The treaty embodying the terms agreed upon at Versailles by Prince Bismarck and M. Thiers, after the surrender of Paris in 1871. It provided for the cession to Germany of Alsace, including Strasburg, butnot including Belfort, and of a part of Lorraine, including Metz, together with the payment of a war indemnity of five milliards of francs, or two hundred millions sterling.
A rising of students and others at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1833, occasioned by the oppressive measures adopted by the Bundesrath towards the Press. The outbreak was promptly quelled.
A system existing in the early Norman, and probably the later Saxon period, by which the whole of the free population of England was divided into groups of ten men, mutually responsible for the other members of the group. It was by this means that the policing of the country was carried out, under the supervision of the Hundred Court. It was also called Frithbohr.
An edict issued by the French Convention in 1792, offering fraternity to all nations ready to welcome liberal institutions.
SeeLandrecht.
A treaty between Russia and Sweden, signed in 1809, shortly after the death of Gustavus IV, by which Russia acquired Finland as far as the Tornea.
A secession from the Established Church of Scotland, which took place under Dr. Chalmers in 1843. About 500 ministers seceded with him. The points at issue were State Control and Lay Patronage, to which Dr. Chalmers and his followers objected.
The Mercenaries employed by both French and English during the Hundred Years’ War. After the Peace of Brétigny they were disbanded, and being without employment, formed bands under their own leaders, and committed frightful ravages in France, and, later, in Italy.
Certain towns in Germany, owing allegiance to no sovereign prince, excepting only to the Emperor. They exercised sovereign powers within their own limits, and sent representatives to the Diet. In 1790 they were fifty-one in number. The three last cities to retain their privileges were Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg, which in 1871 became an integral part of the German Empire.
A scheme for settling small farmers on portions of the large holdings of the Squatters, or Pastoralists, in Australia. This system was first introduced in New South Wales, in 1861, and was adopted in Victoria in the following year. Intending settlers could take up, in the districts set apart for the purpose, from 40 to 240 acres, paying £1 per acre, or if they preferred, 10s. down and the balance by annual instalments of 2s. 6d. Many of those who took advantage of this offer, proved however to be mere dummies, put up by the squatters, who thus obtained landmore cheaply than they could purchase from the Government. Amending bills were consequently introduced to prevent these evasions.
A party formed in the United States in 1848 to resist the extension of slavery to the Territories. They were absorbed into the Republican party in 1856.
A popular name for the State of Connecticut, owing to the large number of freestone quarries within its borders.
The name given to Richard Cobden, the leader of the Manchester School. It is also occasionally applied to John Bright.
The principle of the free interchange of commodities was first advocated by Adam Smith in hisWealth of Nations, in 1776. It may be said to have first become a question of practical politics in 1846, thanks to the advocacy of Richard Cobden and the Manchester School.
The initiated members of the Vehmgerichte.
The officers of the Vehmgerichte.
A party in the German Reichstag, formed under Richter in 1884, by a coalition of the advanced Radicals with seceders from the National Liberals. Their programme was distinctly Radical.
A treacherous attempt to sack Antwerp by the French under the Duc d’Anjou in 1583. Though taken by surprise, the citizens promptly obeyed the call to arms, and the French, after severe fighting, were driven out with heavy loss.
A question still (1903) pending between Great Britain and France. By the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, Newfoundland was declared English, but the French were suffered to retain their fishery rights and the use of a certain portion of the coast for drying stations. France has for many years sought to give a very wide interpretation to this use of the Newfoundland coast, claiming almost sovereign rights, which seriously interfere with the railway and mining development of the colony. Amodus vivendihas been arrived at, pending final settlement, but the long delay in coming to an agreement has caused much irritation in Newfoundland.
The system by which in French feudal times provision was made for the younger members of a family. The land passed to the eldest son, who retained a portion of it, and passed the rest on to his brothers, who did homage for it. Frèrage was similar in its form and in its results to subinfeudation.
The title under which the Catholic Association was reconstituted by O’Connell in 1830. It was declared illegal, whereupon it reappeared in a new form as the Society of Irish Volunteers.
A society formed in 1792 to agitate for the removal of the existing inequalities in representation. It numbered among its members many leading Whig politicians, amongst others Russell, Sheridan, Erskine and Grey.
SeeFrankpledge.
Societies formed in the towns, on conditions of mutual responsibility somewhat analogous to the Frankpledge, in the early Plantagenet times. They afterwards combined, forming the powerful merchant guilds which eventually came to control not only the conditions of labour, but the selling price of the commodities in which they dealt.
A revolt of the Parlement and citizens of Paris, under the leadership of the Cardinal de Retz, against the unrestrained autocracy of Louis XIV. The court was forced to leave Paris in 1648, but the first outbreak was ended during the year following by an arrangement called the Treaty of Ruel. It was finally suppressed in 1652. The contention of the Fronde was that the king’s prerogative should only be exercised within the limits of the law, and should not be above the law, as was claimed by the king.
