FOOTNOTES:

The letterschin Roman answered nearly to the Greekkiorchi; forchad the sound ofk, at least beforea,o,u.Chorkhwas therefore the proper combination for the Greek letter; which had the sound ofkfollowed by an aspirate. This combination was copied into our language; and perhaps the aspirate was once pronounced, like the Irish guttural inCochran. But when the aspirate was lost,kbecame the proper representative of the sound. It is wished, that in all the derivatives from the ancient languages, where this character occurs,kmight be substituted forch; that persons unacquainted with etymology, might not mistake and givechits English sound.

FOOTNOTES:[128]It is said that the Celtic has a great affinity with the oriental languages. "Magnam certe cum linguis orientalibus affinitatem retinet, ut notant Dr. J. Davies passim in Dictionario suo Cambro Britannico, et Samuel Bochartus in sua Geographica sacra."——Wallis, Gram.[129]The invention of letters is ascribed to Taaut or Theuth, the son ofMisraim, soon after the flood.[130]I strongly suspect that the primitive language of the north of Europe was the root of the Sclavonic, still retained in Russia, Poland, Hungary, &c. and that the Gothic was introduced at a later period.[131]This objection however may be obviated by Lluyd's supposition, mentioned in the note, page50, that the primitive inhabitants of Britain were denominated Guydelians, and the Cymri or Welsh were another branch of the Celtic Cimbri, who came from the North, settled in Britain and gave name to the language.[132]It is commonly observed, that different climates, airs and aliments, do very much diversify the tone of the parts and muscles of human bodies; on some of which the modulation of the voice much depends. The peculiar moisture of one country, the drought of another (other causes from food, &c. concurring) extend or contract, swell or attenuate, the organs of the voice, that the sound made thereby is rendered either shrill or hoarse, soft or hard, plain or lisping, in proportion to that contraction or extension. And hence it is, that the Chinese and Tartars have some sounds in their language, that Europeans can scarcely imitate: And it is well known in Europe itself, that an Englishman is not able agreeably to converse with a stranger, even in one and the same Latin; nay, even in England, it is noted by Mr. Camden and Dr. Fuller, that the natives of Carleton Curlew in Leicestershire, by a certain peculiarity of the place, have the turn of their voice very different from those of the neighboring villages.[133]JILD Teka, thou art my son. Psalm ii. 7.[134]MEREDUTHis the same withMerad, a British name.[135]It has this sound in most of the ancient tongues.[136]The armorial ensign of Carthage was ahorse.[137]It is remarkable that the Germans pronounce this wordwollen, andwoll, like the Romanvolo, pronouncedwolo. Many old people in America retain this pronunciation to this day; Iwoll, orwool, forwill.The Roman pronunciation ofvis still preserved in England and America;veal, weal;vessel, wessel; andwis often changed intovorf;wine, vine, or even fine.The Romans often pronouncedtwhere we used; astraho, draw.[138]In teaching English to a Spaniard, I found that in attempting to pronounce words beginning withw, he invariably began with the sound ofgu;well, he would pronounceguell.[139]This word is found in most of the branches of the Gothic.[140]Allusive to the ancient custom of pardoning by giving permission to depart.[141]Frontier settlement; so called, because the Romanspassed throthis territory, in going to or from Rome.[142]The French and Spanish rarely or never aspirate anh; and in this word they have omitted it mostly in writing.[143]The above specimen of the ancient Irish is judged to be a thousand years old. See O'Conner's Dissertation on the History of Ireland. Dublin, 1766, 8 vo.[144]Feichneinibh.[145]"Hunc sonum (gh) Anglos in vocibuslight,might, &c. olim protulisse sentio; at nunc dierum, quamvis scripturam retineant, sonum tamen fera penitus omittunt. Boreales tamen, presertim Scoti, fere adhuc retinent seu potius ipsius loco sonumbsubstituunt."——Wallis.[146]The Runic excepted. The Runic letters were sixteen in number, and introduced very early into the North; but they went into disuse about the tenth or eleventh century.[147]BENJAMIN is son of the right hand.[148]Their.[149]Mixture; an old French word, now writtenmelange.[150]corrupted.[151]These words represent barbarity and roughness in speaking.[152]Corruption of the native tongue.[153]hear[154]since[155]know. The Germans preserve the verbkœnnen, to be able. The pronounshirandhirefortheir, still remain in the Germanihr.[156]Country-people, so called from, their living on the mountains or high lands; henceoutlandish.[157]attempt with eagerness.[158]time.[159]sitheis the origin ofsince.[160]Delsignifies apartor division; it is from the verbdælerto divide, and the root of the English worddeal.Dæleris preserved in the Danish.[161]learning.[162]their.[163]In the original these words are obscure.[164]This is from the verbsollen, implying obligation, duty.[165]their.[166]foreign; Lat.advena.[167]realm.[168]divided.[169]Scarcely.[170]hardly.[171]dwelleth.[172]far.[173]I find in an "Essay on the language and versification of Chaucer" prefixed to Bell's edition of his works, part of this extract copied from a Harlein manuscript, said to be more correct than the manuscript from which Dr. Hickes copied it. But on comparing the extracts in both, I find none but verbal differences; the sense of both is the same.[174]In a charter of Edward III. dated 1348,yevenis used forgiven.Yaveforgaveis used by Chaucer.—Knight's Tale, line 2737. "Andyavehem giftes after his degree." In a charter of Edward the Confessor,gifis used in its Saxon purity. In the same charter,Bissop his land, is used for a genitive. The Scotch wrotezfory;zitforyet;zeresforyears.—Douglass. I do not find, at this period, the true Saxon genitive in use: TheBissop his land, is deemed an error. This mode of speaking has however prevailed, till within a few years, and still has its advocates. But it is certain the Saxons had a proper termination for the genitive or possessive, which is preserved in the two first declensions of the German.Example of the declension of nouns among the Saxons.A WORD.Sing.Plu.Nom.WordwordGen.WordeswordaDat.WordewordumAcc.WordwordVoc.Eala thu wordeala ge wordAbl.WordewordumHickes Sax. Gram.[175]Custodesin castellis strenuos viros ex Gallis collocavit, et opulenta beneficia, pro quibus labores et pericula libenter tolerâ rent, distribuit.—Orderic. Vital. lib. 4.[176]The wordaxforaskis not a modern corruption. It was an ancient dialect, and not vulgar.[177]So Gillies, in his Hist. of Greece, chap. II. talks about the death of the "friendof Achilles;" but leaves the reader to discover the person—not having once mentioned the name ofPatroclus. I would observe further that such appellations as theson of Ledaare borrowed from the Greek; but wholly improper in our language. The Greeks had a distinct ending of the name of the father to signify son or descendants; asHeraclidæ. This form of the noun was known and had a definite meaning in Greece; but in English the idiom is awkward and embarrassing.[178]Readers of the last description are the most numerous.[179]Czar, the Russian appellation or Emperor, is a contraction ofCæsar. It is pronounced in the Russian,charortshar.[180]In ancient inscription, and the early Roman authors,vwas writtenu, and pronouncedooorw. The following extracts from the laws of Romulus, &c. will give the reader an idea of the early orthography of the Latin tongue:—1Deospatrios colunto: externas superstitiones aut fabulas ne admiscento.3Nocturnasacrificia peruigiliaque amouentor.8Vxorfarreatione viro iuncta, in sacra et bona eius venito—ius deuortendi ne esto.13Sipater filiom ter venumduit, filius a patre liber esto.A law of Numa.5Quiterminum exarasit, ipsus et boues sacrei sunto.A law of Tullius Hostillius.2Natitrigemini, donicum puberes esunt, de publico aluntor.

