Dog Town Predators and Fellow Inhabitants

A shadow races across a prairie dog town, stirring up a sudden panic of alarms and dashes to safety. A shriek stills the community. Overhead, the squeals of an unwary pup rapidly diminish as it is carried off in a clutch of gleaming talons of a golden eagle, above, to a nest of hungry eaglets, below.Nest of hungry eaglets.Many pups and some adults are lost to predators. While small, prairie dogs are fair game for rattlesnakes and burrowing owls. Hawks, like the eagles, ambush pups from the sky. Patrolling coyotes are quick to sense the pups’ hesitation and to capitalize on the uncertainty. Badgers excavate with astounding speed; bobcats rush from concealment of any nearby cover. And in some places the most dreaded predator of all is the black-footed ferret, which enters the burrow itself to surprise and trap its prey. But eradication programs against the prairie dog have made the ferret nearly extinct; none has been seen at Devils Tower since the late 1800s. Some of the other predators of the prairie dog also have been nearly eliminated by man. And with the loss of natural predators, prairie dog populations flourish rapidly. Unless these predators are allowed to make a comeback, prairie dog control programs will be inevitable.The black-footed ferret, a large weasel, makes its home in prairie dog towns, but it is extremely rare.The coyote frequently prowls prairie dog towns in the early morning and evening.The bullsnake hangs around burrows to prey on pups and other small rodents, killing them by constriction.The prairie falcon nests on the Tower and occasionally feeds on residents of the prairie dog town.The burrowing owl often nests in old burrows and sometimes preys on pups. Prairie dogs eat owl eggs and young.The badger is short, broad, and a formidable digger. It concentrates its preying on new, one-entrance burrows.

Nest of hungry eaglets.

Many pups and some adults are lost to predators. While small, prairie dogs are fair game for rattlesnakes and burrowing owls. Hawks, like the eagles, ambush pups from the sky. Patrolling coyotes are quick to sense the pups’ hesitation and to capitalize on the uncertainty. Badgers excavate with astounding speed; bobcats rush from concealment of any nearby cover. And in some places the most dreaded predator of all is the black-footed ferret, which enters the burrow itself to surprise and trap its prey. But eradication programs against the prairie dog have made the ferret nearly extinct; none has been seen at Devils Tower since the late 1800s. Some of the other predators of the prairie dog also have been nearly eliminated by man. And with the loss of natural predators, prairie dog populations flourish rapidly. Unless these predators are allowed to make a comeback, prairie dog control programs will be inevitable.

The black-footed ferret, a large weasel, makes its home in prairie dog towns, but it is extremely rare.

The coyote frequently prowls prairie dog towns in the early morning and evening.

The bullsnake hangs around burrows to prey on pups and other small rodents, killing them by constriction.

The prairie falcon nests on the Tower and occasionally feeds on residents of the prairie dog town.

The burrowing owl often nests in old burrows and sometimes preys on pups. Prairie dogs eat owl eggs and young.

The badger is short, broad, and a formidable digger. It concentrates its preying on new, one-entrance burrows.

Should the individual invited to mouth contact not reciprocate, an immediate challenge is made. Apparently, mouth contact is the only positive means of identification available to prairie dogs, and any animal refusing it is immediately deemed a trespasser and aggressively evicted. The wild chase that ensues, accompanied by indignant calling and fierce chattering of teeth, sometimes leads the righteous landowner deep inside its neighbor’s territory. The roles abruptly reverse and, after a moment of mutual realization, the pursuer suddenly becomes the pursued.

In the glare of the early evening sun it is difficult to distinguish the individual prairie dogs as they go about their various activities. A single warning call, however, and the town instantly sprouts battalions of erect postures. For a moment, each motionless, backlit figure shines its sun-haloed position. All the disparate activities of the scattered animals become instantaneously fused to a single purpose: identifying the danger.

Vocalizations distinguish the prairie dog from all other rodents. At least ten different calls have been identified in the blacktail class of prairie dogs. Most of the calls—such as the challenge bark, defense bark, disputing “churr,” fighting snarl, fear scream, muffled bark, and tooth chattering—do not involve the entire community. Except for the fear scream, which is immediately noted by all members, these vocal signals are largely ignored by neighboring animals since they usually denote a local disturbance among the prairie dogs themselves. There are three warning calls, however, that are intended for the entire community; these constitute the bond that unites all the separate coteries of the town into a single social unit.