One of the codes of law of the Norsemen. It was codified by Hakon the Good, King of Denmark (934-960) but was probably in existence at a much earlier date.
The vassal Daimios or nobles of the Shôgun, in old Japan.
The charter granted to a Spanish town in the Middle Ages. The earliest known Fuero is that of Leon, granted by Alfonso V in 1020.
The code of laws of the Gothic kings of Spain.
A circular issued by the Admiralty in 1876, which gave instructions to the captains of H.M. ships as to the treatment of slaves who took refuge on board in the territorial waters of slave-holding states. These instructions were held to be inconsistent with the principle that there could be no slavery under the British Flag, and a strong feeling was aroused in the matter. Eventually a committee was appointed to examine the legal aspects of the question, with the result that a modified circular was issued.
A law forming part of the Compromise Act, passed by Congress in 1850, under which fugitive slaves could be arrested in the free-labour states, while it was made a felony under certain conditions to harbour or aid in the escape of such slaves.
A nickname of George IV.
SeeTricoteuses.
A league of the German Princes, formed under the auspices of Frederick the Great in 1785, to uphold the Peace of Teschen. The cause of its formation was an attempt of the Emperor, Joseph II, to obtain possession of Bavaria, by exchanging for it the Austrian Netherlands.
The wholesale massacres in Lyons, after the surrender of that city to the Revolutionary troops in 1792 were so called.
The Grand Old Man, the sobriquet of Mr. Gladstone.
A tax on salt, imposed at various periods of French history. Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century it was a most burdensome impost and its incidence was most irregular. It was abolished in 1791.
The name given in Central and South America to Spaniards and Spanish partizans during the war of independence.
A purchase from Mexico by the United States for ten million dollars of a large tract of land now included in Arizona and New Mexico. The purchase was negotiated by James Gadesden, while United States’ Minister to Mexico in 1853.
In Anglo-Saxon times folcland which was let out on rent was so called. Gafol means tribute.
The treasure ships, which sailed once a year from the New World, bringing the tribute of the Colonies to Spain. They were frequently captured by the English gentlemen adventurers and by the buccaneers during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The profession of faith of the French Reformed Church, adopted at the Synod of La Rochelle in 1571.
SeeKerns.
The nickname applied to the Duc d’Orléans, when he applied to be allowed to do his term of service as a private in the French Army, saying that he would be proud to eat his dinner out of thegamelle(mess tin) like any other Frenchman.
A treaty between Great Britain and Afghanistan in 1879. It was stipulated that the foreign affairs of Afghanistan should be under British control, and that a British Resident should be appointed. All Afghan territory occupied during the previous campaign was to be restored, except the Kuram, Pishin and Sibi valleys. Great Britain was to control the Khyber and Michni passes, andto pay the Ameer an annual subsidy of £60,000. Within the year the British Resident, Cavagnari, was murdered in Cabul, almost certainly with the connivance of the Ameer, and the invasion of Afghanistan followed.
This title is given to the counties of Kent and Worcestershire.
A popular name for the State of Kansas.
A democratic party in modern Italy, who desire to realize Garibaldi’s ideal of a United Italy under a republic.
The premier order of knighthood, instituted by Edward III in 1344.
A treaty signed by Austria and Prussia, at the close of the Schleswig-Holstein War, in 1865, by which Schleswig was ceded to Prussia and Holstein to Austria, while the latter power made over to Prussia all her rights in the Duchy of Lauenburg.
The shepherds of the Pampas, or plains in the interior of the Argentine Republic. They supported Ortiz de Rosas, who was practically dictator of that state from 1835 to 1852.
Insurgent bands of peasants in Normandy, circ. 1580.
In Anglo-Saxon and early Norman times all estates not held on military tenure were subject to the law of Gavelkind, by which the inheritance was divided equally among the sons. This tenure survived the decay of the feudal system in Kent only, and where it exists, real estate, in case of intestacy, still passes to the sons in equal shares, instead of to the eldest.
Emma, daughter of Robert, Duke of Normandy, and wife of Ethelred II of England, and afterwards of Knut, was known by this name.
The Shire Court in Anglo-Saxon times.
An assembly summoned at Philadelphia in 1774, after the passing of the Boston Port Act, as a preliminary to a general revolt against English rule. Twelve of the thirteen colonies were represented, Georgia alone holding aloof.
A convention signed at Geneva in 1864, by which the Powers bound themselves to observe certain regulations in warfare, tending to ameliorate the condition of the wounded. The Red Cross, the badge of the Convention, is a protection to all working under it, and to all buildings, such as hospitals, over which it is flown.
The digest of Hindoo and Mohammedan law prepared in Calcutta, circ. 1790, under the direction of Sir William Jones.
SeePichegru.