[128]It is said that the Celtic has a great affinity with the oriental languages. "Magnam certe cum linguis orientalibus affinitatem retinet, ut notant Dr. J. Davies passim in Dictionario suo Cambro Britannico, et Samuel Bochartus in sua Geographica sacra."——Wallis, Gram.

[129]The invention of letters is ascribed to Taaut or Theuth, the son ofMisraim, soon after the flood.

[130]I strongly suspect that the primitive language of the north of Europe was the root of the Sclavonic, still retained in Russia, Poland, Hungary, &c. and that the Gothic was introduced at a later period.

[131]This objection however may be obviated by Lluyd's supposition, mentioned in the note, page50, that the primitive inhabitants of Britain were denominated Guydelians, and the Cymri or Welsh were another branch of the Celtic Cimbri, who came from the North, settled in Britain and gave name to the language.

[132]It is commonly observed, that different climates, airs and aliments, do very much diversify the tone of the parts and muscles of human bodies; on some of which the modulation of the voice much depends. The peculiar moisture of one country, the drought of another (other causes from food, &c. concurring) extend or contract, swell or attenuate, the organs of the voice, that the sound made thereby is rendered either shrill or hoarse, soft or hard, plain or lisping, in proportion to that contraction or extension. And hence it is, that the Chinese and Tartars have some sounds in their language, that Europeans can scarcely imitate: And it is well known in Europe itself, that an Englishman is not able agreeably to converse with a stranger, even in one and the same Latin; nay, even in England, it is noted by Mr. Camden and Dr. Fuller, that the natives of Carleton Curlew in Leicestershire, by a certain peculiarity of the place, have the turn of their voice very different from those of the neighboring villages.

[133]JILD Teka, thou art my son. Psalm ii. 7.

[134]MEREDUTHis the same withMerad, a British name.

[135]It has this sound in most of the ancient tongues.

[136]The armorial ensign of Carthage was ahorse.

[137]It is remarkable that the Germans pronounce this wordwollen, andwoll, like the Romanvolo, pronouncedwolo. Many old people in America retain this pronunciation to this day; Iwoll, orwool, forwill.The Roman pronunciation ofvis still preserved in England and America;veal, weal;vessel, wessel; andwis often changed intovorf;wine, vine, or even fine.The Romans often pronouncedtwhere we used; astraho, draw.