At the sound of thewarning bark, usually uttered by many animals at once and quickly relayed through the entire town, each prairie dog immediately rises to alert in an attempt to define the immediate danger. If the wave of alarms is particularly intense, the animals usually rush to burrow mounds, where they will await further developments. Usually only theprairie dogs in the immediate vicinity of an enemy will retire below ground. The remainder of the population continues to observe and sound the alarm. As an enemy approaches a particular burrow, the frequency and intensity of the occupant’s warning bark increases. Only at the last moment will the prairie dog cut short its tirade, capping it with an indignantchurkas it dives below ground.

Another, more urgent, signal is thehawk warning call. The high-pitched, musical twin notes of this cry prompt an immediate dash for cover. Unlike the typical reaction to the warning bark, response to the hawk warning call is unhesitating. When this cry is given, seconds count, and visual confirmation of danger is not required to prompt a rush to safety.

After danger has passed, the all-clear is sounded. Known as thesong bark, this melodic whistle is always associated with a particular body posture. Rising up on its haunches, the prairie dog points its nose to the sky, gives the whistle, and promptly falls back on all fours. When learning to execute this call, pups usually topple over backwards. Once uttered, the call is repeated sporadically throughout the town.

Communication is as important to the survival of the prairie dog society as is adequate food and shelter. Towns decimated by disease or poisoning soon vanish if the survivors are too few or scattered to communicate effectively. Deprived of an efficient warning system (and perhaps of the psychological need of social contact, as well), individual animals make easy targets for predators. Certainly they are too large and conspicuous to blend in well with their sparse surroundings. Unlike their small, well-camouflaged cousins, the thirteen-lined ground squirrels, prairie dogs cannot survive as individuals.

After the females leave their weaned pups to establish new burrows for themselves, the young will remain together for a while until they, too, begin to split up. No longer do they resemble the playful, romping pups of spring, annoying their elders with their ceaseless games, demands for attention, and disregard for territorial boundaries. Now full-fledged members of their clans, they capture grasshoppers in a business-like fashion. Like the season, they have matured. With the company of their elders they now share a suspicion of the sky and every uninspected plot of ground.

In the early days of the cattle range, before sound land management of the plains was understood, cattlemen were perplexed to witness mushrooming populations of prairie dogs. Formerly lush grassland often became a dog town “wasteland” following the introduction of cattle. Believing that the prairie dog, and not the cattle, was responsible for this sudden transformation, ranchers rapidly came to despise prairie dogs. A massive war of extermination began against these “varmits” that “ate the grass down to nothing.” In reality, the appearance of prairie dogs merely indicated that the land was being overgrazed. As the bison had done before them, cattle now began to open up to the prairie dogs new territories that they could not otherwise colonize. Prairie dogs were never found on the eastern prairies simply because they could not contend with the taller growth of the more humid grasslands.

On their own, prairie dogs cannot easily invade unbroken areas of established grassland. The grass cover simply rejuvenates faster than the animals can work. But if the land has been disturbed by overgrazing, prairie dogs can quickly spread. Once established in an area, the animals wage a constant struggle against the vegetation. Since tall-growing plants offer concealment to a predator, the plants are routinely clipped off even if they are not to be eaten.

The feeding, clearing, and burrowing activities of the dog town tend to retard the grasses while encouraging the persistence of forbs—the broadleaf plants that quickly invade disturbed ground but are eventually crowded out by the returning grasses. By arresting the normal process of plant succession, an active dog town delays the return of the site to its climax vegetation of grasses. In so doing, it inadvertently perpetuates a wider variety of plants than would otherwise be found on the site.

Selective feeders, prairie dogs put pressure on a particular plant species when it becomes most abundant, then ignore it almost entirely in favor of another, and so on. This cyclic feeding allows each species to recover, preventing it from being eliminated.

Dry years help the prairie dog maintain control over the vegetation, and thus favor town expansion, while wet years speed recovery of the grasses andwork against the town. Towns that had spread into lush grassland during the favorable conditions of drought may be severely reduced or even eliminated with the return of adequate precipitation.

In some cases, the clearing activities of prairie dogs may actually speed plant succession. As a direct result of overgrazing by domestic stock, much of the grassland of the semi-arid West was invaded by sagebrush, a tough, drought-resistant plant that tends to perpetuate itself indefinitely once introduced. By cutting down the sage, prairie dogs eliminate it from the plant community and open the land to grasses.