The clansmen of the Fitzgeralds of Desmond and Kildare, one of the great families of Norman nobles who settled in Ireland at the time of the conquest under Henry II. They were exceedingly turbulent, and during Tudor times were constantly intriguing with Spain, and rebelling against English rule. Their last and most serious rising was in 1569, when they held out against the royal troops until 1580, when the clan was practically broken up, and ceased to be a power in Irish politics.
SeeAschaffenburg.
An association of the people of Valencia directed against the privileges of the nobles, formed in 1519, with the connivance of the Emperor Charles V.
A league composed of the smaller German States, with portions of the dominions of Prussia and Austria, and the Free Cities, constituted at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Its constitution underwent considerable changes in the course of the risings which took place in various states in 1848, while in 1866 Prussia annexed all the states north of the Main.
This was accomplished at Versailles in 1871, when Hesse, Baden, Würtemberg, and Bavaria applied to be allowed to enter the North German Confederation. At the same time the King of Bavaria invited William to assume the Imperial Crown, and on his acceptance the German Empire, as it at present exists, was constituted.
SeeJerrymandering.
SeeQueen’s Gold.
A Mohammedan fanatic who believes that he will enjoy exceptional bliss in Paradise, if he dies in the act of killing an unbeliever. In Asiatic warfare, especially among the Afghans and the Afridi hill tribes, a mob of Ghazis usually lead the attack.
A Turkish title of honour, signifying the Victorious, bestowed upon successful generals, as in the cases of Osman Pacha and Moukhtar Pacha.
A convention of the Netherlands provinces in 1477, whereat the Groote Privilegie, the Magna Charta of Holland, was granted by Mary of Burgundy.
An agreement between the Estates of Holland and Zeeland and the Prince of Orange on the one side, and the Provinces of Brabant, Flanders, Hainault, Artois and others on the other, signed in 1576. It recognized the reformed religion in Holland and Zeeland, abolished the edicts of Charles V, and agreed to the expulsion of the Spaniards.
A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed in 1814, at the close of the war of 1811. The basis of the treaty was thestatus quo ante. Commissioners were appointed to delimit the frontiers of the United States and the British Colonies. Both parties undertook to aid each other in the suppression of the slave trade, and it was provided that all Indian tribes that had been dispossessed during the war should be restored to their lands.
SeeGuelfs.
The battle of Marignano, where Francis I defeated the Swiss in 1515, was so called by Trivulzio, the French Marshal.
An Act passed in 1736, imposing a duty of 20s.per gallon on gin sold by retail, and a £50 fee for every retailer’s licence. The Act was evaded, and though gin was openly sold as before, no duties were paid and no licences taken out. It was therefore repealed in 1743.
SeeYoung Italy.
A treaty between Henry I of England and Louis VI of France, signed in 1113, after the defeat of the French at Puysac, and the loss of Alençon. The French King renounced his claim to suzerainty over Maine, Belesme and Brittany.
A phrase constantly used during the general election of 1885, having reference to the way in which Mr. Gladstone succeeded in uniting under his banner the various sections of the Liberal party.
A treaty concluded in 1644 between the Irish Catholics and the Earl of Glamorgan, acting for Charles I. The published conditions were the removal of the disabilities imposed on the Catholics by Poyning’s Act, a general amnesty, and a limitation of the period during which titles to land might be questioned. There was, however, a further secret treaty, granting the Catholics the right of public worship in all churches not occupied by the State Church, in return for which they agreed to provide 10,000 men for the King’s army in England, to be paid for out of the church revenues.
An outbreak in Glasgow, under the leadership of a mechanic named Finlay, in opposition to the Act of Union with England in 1706.
An Act amending the regulations as to Kaffir reservations in Cape Colony, passed in 1894. It provided for the division of the reservations into six-acre plots, and the granting of inalienable titles to the allottees, with succession to the eldest son. At the same time all subsidies were withdrawn, with the object of encouraging industry among the Kaffirs.
The treacherous massacre, in 1692, of the clansmen of Macdonald of Glencoe, under the orders of Breadalbane, a member of the Clan Campbell, the hereditary foes of the Macdonalds. An appearance of legality was given to the massacre by the fact that Macdonald had delayed till the last moment taking the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, and owing to stress of weather did not actually take it till after the prescribed date.
The name given to the Netherlanders who sided with the Spanish King’s party, circ. 1570.
The name given to the battle off Ushant, fought on June 1, 1794, in which Lord Howe utterly defeated the French fleet.
The name given in the United States to the supporters of the single gold standard.
The book containing the names of the noble Venetian families who were qualified to be members of the Grand Council. It was compiled in 1319.
An edict issued in 1356 by the Emperor Charles IV, to settle certain disputes as to the composition of the Electoral College, which had led to constant civil strife in Germany. It was provided that the Electors should be seven in number: three ecclesiastical, namely, the Archbishops of Cologne, Trèves and Mayence; and four lay, namely, the King of Bohemia, the Duke of Saxony, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, and the Margrave of Brandenburg. The Electors became absolute monarchs within their own dominions.