The Roman pronunciation ofvis still preserved in England and America;veal, weal;vessel, wessel; andwis often changed intovorf;wine, vine, or even fine.

The Romans often pronouncedtwhere we used; astraho, draw.

[138]In teaching English to a Spaniard, I found that in attempting to pronounce words beginning withw, he invariably began with the sound ofgu;well, he would pronounceguell.

[139]This word is found in most of the branches of the Gothic.

[140]Allusive to the ancient custom of pardoning by giving permission to depart.

[141]Frontier settlement; so called, because the Romanspassed throthis territory, in going to or from Rome.

[142]The French and Spanish rarely or never aspirate anh; and in this word they have omitted it mostly in writing.

[143]The above specimen of the ancient Irish is judged to be a thousand years old. See O'Conner's Dissertation on the History of Ireland. Dublin, 1766, 8 vo.

[144]Feichneinibh.

[145]"Hunc sonum (gh) Anglos in vocibuslight,might, &c. olim protulisse sentio; at nunc dierum, quamvis scripturam retineant, sonum tamen fera penitus omittunt. Boreales tamen, presertim Scoti, fere adhuc retinent seu potius ipsius loco sonumbsubstituunt."——Wallis.

[146]The Runic excepted. The Runic letters were sixteen in number, and introduced very early into the North; but they went into disuse about the tenth or eleventh century.

[147]BENJAMIN is son of the right hand.

[148]Their.

[149]Mixture; an old French word, now writtenmelange.

[150]corrupted.

[151]These words represent barbarity and roughness in speaking.

[152]Corruption of the native tongue.

[153]hear

[154]since

[155]know. The Germans preserve the verbkœnnen, to be able. The pronounshirandhirefortheir, still remain in the Germanihr.

[156]Country-people, so called from, their living on the mountains or high lands; henceoutlandish.

[157]attempt with eagerness.

[158]time.

[159]sitheis the origin ofsince.

[160]Delsignifies apartor division; it is from the verbdælerto divide, and the root of the English worddeal.Dæleris preserved in the Danish.

[161]learning.

[162]their.

[163]In the original these words are obscure.

[164]This is from the verbsollen, implying obligation, duty.

[165]their.

[166]foreign; Lat.advena.

[167]realm.

[168]divided.

[169]Scarcely.

[170]hardly.

[171]dwelleth.

[172]far.

[173]I find in an "Essay on the language and versification of Chaucer" prefixed to Bell's edition of his works, part of this extract copied from a Harlein manuscript, said to be more correct than the manuscript from which Dr. Hickes copied it. But on comparing the extracts in both, I find none but verbal differences; the sense of both is the same.

[174]In a charter of Edward III. dated 1348,yevenis used forgiven.Yaveforgaveis used by Chaucer.—Knight's Tale, line 2737. "Andyavehem giftes after his degree." In a charter of Edward the Confessor,gifis used in its Saxon purity. In the same charter,Bissop his land, is used for a genitive. The Scotch wrotezfory;zitforyet;zeresforyears.—Douglass. I do not find, at this period, the true Saxon genitive in use: TheBissop his land, is deemed an error. This mode of speaking has however prevailed, till within a few years, and still has its advocates. But it is certain the Saxons had a proper termination for the genitive or possessive, which is preserved in the two first declensions of the German.Example of the declension of nouns among the Saxons.A WORD.Sing.Plu.Nom.WordwordGen.WordeswordaDat.WordewordumAcc.WordwordVoc.Eala thu wordeala ge wordAbl.WordewordumHickes Sax. Gram.

Example of the declension of nouns among the Saxons.

A WORD.

Sing.Plu.Nom.WordwordGen.WordeswordaDat.WordewordumAcc.WordwordVoc.Eala thu wordeala ge wordAbl.Wordewordum

Hickes Sax. Gram.

[175]Custodesin castellis strenuos viros ex Gallis collocavit, et opulenta beneficia, pro quibus labores et pericula libenter tolerâ rent, distribuit.—Orderic. Vital. lib. 4.

[176]The wordaxforaskis not a modern corruption. It was an ancient dialect, and not vulgar.

[177]So Gillies, in his Hist. of Greece, chap. II. talks about the death of the "friendof Achilles;" but leaves the reader to discover the person—not having once mentioned the name ofPatroclus. I would observe further that such appellations as theson of Ledaare borrowed from the Greek; but wholly improper in our language. The Greeks had a distinct ending of the name of the father to signify son or descendants; asHeraclidæ. This form of the noun was known and had a definite meaning in Greece; but in English the idiom is awkward and embarrassing.

[178]Readers of the last description are the most numerous.

[179]Czar, the Russian appellation or Emperor, is a contraction ofCæsar. It is pronounced in the Russian,charortshar.

