Roman

No. 18. Early anticipation of Ionic Order. Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu.

The capital of theCorinthian order may be considered to be a development of the Egyptian Papyrus form, the earliest features of both consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail.

No. 19. Greek Vase Paintings. A. Doric columns. B. Wall fountain. C. Ionic columns with pediment.

Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are traceable to the same sources.

Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was mostly manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively unimportant.

No. 20. Greek house about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British Museum, Bacchus visiting Icarius.

Some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the British Museum, on which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric in character, and probably of wood construction, the metopes in the frieze being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting.

Though the Greeks invested many of their creations with Epic and Symbolic meaning, much of their ornament was purely æsthetic.

The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon, representing the conflict between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an example of the Epic treatment.

The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed so large a part in Greek art.

Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration.

No. 21. Front elevation and plan of Parthenon, Athens

No. 22. Greek Ionic Erectheum, Athens.

The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the cornice.

Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue and red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the colour decoration forming horizontal bands.

One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form (literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the entablature.

This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in subject, designed to occupy the shape.

The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430B.C., representing the culmination of the former.

Of the Corinthian style—comparatively little used by the Greeks, though much employed and developed later—the Choragic monument at Athens, 330B.C., is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds.

The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6B.C., in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are perpendicular, and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the legs.

No. 23. Greek Corinthian, Choragic Monument, Athens.

The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It was used for sleeping and resting. Chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal, and were often of a folding type.

Tables were constructed in various shapes—sometimes the supports were fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as sphinxes with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of furniture, they were made in wood, metal and marble.

No. 24. Greek Furniture.A. Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan.B.““Vase painting.C. Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C.D. Chair from Hydria.E. Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.CF. Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C.

No. 24. Greek Furniture.

A. Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan.B.““Vase painting.C. Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C.D. Chair from Hydria.E. Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.CF. Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C.

The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially are frequently depicted.

The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the oil lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta.

No. 25. Greek Pottery.A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C.B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C.C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white.D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C.E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C.

No. 25. Greek Pottery.

A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C.B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C.C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white.D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C.E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C.

Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140B.C., Greece became a Roman province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement from Roman patronage than in local requirement.

They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded, thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their conquerors.

Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style developed.

The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture were influenced by Etruscan work.

Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin (who was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610B.C.

With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts generally.

The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek Doric the height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half diameters, the Roman version became more slender, being about eight diameters in height.

The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change that has practically remained unaltered to the present day.

The most significant development in building was the Arch and subsequent vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or dome 139 feet in diameter.

No. 26. Section and interior elevation of Pantheon, Rome.

The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is really a casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the present method of building, in which concrete or cement forms a considerable part in construction.

Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material, which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the device of joggelledjoints. In the absence of suitable material to cover spans, it became necessary to devise some means to the desired result. This was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of material cut to the necessary wedge form.

The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to buildings of many storeys.

No. 27. Coliseum, Rome. Section and part elevation showing arch and vault construction.

Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the Romans were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and also were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art, even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names.

Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was undoubtedly dignified and grand inmanner, particularly in their treatment of the Corinthian order.

With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and freedom of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type of foliage.

No. 28. Arch of Titus, Rome.

Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional leaves and flowers.

There was also a tendency to employ occasionallynatural types in foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human and animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for their æsthetic value.

The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls and baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus.

No. 29. Typical Roman Ornament.

Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii have thrown considerable light on the domestic life of the Romans—their dwellings, decorations and furniture.

No. 30. Roman couch. Sepulchral urn, British Museum.No. 31. Roman Sella.

In the luxurious life of the Romans colour

No. 32. Graeco-Roman Hall in house of Sallust, Pompeii.

decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted work of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as the Græco-Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the general scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas being divided into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster panels, with plinth, or dado,frieze, and cornice, the prevailing colours being red, buff and black.

No. 33.

The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings, through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel pictures with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or scrolling detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without actual relief.

The use of glass for glazing windows was employedin the later period; that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the examples in the National collections.

No. 34.

For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which were boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended from branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were invariably in cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail.

In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the actual life at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally prone to be obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the various domestic appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum are of considerable interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people.

At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms.

The establishment in 330A.D.of Byzantium or Constantinople as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the associated crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled to hold their meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary they at first utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas or public halls. Later on churches were built, the plan being arranged in the form of a Greek cross (e.g., with equal arms), surmounted by a central dome.

The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the imposed circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are technically known as Pendentives. The

No. 35. Byzantine. Section and plan of St. Vitali, Ravenna.

No. 36. Byzantine Capitals from Ravenna.

four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes.

The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail, thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye, but in some Byzantine examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian by Anthemius) the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the base, constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome.

The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter being 106 ft. 7½ ins.

The architectural features generally were considerably modified, particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature which is characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became simple in form, being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded.

The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to the plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were of the acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely channelled with V-shapedgrooves; the eyes between the lobes being round and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a reversion to the archaic Greek.

No. 37. Byzantine Panels. St. Appollinare, Nuovo, Ravenna.

A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the circle, frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective significance of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five Wounds. The grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent, giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for instance, as the cross and the vine.

It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were certain rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were familiar, and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy to invest some of these with a new meaning. During the period of intolerance and persecution, signs and symbols grew in importance as a

No. 39. Byzantine Interior, Ravenna.

No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at Ravenna.From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.

No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at Ravenna.