In its struggle for control of territory, the prairie dog was aided by the bison. The vast herds that moved across the landscape like a black plague of giant locusts left choice tracts of the grasslands devastated in their wake. The effects of such a physical force are difficult for us to comprehend today. Migrating northward in huge columns that sometimes measured 80 kilometers (50 miles) across, the bison cropped and trampled the greening spring grasses. Surely when the bison and the prairie dog were finally replaced by cattle, the grasslands, free at last from such punishment, would flourish. But no, instead the grasses languished. How could this be so?

Nature is always more complex than our perception of it. For countless centuries the Great Plains had survived its many moods of drought, dust storm, and wildfire, its scattered plagues of bison and grasshopper. Nature knows no “varmits,” and change is not catastrophe, but opportunity. But to the settler who shot hawks, owls, and eagles to protect his calves, poultry, and children, the lesson was a long time dawning.

Ironically, the grasslands needed the periodic despoilment of bison and burrow. When the bison herd moved on, it left behind tons of fertilizer, key to the area’s future rejuvenation. But the millions of hoofs also left the ground compacted. Were it not for the ceaseless activities of countless burrowing animals, including the industrious prairie dogs, loosening the soil and undoing the damage, the bison would have eventually destroyed much of their range.

For an animal so successfully adapted to life on the unrelieved expanses of the open plains, it is ironic that today prairie dogs survive in isolated colonies at the very margins of its desirable habitat.

National ParksHigh-resolution Map

The map comes from the “Guide and Map, National Parks of the United States,” a brochure that may be purchased from the U. S. Government Printing Office. For information on roads leading to Devils Tower, see thenext page.

On the fringe of the Black Hills in northeastern Wyoming, northwest of Sundance, northeast of Moorcroft, and southwest of Hulett.

545 hectares (1,347 acres).

The park is about 1,290 meters (4,250 feet) above sea level. The Tower rises another 264 meters (867 feet) to the top.

Summer temperatures cover a wide range from daily highs of 29°C (83°F) to lows of 10°C (50°F). Winter temperatures plunge below freezing for long periods of time. Spring arrives usually sometime in April, but the temperature drops quickly at night and stays cold during the day if it’s cloudy. About the end of September, fall begins, and with it the golden color of changing cottonwood leaves along the Belle Fourche River.

Spring is short in the Rocky Mountain West and can be a time of violent shifts in weather: summerlike days alternating with cold, always the possibility of late heavy snowfalls, and no inbetweens. These extremes seem to be tempered somewhat at Devils Tower, and the fun of watching deer can more than make up for any inconvenience due to the weather. Whitetail deer, followed by their spotted fawns, are rubbing off winter coats. They seem to be browsing the park hungrily everywhere you look.

Summer heat, because of elevation and dry air, radiates quickly but never becomes stifling. Winds are strong and steady and there is always a danger of exposure for those unprepared for suddenthunder and lightning storms, or for the sudden cooling after sunset. Most visits to Devils Tower are made in the summer when the surrounding rangelands are green and the sparkling watercourses invite refreshment under shade of cottonwoods.

Early fall, just as the range begins to brown, is perhaps a perfect time to be at Devils Tower. The park is uncrowded after Labor Day. Protected meadows are still green. Animals are in their prime and ready for the rigors of winter. The faint odor of decaying vegetation and the foretaste of winter on a particularly bracing chill wind—these are the pleasures of a long Wyoming fall.

Winter brings an air of enforced isolation to Devils Tower. Heavy snows and frequent blizzard conditions on the highways discourage most travelers. A rare treat awaits those who do come here in winter, however. Bald eagles migrate down from the north. You might see them wheeling in pairs over an otherwise frozen landscape, or making a feast of carrion on the ground.

Highways—From Rapid City, S. Dak., take I-90 west to Sundance. Wyo.; then U.S. 14 to Devils Tower Junction; then Wyo. 24 to park. From Gillette, Wyo., take I-90 east to Moorcroft, then U.S. 14 to Wyo. 24. From Newcastle, Wyo. take U.S. 16 to Moorcroft. From Belle Fourche, S. Dak., take S. Dak. 34 to Wyoming line, then Wyo. 24 via Hulett to park. Buses—Nearest regularly scheduled buses serve Moorcroft; no service to park. Railroads—Nearest rail passenger service is in Cheyenne. Airport—Rapid City Airport is served by a few commercial airlines. Cars may be rented.

For a general introduction to Devils Tower, the visitor center has exhibits, an audio/visual program, trail guides and plant and animal checklists, a publications sales outlet, and an information counter with a ranger on duty to answer questions. This is also the place where climbers must register to climb Devils Tower. The visitor center is open from about May 1 to October 31. In winter information requests are answered in the headquarters administration building.