[180]In ancient inscription, and the early Roman authors,vwas writtenu, and pronouncedooorw. The following extracts from the laws of Romulus, &c. will give the reader an idea of the early orthography of the Latin tongue:—1Deospatrios colunto: externas superstitiones aut fabulas ne admiscento.3Nocturnasacrificia peruigiliaque amouentor.8Vxorfarreatione viro iuncta, in sacra et bona eius venito—ius deuortendi ne esto.13Sipater filiom ter venumduit, filius a patre liber esto.A law of Numa.5Quiterminum exarasit, ipsus et boues sacrei sunto.A law of Tullius Hostillius.2Natitrigemini, donicum puberes esunt, de publico aluntor.

1Deospatrios colunto: externas superstitiones aut fabulas ne admiscento.

3Nocturnasacrificia peruigiliaque amouentor.

8Vxorfarreatione viro iuncta, in sacra et bona eius venito—ius deuortendi ne esto.

13Sipater filiom ter venumduit, filius a patre liber esto.

A law of Numa.

5Quiterminum exarasit, ipsus et boues sacrei sunto.

A law of Tullius Hostillius.

2Natitrigemini, donicum puberes esunt, de publico aluntor.

On theNECESSITY, ADVANTAGESandPRACTICABILITYofREFORMINGtheMODEofSPELLING,and ofRENDERINGtheORTHOGRAPHYofWORDS CORRESPONDENTto thePRONUNCIATION.

Ithas been observed by all writers on the English language, that the orthography or spelling of words is very irregular; the same letters often representing different sounds, and the same sounds often expressed by different letters. For this irregularity, two principal causes may be assigned:

1. The changes to which the pronunciation of a language is liable, from the progress of science and civilization.

2. The mixture of different languages, occasioned by revolutions in England, or by a predilection of the learned, for words of foreign growth and ancient origin.

To the first cause, may be ascribed the difference between the spelling and pronunciation of Saxon words. The northern nations of Europe originally spoke much in gutturals. This is evident from the number of aspirates and guttural letters, which still remain in the orthography of words derived from those nations; and from the modern pronunciation of the collateral branches of the Teutonic, the Dutch, Scotch and German. Thuskbeforenwas once pronounced; as inknave,know; theghinmight,though,daughter, and other similar words; theginreign,feign, &c.

But as savages proceed in forming languages, theylose the guttural sounds, in some measure, and adopt the use of labials, and the more open vowels. The ease of speaking facilitates this progress, and the pronunciation of words is softened, in proportion to a national refinement of manners. This will account for the difference between the ancient and modern languages of France, Spain and Italy; and for the difference between the soft pronunciation of the present languages of those countries, and the more harsh and guttural pronunciation of the northern inhabitants of Europe.

In this progress, the English have lost the sounds of most of the guttural letters. Thekbeforeninknow, theginreign, and in many other words, are become mute in practice; and theghis softened into the sound off, as inlaugh, or is silent, as inbrought.

To this practice of softening the sounds of letters, or wholly suppressing those which are harsh and disagreeable, may be added a popular tendency to abbreviate words of common use. ThusSouthwark, by a habit of quick pronunciation, is becomeSuthark;WorcesterandLeicester, are becomeWoosterandLester;business,bizness;colonel,curnel;cannot,will not,cant,wont.[181]In this manner the finaleis not heard in many modern words, in which it formerly made a syllable. The wordsclothes,cares, and most others of the same kind, were formerly pronounced in two syllables.[182]

Of the other cause of irregularity in the spelling of our language, I have treated sufficiently in the first Dissertation. It is here necessary only to remark, that when words have been introduced from a foreign language into the English, they have generally retained the orthography of the original, however ill adapted to express the English pronunciation. Thusfatigue,marine,chaise, retain their French dress, while, to representthe true pronunciation in English, they should be speltfateeg,mareen,shaze. Thus thro an ambition to exhibit the etymology of words, the English, inPhilip,physic,character,chorus, and other Greek derivatives, preserve the representatives of the original Φ and Χ; yet these words are pronounced, and ought ever to have been spelt,Fillip,fyzzicorfizzic,karacter,korus.[183]

But such is the state of our language. The pronunciation of the words which are strictlyEnglish, has been gradually changing for ages, and since the revival of science in Europe, the language has received a vast accession of words from other languages, many of which retain an orthography very ill suited to exhibit the true pronunciation.

The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain these faults which produce innumerable in conveniencies in the acquisition and use of the language, or ought they at once to reform these abuses, and introduce order and regularity into the orthography of the AMERICAN TONGUE?

Let us consider this subject with some attention.

Several attempts were formerly made in England to rectify the orthography of the language.[184]But I apprehend their schemes failed of success, rather on account of their intrinsic difficulties, than on account of any necessary impracticability of a reform. It was proposed, in most of these schemes, not merely to throw out superfluous and silent letters, but to introduce a numberof new characters. Any attempt on such a plan must undoubtedly prove unsuccessful. It is not to be expected that an orthography, perfectly regular and simple, such as would be formed by a "Synod of Grammarians on principles of science," will ever be substituted for that confused mode of spelling which is now established. But it is apprehended that great improvements may be made, and an orthography almost regular, or such as shall obviate most of the present difficulties which occur in learning our language, may be introduced and established with little trouble and opposition.