The Hungarian Charter of liberties, extorted by his nobles from Andrew II of Hungary in 1222. Among other concessions it provided for the annual assembling of the Diet.
One of the oldest orders of chivalry, founded at Bruges by Philip the Good of Burgundy, in 1430. When the Netherlands became a Spanish province, the Golden Fleece was made a Spanish order, and, Charles V being also Emperor of Germany, it was claimed by his successors of the House of Hapsburg as an Austrian order. It has thus, at the present day, two branches, and two sovereigns, namely, the King of Spain and the Emperor of Austria.
A Tartar kingdom founded in the thirteenth century by a grandson of Genghis Khan. It was the Khans of the Golden Horde who ruled over Russia during the Tartar domination.
A league of the Catholic States of Switzerland, formed in 1586, to defend the Catholic Faith.
The popular name for California, from its rich gold deposits.
The followers of Gomarus, and opponents of Arminius, the two professors of theology at Utrecht whose differences, in 1604, divided the Dutch Church, and led to the convening of the Synod of Dort in 1618. Gomarus supported the sterner doctrine of Calvin, Arminius favoured a milder and broader form of religious belief.
A Parliament of Edward III, which met in 1376. It secured a change in the Council, and brought about the return to power of William of Wykeham and the clerical party. This Parliament is noteworthy as offering the first instance in English history of the impeachment of an officer of State: that, namely, of Lord Latimer, the Chamberlain.
A dangerous outbreak of the London mob, led by Lord George Gordon, in June, 1780, in opposition to the various measures proposed for the relief of the Catholics. London was in the hands of the mob for four days, before the troops were called out and the rioters dispersed.
In old Japan, a class ranking between the Samurai and the agricultural class. Like the Samurai they were entitled to wear two swords. They owed no allegiance to feudal lords, but farmed their own lands.
A system of licensing which originated at Gothenburg in 1865. All the houses licensed for the sale of alcohol are in the hands of a company and run by salaried managers. All the profits of the company, after payment of five per cent. to the shareholders, are paid into the treasury of the town.
A league of the nobles and communes of the Engadine, formed in 1367, to protect the liberties of the country from the encroachments of Austria.
A conspiracy headed by the Earl of Gowrie and his brother, Alexander Ruthven, in 1600, to murder James VI of Scotland. It is supposed that their motive was to avenge the death of their father, who had been executed sixteen years before, though both the brothers had been treated with the greatest kindness by the King. James was decoyed to Gowrie House, in Perth, on the plea of examining a suspicious prisoner, and was attacked in the absence of his suite, and nearly overpowered. He managed to give the alarm, and was rescued by Sir James Ramsay, his page, and others of his followers. The King’s story was at the time doubted by many people, but documents afterwards came to light proving the existence of a plot at least to kidnap the King.
An Act of indemnity passed in 1690, granting a pardon for all political offences committed up to the time of the passingof the Act, the only exceptions to the general amnesty being such of the regicides as might still be living, and about thirty other persons, against none of whom, however, were any proceedings taken.
An Act passed in 1784, restoring the estates forfeited for high treason in 1745, to the descendants of their former owners.
A number of concessions granted to Ireland by Lord Falkland in 1628, in return for the aids which were destined to relieve the embarrassed exchequer of James I.
A codification of the laws of the Norsemen, made by Magnus the Good, King of Denmark and Norway (1035-1047).
Gonsalvo of Cordova, the famous Spanish Captain (1453-1515), was so called.
A secret society formed in London about 1800 to aid the movement in the Spanish-American Colonies in the direction of independence. Among its leaders were O’Higgins, Miranda and Bolivar.
The Island of Sicily was formerly so called, owing to its remarkable fertility.
An alliance formed in 1701 between England, Holland, and the Empire, to maintain the balance of power, supposed to be threatened by the bequest of the Spanish Crown to a French Prince. It was followed by the war known as the War of the Spanish Succession.
The alliance between Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sweden and Austria, which led to the downfall of Napoleon, and his first abdication in the following year.
A nickname of Sir Robert Walpole, in allusion to his constant employment of bribery to gain his ends.
The sobriquet of Mr. Gladstone, generally abbreviated into G.O.M.
Louis XIV of France was so called.
A rising of the Virginian colonists under Nathaniel Bacon in 1676, against the corruption of the Government and the excessive taxation. After a strenuous resistance they were at last overpowered by the Royalists, and the only result of the rising was that Virginia was deprived of her constitution, and all the old grievances were revived.
A form of tenure from the Crown, the condition being the performance of certain service, when called upon, such as acting as Chamberlain or Butler on occasions of state.
SeePatrons of Husbandry.
The State of New Hampshire is so called from the extent of the granite formation within its borders.
The free Irish Parliament established in 1782 is known by this name, Grattan having led the agitation which brought about the abolition of the old restrictions.
SeeGrey League.