From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.

means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and decoration.

No. 38. Byzantine Panel from the sarcophagus of St. Theodore. St. Appollinare in Classe, Ravenna.

In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed symmetrical patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass, constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors, spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold being largely employed in the backgrounds. Windows, at times large in area, were glazed as in Roman times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal frames, usually bronze; and thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing purposes.

The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal, decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was invariably set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with champleve enamel, the whole being gilt.

As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III in 726A.D., the art workers,deprived of local patronage and compelled to pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where for some centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely influenced Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal and enamels. The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine style into the detail of the different phases of the Romanesque.

No. 41. Champleve enamel Byzantine tradition.

The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result that both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become more and more crude, until the original forms and details were almost entirely lost. But in spite of changes the classic feeling never completely died out.

Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress of events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn, these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and influence. The inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on their own resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which the arts naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native manner of building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was based on the Roman tradition.

The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians, whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the same influences, was much cruder in execution.

This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and luxury in any form was practically non-existent.

Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from which the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated.

The columns are squat in proportion, and surmountedby capitals of truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in plan.

Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series of recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the Byzantine style, the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of light and shade.

No. 42. Romanesque Capitals from Cloister, St. Guillem du Desert, Herault. Reminiscent of Roman Corinthian.

Details were carved, and rude in execution, preserving to some extent the Byzantine feeling, the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem, with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply channelled or grooved, but less spikey in form.

Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height.

No. 43. Romanesque Tower, Thaon, Normandy.

At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separatedit from the chancel (which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of nave, the whole taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the Byzantine plan; the chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the transepts respectively North and South.

A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir, within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy.

The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early Christians for their public worship (to which were admitted those outside the community) was abandoned, its place being taken by the West entrance or porch, enclosed between two towers.

No. 44. Romanesque plan of Cathedral, Worms.

The upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns, which constituted the division of the side aisles; these latter being formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls, the vaulting being roofed over.

The upper part of the nave was pierced by windows, small and comparatively narrow, with semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory. Similar windows insome instances occur in the aisles, the jambs of these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission of light.

The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the result of frequent destruction by fire, the roof was eventually vaulted; in early examples by the barrel or tunnel vault, but later this developed into cross-vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles.

No. 45. Romanesque, bay of interior, Worms Cathedral.

No. 47. Romanesque Church interior with Triforium.

No. 46. Romanesque Window, St. Alban’s Abbey.

In the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken except for the upper windows. With the development of vaulting, the space above the aislevaults and the covering roof was used as a gallery known as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque and early Gothic styles.

The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports for the arch bands or vaulting ribs, which were carried on pilasters or half columns, dividing the interior façade into bays.

No. 48. Construction of intersecting vaults.

The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774A.D., was necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the arts and culture in general.

Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests, and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the people were kept in ignorance and subjection.

Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts.

This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however, personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous attire.

No. 49. Romanesque, south door Kilpeck Church, Herefordshire.

Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians, consisted principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was occupied by a long table, and at one end raised on a platform ordais another table was placed in the opposite direction. At the latter sat the most important members of the household, while the lower part was reserved for retainers and servants. Heavy chairs and settles were used at the upper table, and benches or forms at the lower.

Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known. The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best it might.

Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining. Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were, in fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as mattresses.

Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were transported.

No. 50. Chair of Dagobert, French 7th century, bronze.

For some time after the Norman Conquest the unsettled state of the country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables should be few in number and of such a natureas to be easily transportable. Thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into general use. They were simple in construction, and without carving, but were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron. Such chests served a double purpose, as they could be used as tables and seats.

No. 51. 14th Century Textile Sicilian tradition.

For convenience of transport, chairs and stools were made with projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken apart.

That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners, according to the couplet:

“If that cup either break or fall,Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”

This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels, similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum.

Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the medium of the Crusades, and ledto the employment of painted wall decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating the folds of the material.

No. 52. Sicilian Textile.

A precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of Henry III directing “that the King’s great chamber at Westminster be painted a good green colour like a curtain,” and “that the King’s little wardrobe should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain.”

This was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls with tapestries, though carpets were unknown. Probably the first time these were seen in England was in the apartments in the Temple occupied by the suite of the infant Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo, who with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated asavant-courriersto Eleanor of Castile in the autumn of 1255.

No. 53. Types of Buttress.

The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe soon after the First Crusade. It is reasonableto assume that this particular form was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed.

Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in the Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under Valens, 364-378A.D., by which it is probable that the Saracenic work was inspired.

Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the semi-circular form, except by the expedient of stepping.

Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building.

In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of architecture thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the Gothic style, the influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish rendering of the Renaissance.

In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point of view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions.

The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition:

Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.

Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.

Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.

Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.

No. 54. Early pointed Gothic Pier, elevation and plan.

In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure.

The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts, which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being bound together at bases and capitals.

The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in detail to the windows.

In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the archeswere acutely pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more equilateral. The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or in groups.

No. 55. Early pointed bay with Triforium. Window of Aisle is of later date.

Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head filled in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings, known as plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple open lancet and the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true tracery of the later periods.

Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were employed in the windows, both internally and externally.

Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses.

Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of hollows or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief.

No. 56. Early Lancet Windows. A. Canterbury Cathedral. B. Lincoln Cathedral. C. Salisbury Cathedral.

No. 57. Early pointed Gothic Windows. Plate tracery.

Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and finials of the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses.

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