The principal alterations, necessary to render our orthography sufficiently regular and easy, are these:

1. The omission of all superfluous or silent letters; asainbread. Thusbread,head,give,breast,built,meant,realm,friend, would be spelt,bred,hed,giv,brest,bilt,ment,relm,frend. Would this alteration produce any inconvenience, any embarrassment or expense? By no means. On the other hand, it would lessen the trouble of writing, and much more, of learning the language; it would reduce the true pronunciation to a certainty; and while it would assist foreigners and our own children in acquiring the language, it would render the pronunciation uniform, in different parts of the country, and almost prevent the possibility of changes.

2. A substitution of a character that has a certain definite sound, for one that is more vague and indeterminate. Thus by puttingeeinstead ofeaorie, the wordsmean,near,speak,grieve,zeal, would becomemeen,neer,speek,greev,zeel. This alteration could notoccasion a moment's trouble; at the same time it would prevent a doubt respecting the pronunciation; whereas theeaandiehaving different sounds, may give a learner much difficulty. Thusgreefshould be substituted forgrief;keeforkey;beleevforbelieve;lafforlaugh;dawterfordaughter;plowforplough;tuffortough;proovforprove;bludforblood; anddraftfordraught. In this mannerchin Greek derivatives, should be changed intok; for the Englishchhas a soft sound, as incherish; butkalways a hard sound. Thereforecharacter,chorus,cholic,architecture, should be writtenkaracter,korus,kolic,arkitecture; and were they thus written, no person could mistake their true pronunciation.

Thuschin French derivatives should be changed into sh;machine,chaise,chevalier, should be writtenmasheen,shaze,shevaleer; andpique,tour,oblique, should be writtenpeek,toor,obleek.

3. A trifling alteration in a character, or the addition of a point would distinguish different sounds, without the substitution of a new character. Thus a very small stroke acrossthwould distinguish its two sounds. A point over a vowel, in this manner,̇aorė, oṙi, might answer all the purposes of different letters. And for the dipthongow, let the two letters be united by a small stroke, or both engraven on the same piece of metal, with the left hand line of thewunited to theo.

These, with a few other inconsiderable alterations, would answer every purpose, and render the orthography sufficiently correct and regular.

The advantages to be derived from these alterations are numerous, great and permanent.

1. The simplicity of the orthography would facilitate the learning of the language. It is now the work of years for children to learn to spell; and after all, the business is rarely accomplished. A few men, who are bred to some business that requires constant exercise in writing, finally learn to spell most words without hesitation; but most people remain, all their lives, imperfect masters of spelling, and liable to make mistakes, whenever they take up a pen to write a short note. Nay, many people, even of education and fashion, never attempt to write a letter, without frequently consulting a dictionary.

But with the proposed orthography, a child would learn to spell, without trouble, in a very short time, and the orthography being very regular, he would ever afterwards find it difficult to make a mistake. It would, in that case, be as difficult to spellwrong, as it is now to spellright.

Besides this advantage, foreigners would be able to acquire the pronunciation of English, which is now so difficult and embarrassing, that they are either wholly discouraged on the first attempt, or obliged, after many years labor, to rest contented with an imperfect knowlege of the subject.

2. A correct orthography would render the pronunciation of the language, as uniform as the spelling in books. A general uniformity thro the United States, would be the event of such a reformation as I am here recommending. All persons, of every rank, would speak with some degree of precision and uniformity.[185]Such a uniformity in these states is very desireable; it would remove prejudice, and conciliate mutual affection and respect.

3. Such a reform would diminish the number of letters about one sixteenth or eighteenth. This would save a page in eighteen; and a saving of an eighteenth in the expense of books, is an advantage that should not be overlooked.

4. But a capital advantage of this reform in these states would be, that it would make a difference between the English orthography and the American. This will startle those who have not attended to the subject; but I am confident that such an event is an object of vast political consequence. For,

The alteration, however small, would encourage the publication of books in our own country. It would render it, in some measure, necessary that all books should be printed in America. The English would never copy our orthography for their own use; and consequently the same impressions of books would not answer for both countries. The inhabitants of the present generation would read the English impressions; but posterity, being taught a different spelling, would prefer the American orthography.

Besides this, anational languageis a band ofnational union. Every engine should be employed to render the people of this countrynational; to call their attachments home to their own country; and to inspire them with the pride of national character. However they may boast of Independence, and the freedom of their government, yet theiropinionsare not sufficiently independent; an astonishing respect for the arts and literature of their parent country, and a blind imitation of its manners, are still prevalent among the Americans. Thus an habitual respect for another country, deserved indeed and once laudable, turns their attention from their own interests, and prevents their respecting themselves.

1. "This reform of the Alphabet would oblige people to relearn the language, or it could not be introduced."