The park has one campground for which a campsite fee is charged from about May 20 through September 10. Opening and closing dates depend on weather conditions. It has about 50 camping sites which will accommodate both tent and trailer camping equipment. A water tap, restrooms, fire grills, and picnic tables are provided, but there are no utility hook-ups for trailers. Campsites are taken on a first-come, first-served basis. After September 10, or later at the first sign of freezing, the water is shut off and the road is not snowplowed. Winter camping is allowed, however.

The featured program at Devils Tower is presented every evening during the visitor season in the campground amphitheater. The story of the nation’s first national monument is told with projected slide photographs by a park ranger who embellishes the story with colorful anecdotes about rangering experiences.

Even if you have only time for a half-day visit to Devils Tower, it’s time enough for a hike around the tower. Tower Trail is only 2 kilometers (1.25 miles) long and traverses fairlylevel ground. It stays in forest shade while it skirts the jumbled mass of boulders lying at the base of the Tower. It is the only trail in the park with formal wayside markers and benches where you can stop and look at the Tower from close up.

The park has three other designated hiking trails, all of them longer than Tower Trail and generally uncrowded. Devils Tower is never out of sight for long though, so it’s not easy to get lost. The longer trails offer a chance to see different plant and animal environments; open meadows, prairie dog towns, bluffs overlooking the Belle Fourche River, the riverside habitat itself, as well as the pine forest, all of which are described inPart 2of this handbook.

Motels, trailer courts, camping supply stores, and service stations are in the nearby town of Hulett. Just outside the park boundary is a post office, general store, and commercial campground with a few extra recreational offerings.

Proclaimed September 24, 1906. Boundary changes, August 9, 1955.

Devils Tower, Wyoming 82714.

It is unlawful to disturb, injure, destroy, or remove any vegetation or rocks. This basic rule is made not only to protect the natural resources but out of consideration for others who will be here in the future.

Do not feed the prairie dogs or let them get close to you; they carry fleas and they can bite you. Do not chase, harass, attempt to catch, or feed any park animals. Rattlesnakes usually don’t strike unless provoked or mistreated. Watch out for them! Hunting is not permitted in the park. If firearms and other weapons are carried, they must be unloaded and cased so as to prevent their use.

All pets must be kept in vehicles, or caged or leashed when in the park. They are not permitted in public buildings.

Drive carefully to protect yourself, others, and wildlife. Do not obstruct traffic by stopping on the road; pull over and let other vehicles pass. Driving off roadways is prohibited. Park on road shoulders or at parking areas only.

Camp only at the campground. Dump wastes and wash water in special sinks at the restrooms, not on the ground. Littering is both irresponsible and unlawful. Trash cans are provided at convenient places throughout the park; please use them.

Fires are permitted only in the fireplaces found in the campground and must not be left unattended. Thoroughly drown all campfires with water after use.

All climbers must register by name, address, and telephone number with a park ranger before going up.

And you must check out when you return. This is the only safety precaution on climbing required by the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. Depending on your mountain climbing experience here and elsewhere, however, you might want to ask the rangers for safety hints, different climbing routes, and conditions on the face of the Tower at the time of your climb.

More than 80 separate routes to the top have been taken and described in the literature. No one has been killed climbing the Tower, a remarkable record. The most difficult pitches come first while there is still plenty of time to turn back or take an easier route. Also, compared to other mountains, Devils Tower can be conquered in a short time, less than an hour for the most skilled if they use an easy route. This means less chance of exhaustion from exposure. In sudden bad weather, one can easily rappel off in 40 to 60 minutes.

George Willig, in red shirt, and Steve Matous prepare to climb Devils Tower in 1979.

Their climb was witnessed by a national audience on a televised all-day sport show and by a large crowd in the park using telescopes and binoculars.

Records of climbs have been kept at the park since 1937. In 1963 the one thousandth climber checked in and in 1970 the two thousandth. Since 1977 more than 1,000 make the climb every year. The Tower has been climbed with the direct aid of ropes and pitons and with a technique known as “free climbing” without the use of ropes except as backup to catch a fall. It has been climbed from all sides and in all seasons, even on Christmas Day and on New Year’s Day. Some people, of course, prefer to climb the Tower insnow and ice. One might conclude that all the “firsts” have been taken at Devils Tower, but, as long as the personal challenge of the sport continues to attract newcomers, there are certain to be more new records.