The ostensible cause of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857 was the issue to the native troops of cartridges for the newly issued Enfield rifle, which were said to be greased with a mixture of cows-fat and hogs-lard. This would be obnoxious to both the Hindoo and the Mohammedan Sepoys, and the story was used by the instigators of the revolt to engender the belief that an attempt was being made forcibly to convert them to Christianity.
A sobriquet of the younger Pitt.
A proposed arrangement between James I and the Parliament in 1610. James offered to surrender all the emoluments of the Crown from feudal tenures, excepting the aids, in return for which Parliament proposed to vote James an annual subsidy of £100,000. The King, however, did not consider the amount sufficient, and the bargain was not concluded.
Louis, the son of Louis XIV of France, was so called.
A treaty signed in 1496 between Henry VII and Philip of Burgundy, stipulating for free commercial intercourse between the dominions of the two sovereigns, and joint efforts for the suppression of piracy. By this treaty also Perkyn Warbeck was expelled from Burgundian territory.
The old Supreme Court of Wales, abolished in 1831.
The famous storm of November 26-27, 1703, when the first Eddystone lighthouse was destroyed. Twelve men-of-war and many merchant vessels were wrecked on the coast, and over 8,000 persons drowned. The damage done in London is said to have exceeded two millions sterling.
An important secret society in China, supposed to be pledged to the expulsion of the Manchus and the establishment of a Chinese dynasty.
SeeAusculta Fili.
A sealed bag of documents laid on the table of the House of Commons by the Government in 1817, and said to contain papers justifying the double suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act which had taken place during the year. A committee, chosen entirely from the supporters of the Government, was appointed to investigate its contents.
An organized band of settlers in Vermont, formed in 1773 to resist the encroachments of the New Yorkers, who claimed Vermont as part of the territory of that State under the charter of Charles II.
The popular name of the State of Vermont, U.S.A.
A party formed about 1874 in the United States, which advocated the payment of the national debt in paper money. It ceased to exist in 1884.
An Act passed in 1770, transferring from Parliament to a Parliamentary Committee the duty of investigating and determining the validity of disputed elections.
These were made illegal by an Act passed in 1856, whereby it was declared that the Scotch marriage law should only apply in cases where one at least of the parties had resided in Scotland for the twenty-one days immediately preceding the marriage.
A league of the landowners and communes of the western part of the Grisons, formed in 1395.
An official valuation of Irish properties, made by Sir Richard Griffith as Commissioner of Valuation under the Irish Valuation Act of 1827. This valuation was the basis of the outcry against the landlords, the figures showing that in many cases excessive rents were being paid.
The fundamental law or constitution of the South African Republic as adopted by the communities established north of the Vaal in 1849.
A charter granted to the Netherlands by Mary of Burgundy in 1477, at the Convention of Ghent. It gave the cities and provinces of the Netherlands the right to hold diets at their discretion, and forbade the Duchess or her descendants raising taxes or making war without the consent of the Estates.
A nickname bestowed on Napoleon III on account of his prominent nose.
The Swiss who, according to tradition, took a solemn oath at Grütli, near Lucerne, on November 7, 1307, to free their country from the domination of Austria. The three leaders were Fürst of Uri, Stauffacher of Schwyz, and Melchthal of Unterwalden.
A treaty between the United States and Mexico in 1848, at the close of the Mexican War. It provided for the cession to the United States of New Mexico and California, in return for a cash payment of fifteen million dollars. The United States also took over the debts of Mexicoto American citizens, amounting to about three and a half million dollars.
The indemnity payable to the King of Hanover by Prussia, as compensation for the loss of his sovereign rights. This fund was sequestrated by Prussia in 1868, on the plea that the King was intriguing against her, and was employed by Bismarck in subsidizing the Press. (SeeReptile Fund.)
The two great parties into which Italy was divided, during the lengthy struggle between the Empire and the Papacy. The Guelfs were the Papal, the Ghibellines the Imperial faction, but there were occasions when this division of parties was not adhered to, as in the case of the Second Lombard League of 1255. These names had their origin in the civil war of 1139, in the course of which the Imperialists under Conrad III were besieging the town of Weinsberg. An attempt was made by the rebels to relieve it, and in the battle which followed the rebels charged with the cry of “Welf,” to which the Imperialists replied with “Waibling.” These names became recognized as descriptive of the two parties, and were later Italianized into the better known forms.
The rising of the Dukes of Brittany and Orleans against the Regent Anne, in 1484, is so called.
A confederacy of patriotic noblemen and gentlemen of the Netherlands, formed in 1566 under Brederode and Count Louis of Nassau. The Confederacy was broken up in the following year, and many of its members perished on the scaffold.
One of the codes of law of the Norsemen. It was codified by Hakon the Good of Norway (934-960), but was probably of far earlier date.
The name given to the States which border on the Gulf of Mexico, namely, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas.
A treaty between Russia and Persia, signed in 1813, by which Persia, after a two years’ war of disastrous defeats, surrendered all her possessions north of Armenia, together with the right of navigating the Caspian Sea.