But the alterations proposed are so few and so simple, that an hour's attention would enable any person to read the new orthography with facility; and a week's practice would render it so familiar, that a person would write it without hesitation or mistake. Would this small inconvenience prevent its adoption? Would not the numerous national and literary advantages, resulting from the change, induce Americans to make so inconsiderable a sacrifice of time and attention? I am persuaded they would.

But it would not be necessary that men advanced beyond the middle stage of life, should be at the pains to learn the proposed orthography. They would, without inconvenience, continue to use the present. They would read theneworthography, without difficulty; but they would write in theold. To men thus advanced, and even to the present generation in general, if they should not wish to trouble themselves with a change, the reformation would be almost a matter of indifference. It would be sufficient that children should be taught the new orthography, and that as fast as they come upon the stage, they should be furnished with books in the American spelling. The progress of printing would be proportioned to the demand for books among the rising generation. This progressive introduction of the scheme would be extremely easy; children would learn the proposed orthography more easily than they would the old; and the present generation would not be troubled with the change; so that none but the obstinate and capricious could raise objections or make any opposition. The change would be so inconsiderable, and made on such simple principles, that a column in each newspaper, printed in the new spelling, would in six months, familiarize most people to the change, show the advantages of it, and imperceptibly remove their objections. The only stepsnecessary to ensure success in the attempt to introduce this reform, would be, a resolution of Congress, ordering all their acts to be engrossed in the new orthography, and recommending the plan to the several universities in America; and also a resolution of the universities to encourage and support it. The printers would begin the reformation by publishing short paragraphs and small tracts in the new orthography; school books would first be published in the same; curiosity would excite attention to it, and men would be gradually reconciled to the plan.

2. "This change would render our present books useless."

This objection is, in some measure, answered under the foregoing head. The truth is, it would not have this effect. The difference of orthography would not render books printed in one, illegible to persons acquainted only with the other. The difference would not be so great as between the orthography of Chaucer, and of the present age; yet Chaucer's works are still read with ease.

3. "This reformation would injure the language by obscuring etymology."

This objection is unfounded. In general, it is not true that the change would obscure etymology; in a few instances, it might; but it would rather restore the etymology of many words; and if it were true that the change would obscure it, this would be no objection to the reformation.

It will perhaps surprize my readers to be told that, in many particular words, the modern spelling is less correct than the ancient. Yet this is a truth that reflects dishonor on our modern refiners of the language. Chaucer, four hundred years ago, wrotebilderforbuilder;dedlyfordeadly;ernestforearnest;erlyforearly;brestforbreast;hedforhead; and certainly his spelling was the most agreeable to the pronunciation.[186]Sidney wrotebin,examin,sutable, with perfect propriety. Dr. Middleton wroteexplane,genuin,revele, which is the most easy and correct orthography of such words; and alsoluster,theater, forlustre,theatre. In these and many other instances, the modern spelling is a corruption; so that allowing many improvements to have been made in orthography, within a century or two, we must acknowlege also that many corruptions have been introduced.

In answer to the objection, that a change of orthography would obscure etymology, I would remark, that the etymology of most words is already lost, even to the learned; and to the unlearned, etymology is never known. Where is the man that can trace back our English words to the elementary radicals? In a few instances, the student has been able to reach the primitive roots of words; but I presume the radicals of one tenth of the words in our language, have never yet been discovered, even by Junius, Skinner, or any other etymologist. Any man may look into Johnson or Ash, and find thatfleshis derived from the Saxonfloce;childfromcild;floodfromflod;ladfromleode; andloaffromlaforhlaf. But this discovery will answer no other purpose, than to show, that within a few hundred years, the spelling of some words has been a little changed: We should still be at a vast distance from the primitive roots.

In many instances indeed etymology will assist the learned in understanding the composition and true sense of a word; and it throws much light upon the progress of language. But the true sense of a complex term is not always, nor generally, to be learnt from the sense of the primitives or elementary words. The current meaning of a word depends on its use in a nation. Thistrue sense is to be obtained by attending to good authors, to dictionaries and to practice, rather than to derivation. The formermustberight; the lattermaylead us intoerror.

But to prove of how little consequence a knowlege of etymology is to most people, let me mention a few words. The wordsincereis derived from the Latin,sine cera, without wax; and thus it came to denotepurity of mind. I am confident that not a man in a thousand ever suspected this to be the origin of the word; yet all men, that have any knowlege of our language, use the word in its true sense, and understand its customary meaning, as well as Junius did, or any other etymologist.

Yeaoryesis derived from the imperative of a verb,avoirto have, as the word is now spelt. It signifies thereforehave, orpossess, ortakewhat you ask. But does this explication assist us in using the word? And does not every countryman who labors in the field, understand and use the word with as much precision as the profoundest philosophers?

The wordtemperis derived from an old root,tem, which signifiedwater. It was borrowed from the act ofcooling, or moderating heat. Hence the meaning oftemperate,temperance, and all the ramifications of the original stock. But does this help us to the modern current sense of these words? By no means. It leads us to understand the formation of languages, and in what manner an idea of a visible action gives rise to a correspondent abstract idea; or rather, how a word, from a literal and direct sense, may be applied to express a variety of figurative and collateral ideas. Yet the customary sense of the word is known by practice, and as well understood by an illiterate man of tolerable capacity, as by men of science.