From the ground a member of the Willig party looks minute.

Up close, another climber ponders his next move.

August has been the most active climbing month in recent years. The heat on the south-facing side of the Tower presents serious problems though. Climbers usually try to start as early as possible before the sun has a chance to heat the rock blazing hot.

Climbers rightfully take interest in the geology of the Tower. Worming their fingers into cracks and fissures, depending for their lives on the ringing-hard igneous mass that supports them, rock climbers develop a familiarity with various origins and kinds of rock. They, of course, contribute to the ongoing process of erosion which, over eons of time, has left Devils Tower in its present form. The amount of loose rock that breaks off under their feet, however, is far less than the amount lost every season from frost-heave, the effect of water seeping behind the surface rock and expanding into ice. The boulder field at the base of the Tower tells the rest of the erosion story. By studying lichen growing on the last slab to fall off the side, it has been estimated that this event occurred more than 10,000 years ago.

is 40 kilometers (25 miles) southwest of Rapid City, South Dakota. Patriotic ideals representing the birth of the Nation through its entry into 20th Century world affairs are symbolized in massive stone carvings of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt. The scale and difficulty of sculptor Gutzon Borglum’s achievement perhaps can only be appreciated in person. From June 1 to Labor Day the faces are illuminated at night and evening programs are presented in the amphitheater. Mailing address: Keystone, South Dakota 57751.

is located on U.S. 385, 16 kilometers (10 miles) north of Hot Springs, South Dakota. Wind whistling from the entrance attracted attention to the cave, hence its name. Jesse McDonald developed the cave as a tourist attraction in 1890. His son, Alvin, explored its passageways and named many of the fancy formations. Above ground the park preserves a natural prairie environment and a remnant bison herd, as poignant a scene as you will find anywhere in the West. Tours of the cave are conducted by park rangers throughout the year except on December 25 and January 1. A campground is open from mid-May through mid-September on a first-come, first-served basis. Mailing address: Hot Springs, South Dakota 57747.

Mount Rushmore is one of the most grandiose monuments of patriotism in the United States, attracting travelers from across the Nation and around the world.

The bison herd at Wind Cave National Park conjures up images of days gone by when as many as 60 million of these animals roamed a 30-state area between the Rockies and the eastern woodlands.

is located on U.S. 16, 24 kilometers (15 miles) west of Custer, South Dakota. Glittering arrays of mineral formations—jewel-like calcite crystals, calcite“popcorn,” crystalline gypsum “flowers”—give this park its name. On the four levels seemingly endless passageways wind on and on, and the end is still not in sight. On the surface in the ponderosa pine forest, you can tell from the dark bark of the young trees why, as one approaches, the Black Hills appear black. Cave tours are conducted daily from mid-May through September. The park does not have overnight accommodations or campgrounds. Mailing address: Custer, South Dakota 57730.

Calcite crystals glisten and sparkle on the walls of Jewel Cave.

East of Rapid City a different light show can be enjoyed as sunrises and sunsets heighten the natural colors of the eroded rock in Badlands National Park.

is 97 kilometers (60 miles) southeast of Rapid City, South Dakota. Badlands generally describes any deeply eroded and weather-beaten landscape. The play of light and shadow over endless naturally sculpted shapes and the colors of naked rock give these badlands their special beauty. In 1976 a major portion of Badlands National Park was designated wilderness and a new south unit extended the boundaries into the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The park has paleontology exhibits, a program on the history of the Oglala Sioux, a variety of nature trails, and a long road system with wayside exhibits at many scenic overlooks. The park has a herd of about 300 bison and some prairie dog towns. It is open all year. Mailing address: Interior, South Dakota 57750.

A considerable distance from Devils Tower, yet related by geography and even history, is a band of national parks not to be overlooked. Yellowstone and Grand Teton in northwestern Wyoming, may, in fact, be your ultimate destination. The snow-capped peaks of the Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming, where Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area is located, can be seen from several places along the approach road to Devils Tower. Custer Battlefield, adjoining the Crow Indian Reservation, is on the northern route to Yellowstone through Billings, Montana. Theodore Roosevelt National Park celebrates the man and the ideals of the American conservation movement which he accelerated by proclaiming Devils Tower the first national monument.