An Act passed by the Irish Parliament in 1793, forbidding the importation of arms and gunpowder into Ireland, and rendering their possession without a license illegal.
A plot to blow up the Parliament House during a sitting of Parliament, the leaders in which were Catesby, Winter and Fawkes, and which was connived at by the Jesuits. It was hoped thereby to bring about a Catholic rising in England. The plot was betrayed by Tresham, one of the conspirators, to Lord Monteagle,his brother-in-law, and the conspirators were either arrested or killed during their flight.
An Act of Parliament passed in 1679. Since Magna Charta every Englishman had theoretically the right to trial, and could demand a writ of Habeas Corpus, under which the duly constituted courts were bound to take cognisance of his case. In practice, however, various obstacles were from time to time opposed to the obtaining of this writ. The Act of 1679 ordered that a judge should at any time grant such a writ on application, and inflicted severe penalties on the gaoler who failed to obey it.
The name given to the Canadian farmers of French descent in the province of Quebec.
A Mohammedan who has made the Hadj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is entitled to this name.
A statute passed in the reign of Henry IV (1401), forbidding teaching and preaching without a bishop’s license. The bishop was further given the power of condemning heretical books. The punishment for obduracy was burning at the stake. This statute was specially directed against the Lollards.
A Congress of the Powers, summoned at the instance of the Czar in 1899, to consider the possibility of universal disarmament, and other questions bearing on the peace of the world. The larger schemes foreshadowed by the Czar were found impracticable, but the Congress resulted in the appointment of an International Tribunal of Arbitration, to sit at the Hague. It was further agreed to prohibit in future warfare the throwing of explosives from balloons or air ships, the use of shells containing deleterious gases, and the use of expanding or explosive bullets.
The body-guard of slaves of Touran Shah, Sultan of Egypt, afterwards known as the Mamelukes.
The name given by the Stalwarts in New York State in 1881 to those Republicans who supported President Garfield in his movement for Civil Service reform. They were also known as Featherheads.
An agreement between Connecticut and Massachusetts, recommended for the acceptance of Plymouth and New Haven in 1662. It somewhat mitigated the ultra-stringent conditions of Church membership then obtaining, whence it was derisively called the Half-way Covenant by the extreme Puritan party.
A commission appointed in 1877 to assess the compensation to be awarded to the British-American Colonies, in returnfor the recognition of American fishing rights in Colonial waters. Canada was awarded four and a half million dollars, and Newfoundland a million.
The sobriquet of Sir William Wallace (1270-1305).
On the tomb of Edward I was inscribed “Edwardus Longus, Scotorum Malleus hic est.”
A conference held in 1604 between the Bishops and the Puritans, to consider the Millenary Petition. It ended in the complete triumph of the High Church party.
A conference held on February 3, 1865, on board a man-of-war in Hampton Roads, between President Lincoln and representatives of the Southern States, with the object of bringing about a suspension of hostilities. The conference was, however, without results.
The name given to those Boers who surrendered in response to Lord Roberts’ proclamation, or at later stages of the Boer War of 1899-1902. They were looked upon with contempt by those who fought to the bitter end, and seem not unlikely to form a separate Pro-British party in the new Colonies.
A custom of Irish Land Tenure, having the force of law, by which a respite of from three to six months is given to the tenant before he can be proceeded against for non-payment of rent.
A treaty signed by Great Britain, France and Prussia in 1725, which subsequently received the adhesion of Holland, Sweden and Denmark, by which the contracting parties mutually guaranteed to each other the enjoyment of their then possessions.
A confederation of the principal trading centres of Germany, formed in 1241 for commercial purposes, and specially for mutual defence against the Baltic pirates, and the robber nobles. Its founders were Hamburg and Lübeck, who were shortly afterwards joined by Bremen, Cologne, Danzig and other cities, and still later by many foreign towns, until, at the height of its prosperity, the league comprised eighty cities. The league was dissolved in 1630, but Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck retained their privileges as free towns, until they were absorbed into the German Empire in 1871.
The method of suicide adopted in old Japan by members of the Samurai, or military class, who had no alternative but to die. Hara-kiri might be either voluntary, or by order of a feudal lord, as the penalty of some crime which did not imply degradation from the rank of Samurai. In the latter case it was in the nature of an execution, and was surrounded by an elaborate ceremonial, especiallyin the case of a Daimio or a gentleman of high rank.
An appeal addressed by William of Orange to the Princes of Germany, in 1571, setting forth the wrongs of the Reforming party, and calling for their assistance.
One of the sections of the Democratic party in New York State from 1848 to 1854. They were strongly in favour of the Fugitive Slave Law. Their opponents were known as the Softshell Democrats.
An Act, also known as the Marriage Act, passed in 1753. It provided that a legal marriage could be contracted only in the parish church, after publication of banns, or by special license of the Archbishop.
The scene of John Brown’s abortive rising in 1869, in the attempt to bring about a revolt against the Southern slaveowners. He and his followers seized the United States armoury at that place, but his little band were soon overpowered, John Brown being captured.