The wordalwaysis compounded ofallandways; it had originally no reference to time; and the etymologyor composition of the word would only lead us into error. The true meaning of words is that which a nation in general annex to them. Etymology therefore is of no use but to the learned; and for them it will still be preserved, so far as it is now understood, in dictionaries and other books that treat of this particular subject.

4. "The distinction between words of different meanings and similar sound would be destroyed."

"That distinction," to answer in the words of the great Franklin, "is already destroyed in pronunciation." Does not every man pronounceallandawlprecisely alike? And does the sameness of sound ever lead a hearer into a mistake? Does not the construction render the distinction easy and intelligible, the moment the words of the sentence are heard? Is the wordknewever mistaken fornew, even in the rapidity of pronouncing an animated oration? Waspeaceever mistaken forpiece;prayforprey;flourforflower? Never, I presume, is this similarity of sound the occasion of mistakes.

If therefore an identity ofsound, even in rapid speaking, produces no inconvenience, how much less would an identity ofspelling, when the eye would have leisure to survey the construction? But experience, the criterion of truth, which has removed the objection in the first case, will also assist us in forming our opinion in the last.

There are many words in our language which, with thesame orthography, havetwoor moredistinct meanings. The wordwind, whether it signifiesto move round, orair in motion, has thesame spelling; it exhibits no distinction to theeyeof a silent reader; and yet its meaning is never mistaken. The construction shows at sight in which sense the word is to be understood.Hailis used as an expression of joy, or to signify frozen drops of water, falling from the clouds.Rearis to raise up, or it signifies the hinder part of an army.Lotsignifies fortune or destiny; a plat of ground; or a certain proportion or share; and yet does this diversity, this contrariety of meanings ever occasion the least difficulty in the ordinary language of books? It cannot be maintained. This diversity is found in all languages;[187]and altho it may be considered as a defect, and occasion some trouble for foreign learners, yet to natives it produces no sensible inconvenience.

5. "It is idle to conform the orthography of words to the pronunciation, because the latter is continually changing."

This is one of Dr. Johnson's objections, and it is very unworthy of his judgement. So far is this circumstance from being a real objection, that it is alone a sufficient reason for the change of spelling. On his principle offixing the orthography, while thepronunciation is changing, anyspoken languagemust, in time, lose all relation to thewritten language; that is, the sounds of words would have no affinity with the letters that compose them. In some instances, this is now the case; and no mortal would suspect from the spelling, thatneighbour,wrought, are pronouncednabur,rawt. On this principle, Dr. Johnson ought to have gone back some centuries, and given us, in his dictionary, the primitive Saxon orthography,wolforwill;ydilnesseforidleness;eyenforeyes;echeforeach, &c. Nay, he should have gone as far as possible into antiquity, and, regardless of the changes of pronunciation, given us the primitive radical language in its purity. Happily for the language, that doctrine did not prevail till his time; the spelling of words changed with the pronunciation; to these changes we are indebted for numberless improvements;and it is hoped that the progress of them, in conformity with the national practice of speaking, will not be obstructed by the erroneous opinion, even of Dr. Johnson. How much more rational is the opinion of Dr. Franklin, who says, "the orthography of our language began to be fixed too soon." If the pronunciation must vary, from age to age, (and some trifling changes of language will always be taking place) common sense would dictate a correspondent change of spelling. Admit Johnson's principles; take his pedantic orthography for the standard; let it be closely adhered to in future; and the slow changes in the pronunciation of our national tongue, will in time make as great a difference between ourwrittenandspokenlanguage, as there is between the pronunciation of the present English and German. Thespellingwill be no more a guide to the pronunciation, than the orthography of the German or Greek. This event is actually taking place, in consequence of the stupid opinion, advanced by Johnson and other writers, and generally embraced by the nation.

All these objections appear to me of very inconsiderable weight, when opposed to the great, substantial and permanent advantages to be derived from a regular national orthography.

Sensible I am how much easier it is toproposeimprovements, than tointroducethem. Every thingnewstarts the idea of difficulty; and yet it is often mere novelty that excites the appearance; for on a slight examination of the proposal, the difficulty vanishes. When we firmlybelievea scheme to be practicable, the work ishalfaccomplished. We are more frequently deterred by fear from making an attack, than repulsed in the encounter.

Habit also is opposed to changes; for it renders even our errors dear to us. Having surmounted all difficulties in childhood, we forget the labor, the fatigue, and the perplexity we suffered in the attempt, and imagin the progress of our studies to have been smooth and easy.[188]What seems intrinsically right, is so merely thro habit.

Indolence is another obstacle to improvements. The most arduous task a reformer has to execute, is to make peoplethink; to rouse them from that lethargy, which, like the mantle of sleep, covers them in repose and contentment.