is on U.S. 89, 90 kilometers (56 miles) south of Livingston, Montana. This first and reigning queen of all national parks, established more than a century ago, draws travelers as if it were a place of pilgrimage. Indeed, there is spiritual enchantment beyond measuring in the lively animation of Yellowstone—its exploding geysers, steaming hot pools, and dashing waters draining both sides of the continent. Between October 31 and May 1, park roads and entrances, except the North Entrance, are ordinarily closed by snow. Winter activities include snowmobiling and cross-country skiing. Campgrounds usually open about June. A host of park-sponsored and concessioner services are offered. Mailing address: Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming 82190.

is located just north of Jackson, Wyoming, on U.S. 187, and 90 kilometers (56 miles) south of Yellowstone via the John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway. The Tetons, among the noblest creations in the American West, are a congregation of blue-gray pyramids soaring above the sagebrush flats and morainal lakes in Jackson Hole. The valley, a hunting ground of prehistoric Indians for centuries, became a fur trade crossroads in the early 19th Century. Geology, wildlife, plains Indian culture, all share leading roles in the story of this park. Visitor facilities are open all year, though curtailed somewhat in winter. Mailing address: Moose, Wyoming 83021.

is on Interstate 90, 24 kilometers (15 miles) south of Hardin, Montana. On Sunday, June 25, 1876, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and five companies of the 7th Calvary under his immediate command were surrounded and killed by Indians. The defeat shocked the nation and still reverberates with questions about what exactly happened in this clash of cultures. Memorials spread across the hills soberly tell what little is known. The park, open all year, has exhibits but no campgrounds. Mailing address: Crow Agency, Montana 59022.

straddles the Montana-Wyoming boundary, 67 kilometers (42 miles) from Hardin, Montana, on the north: and at Lovell, Wyoming, on the south. Access to boat launching ramps and campgrounds is from either end of the long narrow reservoir backed up behind Yellowtail Dam on the Bighorn River, which here flows north. Boating and fishing enthusiasts enjoy a long season from mid-April to late October.Tours of the dam and powerhouse are given daily from Memorial Day to Labor Day, and the visitor centers are open all year. Mailing address: P.O. Box 458, Fort Smith, Montana 59035.

Jackson Lake sits below Mount Moran. This major peak in Grand Teton National Park bears a small permanent glacier.

Another celebrated view is the Lower Falls of the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, in Yellowstone National Park.

is on Interstate 94, at Medora, North Dakota. A north unit is 90 kilometers (56 miles) north on US. 85. TR’s Maltese Cross Cabin is in the south unit, but the park celebrates more than the 26th President’s energetic protection of public lands. Magnificently colored and worn badlands lie on both sides of the Little Missouri River interspersed with grassy ranges where adventurous men, Roosevelt among them, enterprised in the open-range cattle business. Populations of bighorn sheep, bison, and antelope, among the large game animals once hunted to extinction, have been restored. The visiting season is May through October. The park has campgrounds in both north and south units. Mailing address: Medora, North Dakota 58645.

Books:

Allen, Durward L.The Life of Prairies and Plains.Our Living World of Nature series. McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Everhart, William C.The National Park Service.Praeger Publishers, 1972.

Lamb, Russell, photos by.Wyoming.Graphic Arts Center Publishing Co., 1978.

Larson, T. A.Wyoming—A Bicentennial History.Norton, 1977.

Robbins, Royal.Basic Rockcraft.La Siesta Press, 1971.

Robbins, Royal.Advanced Rockcraft.La Siesta Press, 1973.

Tilden, Freeman.The National Parks.Alfred A. Knopf, 1978.

Tilden, Freeman.Interpreting Our Heritage.University of North Carolina Press, 1977.

Wetmore, Clifford M.Lichens of the Black Hills.Vol. 3, No. 4. Michigan State University, 1968.

Wind Cave.National Park Handbook series, 104. National Park Service, 1979.

Booklets:

Cunningham, Robert.It’s a Dog’s Life.Theodore Roosevelt Nature and History Association, n.d.

Horning, Dennis, and Marriott, Hollis.Free Climbs of Devils Tower.1980.

Mattison, Ray H.Devils Tower National Monument—A History.Devils Tower Natural History Association, 1981.

Robinson, Charles S.Geology of Devils Tower National Monument, Wyoming.Devils Tower Natural History Association, n.d.

Van Bruggen, Theodore.Wildflowers of the Northern Plains and Black Hills.Badlands Natural History Association, 1976.

Numbers in italics refer to photographs, illustrations, or maps.

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For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.Stock Number 024-005-00810-1.★GPO: 1981—341-611/2

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.

Stock Number 024-005-00810-1.

★GPO: 1981—341-611/2

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