A secret convention of prominent members of the Peace Party in New England, who objected to the energetic prosecution of the war with England in 1814. They proposed to amend the constitution in the direction of diminishing the control of Congress over questions of peace and war.
In old Japan, the retainers of the Shôgun were known by this name, which signifies “under the flag.” They were eighty thousand in number. Those whose lands were of a certain extent furnished a contingent in time of war; those with smaller revenues paid money dues. The Hatamotos may be described as a created nobility, as opposed to the hereditary nobility of the Daimios. They date from the time of the Shôgun Iyemitsu, in the early part of the seventeenth century.
Two political parties in Sweden in the eighteenth century, who were partizans respectively of the French and the Russians. They were so called from their wearing the headgear of the respective countries.
An edict of the Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Mejid, issued in 1856, conferring equal rights on all his subjects, Christian and Mohammedan alike. This concession was the result of the efforts of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe.
A firman or decree of the Porte, signed by the Sultan personally.
A tribunal established by the French Legislative Assembly in 1791, to enable it to deal with ministers and public functionaries obnoxious to the majority of that body. The Haute Cour had the power ofinitiating prosecutions as well as of judging, and there was no appeal from its decisions.
The popular name of the State of Iowa, U.S.A. It is derived from a famous Indian chief of that name.
A treaty signed in 1901 between Great Britain and the United States, to amend the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 with respect to the proposed canal to unite the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The new treaty maintains the general principle of neutralization of the canal, but the United States alone is charged with the maintenance of its neutrality. No fortifications are to be built in any way commanding it, and it is to be always free from blockade. The United States reserve the right to maintain a military police force along the line of the canal for protective purposes.
In Anglo-Saxon times the chief of the Frankpledge. In the event of a member of the Frankpledge failing in his obligations and fleeing from justice, it was the duty of the Headborough to prove that the other members of the Frankpledge were guiltless of complicity with the defaulter.
A tax of two shillings on every hearth, first imposed in 1663. It was very unpopular, and was abolished in 1689. A similar tax, known as Chimney Money, had been levied as early as the Norman Conquest.
A sobriquet of the younger Pitt.
A court first established at Stellenbosch, Cape Colony, in 1682. It was composed of four local burghers, and its duty was the settlement of small disputes among the inhabitants of the district. Similar courts were established in other townships, and the system lasted till 1828, when the Heemraden were abolished by the Charter of Justice.
The flight of Mohammed from Mecca in 622. It is from this date that the Mohammedan era is computed.
A profession of the Calvinistic faith issued from Heidelberg in the sixteenth century. It is also called the Palatinate Catechism.
A meeting summoned by Oxenstierna, the Swedish Chancellor, in 1633, after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, with the object of preventing the dissolution of the German Protestant Alliance. The meeting was attended by representatives of England, France and Holland, and the circles of the Upper and Lower Rhine, Suabia and Franconia.
A statement of the Protestant doctrine, harmonizing to some extent the opposing views of Calvin and Zwingli, drawn up in 1566 by Bullinger, and accepted by the majority of the Protestant Cantons.
The constitution established in Switzerland in 1798, under the revolutionary impulse generated by the French Revolution. It superseded the Federation of the Thirteen Cantons.
SeePacta Conventa.
The various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were known as the Heptarchy, though as a fact they were at no time seven in number, two or more being grouped at various periods, under one monarch. The most powerful sovereign of the time was usually recognized as the Bretwalda, or leader, of the rest. The various kingdoms of the Heptarchy were finally united under one crown, during the reign of Æthelstan (925-940.)
Among the Norse nations, the Herad was the land of the Her or host, the Her being composed of a number of families who acted together for mutual protection under a chief, and formed in fact a tribe.
This was founded as a College of Arms by Richard III in 1484. Its members were the Earl Marshal, the Kings of Arms, and the Heralds, and its functions the supervision of all questions that might arise as to the bearing of coat-armour.
The teachings of Arnold of Brescia were known by this name. He commenced a crusade at Brescia in 1139 against the corruption of the Church and its assumption of temporal power. He was ultimately condemned as a heretic, and burnt at the stake in 1155.
In Anglo-Saxon times the title given to the commander of the army.
A fine due to the lord of the manor on the death of a person holding land of the manor. It consisted of the best beast or chattel belonged to the deceased.
An Act passed in 1747, abolishing hereditary jurisdictions throughout Scotland. Up to this date the decision of ordinary actions at law, especially in the Highlands, had been in the hands of the chiefs of the clans, and principal landowners, and had descended by heredity, with the result that judicial functions were frequently exercised by persons having no legal knowledge or aptitude. By this Act these powers were transferred to sheriffs-depute, one being appointed for each county.
A confederation of the principal cities of Castile, formed during the middle ages for mutual protection against brigands and other lawless persons. By degrees the brotherhood usurped the functions of a legislative body, enforcing their rules, when necessary, by force of arms. It was also known as the Santa Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood.
