspectives are generally made with a view to depicting the appearance to the uninitiated, but are practically useless as working drawings.

The student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere. This study should not be confined to geometric drawings, but these should be supplemented by sketches and careful observation. Attention should also be paid to the profiles of mouldings.

A practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the various features, indicating broadly the effects of light and shade.

The study of architectural proportions should be methodical, and the general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to memory. When this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual features.

It is customary, when any of the orders of Architecture are employed, to adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best traditions of the past, and is generally accepted as the most satisfactory.

Naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special conditions or personal treatment. According to the academic method, the diameter of the column is divided into two parts, which are called Modules, and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions called parts. This gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of height and projection are obtained. Since the diameter of the column forms the standard of measurement, the proportions of the relative parts are constant and in no way influenced by the size of the structure.

This method, although very complete, is—owing to its multiplicity of dimensions—somewhat laborious in practice, and the method here proposed in its stead, though not claimed to be exact, will yet be found to be sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements.

It is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in Renaissance architecture. These were based by the early exponents of the style on Roman examples. The Doric selected is that of Vignola, and is a refined version of the order used in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome. The Ionic closely resembles the Roman Ionic order in the same building. The Corinthian is the Roman example from the Pantheon.

An Order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature, while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal.

It is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various parts of which an order is composed.

The column consists of a shaft, base and capital.

The shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered.

The base is composed of mouldings, which are circular on plan, and a rectangular block or plinth.

The capital is circular on plan, and in the Doric and Corinthian orders is divided from the shaft by a necking moulding. The capital is surmounted by a feature known as the abacus, which is rectangular on plan, but varies in detail in the different orders.

Columns may be isolated or engaged, that is, built into walls so that they form projections from the surface.

No. 153. Doric Order with Pedestal.

The pilaster is always engaged, and is rectangular on plan, but otherwise it has the same general features and proportions as the column.

The entablature is the superstructure supported by the columns. It consists of an architrave, which is the lowest part, a frieze, the intermediate part, and a series of projecting mouldings known as the cornice.

The pedestal, which occasionally forms a support for the columns, consists of a plinth, die and capping. The lower part or plinth is separated from the die by mouldings, and the capping is a projecting course of mouldings forming a simple cornice.

To sum up a simple classification, which may be termed the triology of the orders, will be found to assist the memory.

The Orders commonly employed are three—the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. (There are two others which are less used, and are really derived from the other three: they are the Tuscan, which is a form of debased Doric, and the Composite, which is made up of the Ionic and Corinthian).

The Order may be divided into three parts:

Pedestal, Column and Entablature.

These may again be sub-divided.

The Pedestal into Plinth, Die and Capping.

The Column into Base, Shaft and Capital.

The Entablature into Architrave, Frieze and Cornice.

The method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows. In this division the pedestal is not taken into account, but is reserved for later consideration.

Divide the total height into five equal parts. Then the upper fifth will give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining four-fifths thediameter of the column. From this it will be seen that the column is eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters. In using the term diameter it must be understood that it is always the lower diameter of the column that is referred to.

No. 154. General Proportions of the Orders.

The capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding, and the base also is half a diameter. In all the orders the column is tapered; the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or majordiameter. The taper is not in a straight line, but a slight curve, which is known as entasis. It is obtained by drawing the lower third of the shaft vertical and from these lines springing a curve to the upper diameter, which may readily be done by slightly altering the angle of the pencil in ruling them.

The entablature is divided as follows: the architrave is half a diameter, the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter.

The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth will be the entablature, and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of the column, hence the column will be nine diameters high.

The capital is half a diameter high; the base also is half a diameter.

The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts, three of these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the frieze and the remaining four that of the cornice.

The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth is the height of the entablature. A tenth of the remainder will be the diameter of the column.

The capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the necking moulding, and the base is half a diameter high, exclusive of the top fillet.

The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic, and the mouldings, although more elaborate,are similar in character. The architrave and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the cornice four-tenths.

It will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three orders are respectively one-eighth, one-ninth and one-tenth the heights of the columns, and that the entablature is, in the Doric, two diameters high or one fourth the height of the column; in the Corinthian also two diameters or one-fifth the height of the column. The Ionic is intermediate between the two.

The Doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one diameter in projection from the face of the frieze, which should always be in vertical alignment with the architrave.

It is convenient to divide the cornice height into three. The upper third consists of a crowning cavetto moulding, supported by a cyma reversa, under which is a facia or corona, in turn supported by a dentil course. The lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil course, and if the height from the top of the cavetto to the underside of the corona be bisected, the point of bisection should fall in the centre of the intervening reversa.

In orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona is decorated with a series of sunk panels. Those immediately over the triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops. A variation of this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of brackets known as mutules. They consist of afacia and a reversa, which is carried round the upper edge to support the corona. When mutules are used the dentil course is omitted.

PLAN OF CORNICENo. 155. Doric Entablature, Vignola.

The dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band, and they are supported by a cyma reversa moulding. A fillet beneath this moulding completes thecornice. The reversa is about the same height as the fillet, and the dentil course is about twice this height, but owing to the soffit of the corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full height of the dentil facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation.

PLAN OF CORNICENo. 156. Doric Entablature, with Mutules.

Above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet. These are directly beneath the corona, and are carried round to form the panels on its soffit.

The Doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high. It is divided into panels technically known as metopes, by projecting features half a diameter in width which are called triglyphs.

The metopes should be square, and one of the triglyphs is always placed immediately over each column, having the same central axis, hence the spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes. Examples of various spacings of columns will be given later.

The frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or fillets; that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the triglyphs.

The triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with grooves or glyphs, V shaped in section, with intervening spaces or inter-glyphs. The width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve parts—then the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be one of these parts, and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs are each two of them. The glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet band, but at the top are cut off a little below the upper fillet, invariably in a straight line, thus forming a triangular heading with the apex of the triangle sloping backwards and downwards in conformity with the V shaped section of the glyphs.

Under the lower fillet band, and immediately below the triglyph, is a small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae.

PLAN OF CORNICENo. 157. Ionic Entablature.

The architrave is half a diameter high, inclusive of the fillet band, which is roughly a sixth of this height. The small fillet and guttae are together equal in height to the fillet band.

It may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used, the face of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part of the shaft of the column.

The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts; three of these should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the frieze, and the remaining four that of the cornice.

To find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle of 45 degrees from the top of the frieze, and the profiles of the mouldings composing the cornice will fall within this line.

The lowest member is a small reversa moulding, with a fillet supporting a dentil course, above which is an ovolo; these occupy half the height of the cornice. The remaining half is composed of the facia, surmounted by a reversa and the crowning cyma moulding, rather more than half of the height being allotted to these two.

The frieze of the Ionic order has no characteristic detail as the Doric, and may be plain or decorated according to conditions, and should be in vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. In some of the later Renaissance examples the profile of the Ionic frieze is a segmental curve of about a third of a circle.

The architrave is usually formed of three facias, which may be either vertical or slightly inclined.

No. 158. Corinthian Entablature.

A fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding, which is a reversa with its accompanying fillet.

A point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave will give the line of the lower edge of the top facia. The other two facias should be taken in a decreasing ratio, the lower being the shorter.

The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic. The total height is divided into ten. Three of these parts form the architrave, three the frieze and four the cornice.

An angle of 45 degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine the general contour and projection of the cornice.

The cornice is more complex than in the other styles, but a division of eleven will help to determine, three being the height to underside of bead moulding and seven that of the main facia. The lowest moulding of the cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead moulding above it. Above the bead there is an ovolo, which forms the bed of a series of brackets known as modillions. The height of the modillions is about one-fifth including the reversa moulding, which, besides completing the modillions, is carried round between them as a support for the upper facia.

The modillions have a profile of ogee form. They are about a sixth of a diameter in width and project about twice their width, and are so spaced as to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the corona. The frieze, which may or may not bedecorated, is in vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave.

The architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings. If the height be divided into two, the upper half is devoted to the first facia and reversa moulding, which latter occupies rather more than one-third; the remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a diminishing ratio.

The general proportions of the column have already been given. The shaft is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height, the lower third being cylindrical, and the taper terminates at the necking moulding. In all three orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is the same, that is, the upper is five-sixths of the lower, but although the amount of taper is numerically the same, the different ratios of the diameters to the heights produce naturally very different results.

The shaft of the Doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical grooves called flutes. There are twenty of these flutes round the circumference. On plan they are shallow, and may be formed of arcs of a third of a circle. The curves meet without intervening fillets. The flutes are finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom, leaving a small plain space below the necking and above the base.

The Ionic and Corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts. If decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference. These are semi-circular on plan, and are spaced with fillets between them.

The Capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal lines predominate in æsthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the shaft. In all the orders there is some form of crowning block or moulding known as the abacus.[A]

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