The name given to an unsuccessful attack by the French upon the entrenched camp of Sir John Fastolfe at Rouvray in 1429.
A sobriquet of Nelson.
The system of State Education established in Cape Colony in 1838, and designed by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer. Public elementary schools were provided in all the principal centres of European population, where instruction was given free to all children of good conduct. Religious instruction was also given to all whose parents did not object, and clergymen of any denomination were permitted to catechise the children of their congregation at stated hours. Secondary schools were established in the principal villages, and a normal seminary in Capetown, to train teachers for the elementary schools.
In ancient Norse times, the hereditary chief of a Her, or tribunal community.
In Anglo-Saxon times, a land tax for war purposes. Under Æthelred the Unready the tax took the form of the furnishing of one man at arms for every eight hides, and one ship for every three hundred hides.
In Saxon times the portion of land allotted to every free householder.
A court established in the reign of Elizabeth, to deal with all questions appertaining to church discipline. It was abolished by Parliament in 1641, but reconstituted by James II in 1686, under the notorious Jeffreys, in whose hands it became a mere instrument for persecution and extortion. Under pressure of the pending invasion of William of Orange, James, in the last year of his reign, consented to its abolition.
A court established by Lord Wentworth in 1634, to exercise the same functions as the English court of the same name.
An Act passed in 1746, after the suppression of the Rebellion of Forty-five, rendering the wearing of the Highland dress illegal.
An Armenian secret society, founded at Tiflis in 1887, to carry on a newspaper of the same name. The statutes of the society, however, clearly show that its aims were revolutionary, and it was largely concerned in fomenting the disturbances which preceded the Armenian massacres of 1895-6.
A doctrine enunciated by Germany to the effect that in newly-occupied countries, such as East or West Africa, the possession of the coast line implied a right to the back country, to be taken up at convenience, and that no other country had a right to take up country behind, and block the way into the interior.
The old Burmese Council of Ministers. In 1886 five of the Ministers were confirmed in their offices, to act as an advisory board for native affairs to the Chief Commissioner. In 1889 the pacification of the country was sufficiently advanced to permit of the board being abolished.
The title of the Mahratta Maharajahs of Indore.
An alliance formed between Russia, Austria and Prussia in September, 1815, by which the three sovereigns undertook that for the future their policy should be guided solely by Christian principles. At the same time there is no doubt that the alliance was intended to stem the tide of political liberty, set flowing by the French Revolution, and their threatened interference in the quarrel between Spain and her American colonies, which was the cause of the enunciation of the Monroe doctrine, is a sufficiently clear indication of this fact.
The name given to William Penn’s experiment of establishing (in Pennsylvania) a colony on the basis of absolute self-government, as a free colony of all mankind.
A league formed by Pope Julius II in 1511, ostensibly for his protection against the aggression of Louis XII of France. Its members were Henry VIII, the Emperor Maximilian I, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian Republic. Two years later Julius’ successor, Leo X, came to terms with Louis, and the league was dissolved.
A league formed by Clement VII in 1526, directed against the Emperor Charles V. Its members, in addition to the Pope, were Francis I of France, the Venetian Republic, and Duke Sforza of Milan.
A league of the Catholic Princes of Germany, formed in 1609 under the leadership of Maximilian of Bavaria, as a counterpoise to the Protestant Union of 1608.
A league of Catholic Princes, formed by Held, the Chancellor of Charles V, in 1538, to oppose the Lutheran Princes. Its principal members were Duke George of Saxony, the Elector of Bavaria, and the Archbishops of Mentz and Salzburg.
SeeInquisition.
The Empire of the West, which had been destroyed by the barbarian invasions, was to a great extent restored by Charlemagne, who was crowned its first Emperor by Leo III in 800. After the extinction of the Carlovingian line, the Emperors were exclusively German Princes, and were elected to the throne by the sovereign rulers of certain German States, though the Popes always claimed, and sometimes exercised, the right of veto, by refusing to crown.In 1272 the first Emperor of the House of Hapsburg, Rudolf, was elected, and from 1438 the Emperors were without exception members of this house, until the Empire was finally broken up by Napoleon in 1806.
An order of knighthood instituted by Pope Alexander VI for the guardianship of the Holy Places in Palestine and the protection of pilgrims.
The first Home Rule Bill, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, providing for the creation of a legislative body in Dublin, with control of the administration, subject to safeguards as to the unity of the Empire, and the protection of minorities. It was to have control of all taxation, except of customs and excise, but was forbidden to legislate on any matter relating to the crown, defence, or foreign relations, or to endow any religious bodies. The Irish representation at Westminster was to be abolished. The bill divided the Liberal Party, many of Mr. Gladstone’s Cabinet deserting him, including Lord Hartington, Sir Henry James, Mr. Bright and Mr. Chamberlain, and consequently it failed to pass the second reading. The general election which followed proved that the country was strongly opposed to the scheme.