But America is in a situation the most favorable for great reformations; and the present time is, in a singular degree, auspicious. The minds of men in this country have been awakened. New scenes have been, for many years, presenting new occasions for exertion; unexpected distresses have called forth the powers of invention; and the application of new expedients has demanded every possible exercise of wisdom and talents. Attention is roused; the mind expanded; and the intellectual faculties invigorated. Here men are prepared to receive improvements, which would be rejected by nations, whose habits have not been shaken by similar events.

Nowis the time, andthisthe country, in which we may expect success, in attempting changes favorable to language, science and government. Delay, in the plan here proposed, may be fatal; under a tranquil general government, the minds of men may again sink into indolence; a national acquiescence in error will follow; and posterity be doomed to struggle with difficulties, which time and accident will perpetually multiply.

Let us then seize the present moment, and establish anational language, as well as a national government. Let us remember that there is a certain respect due to the opinions of other nations. As an independent people, our reputation abroad demands that, in all things, we should be federal; benational; for if we do not respectourselves, we may be assured thatother nationswill not respect us. In short, let it be impressed upon the mind of every American, that to neglect the means of commanding respect abroad, is treason against the character and dignity of a brave independent people.

To excite the more attention to this subject, I will here subjoin what Dr. Franklin has done and written to effect a reform in our mode of spelling. This sage philosopher has suffered nothing useful to escape his notice. He very early discovered the difficulties that attend the learning of our language; and with his usual ingenuity, invented a plan to obviate them. If any objection can be made to his scheme,[189]it is the substitution ofnewcharacters, forth,sh,ng, &c. whereas a small stroke, connecting the letters, would answer all the purposes of new characters; as these combinations would thus become single letters, with precise definite sounds and suitable names.

A specimen of the Doctor's spelling cannot be here given, as I have not the proper types;[190]but the arguments in favor of a reformed mode of spelling shall be given in his own words.

Copy of a Letter from Miss S——, to Dr.Franklin,who had sent her his Scheme of a Reformed Alphabet.Dated, Kensington (England) Sept. 26, 1768.

DEAR SIR,

I have transcribed your alphabet, &c. which I think might be of service to those who wish to acquire an accurate pronunciation, if that could be fixed; but I see many inconveniences, as well as difficulties, that would attend the bringing your letters and orthography into common use. All our etymologies would be lost; consequently we could not ascertain the meaning of many words; the distinction too between words ofdifferent meaningandsimilarsound would be useless,[191]unless we living writers publish new editions. In short, I believe we must let people spell on in their old way, and (as we find it easiest) do the same ourselves.—— With ease and with sincerity I can, in the old way, subscribe myself,

Dear Sir,Your faithful and affectionate Servant,M. S.Dr. Franklin.

DEAR MADAM,

The objection you make to rectifying our alphabet, "that it will be attended with inconveniences and difficulties," is a very natural one; for it always occurs when any reformation is proposed, whether in religion, government, laws, and even down as low as roads and wheel carriages. The true question then is not, whether there will be no difficulties or inconveniences; but whether the difficulties may not be surmounted; andwhether the conveniences will not, on the whole, be greater than the inconveniences. In this case, the difficulties are only in the beginning of the practice; when they are once overcome, the advantages are lasting. To either you or me, who spell well in the present mode, I imagine the difficulty of changing that mode for the new, is not so great, but that we might perfectly get over it in a week's writing. As to those who do not spell well, if the two difficulties are compared, viz. that of teaching them true spelling in the present mode, and that of teaching them the new alphabet and the new spelling according to it, I am confident that the latter would be by far the least. They naturally fall into the new method already, as much as the imperfection of their alphabet will admit of; their presentbadspelling is only bad, because contrary to the presentbadrules; under the new rules it would begood.[192]The difficulty of learning to spell well in the old way is so great, that few attain it; thousands and thousands writing on to old age, without ever being able to acquire it. It is besides, a difficulty continually increasing;[193]as the sound gradually varies more and more from the spelling; and to foreigners it makes the learning to pronounce our language, as written in our books, almost impossible.

Now as to the inconveniences you mention: The first is, "that all our etymologies would be lost; consequently we could not ascertain the meaning of many words." Etymologies are at present very uncertain; but such as they are, the old books still preserve them, and etymologists would there find them. Words in the course of time, change their meaning, as well as their spelling and pronunciation; and we do not look to etymologies for their present meanings. If I should call a man aknaveand avillain, he would hardly be satisfied with my telling him, that one of the words originally signified aladorservant, and the other an underplowman, or the inhabitant of a village. It is from present usage only, the meaning of words is to be determined.

Your second inconvenience is, "the distinction between words of different meaning and similar sound would be destroyed." That distinction is already destroyed in pronouncing them; and we rely on the sense alone of the sentence to ascertain which of the several words, similar in sound, we intend. If this is sufficient in the rapidity of discourse, it will be much more so in written sentences, which may be read leisurely, and attended to more particularly in case of difficulty, than we can attend to a past sentence, while the speaker is hurrying us along with new ones.

Your third inconvenience is, "that all the books already written would be useless." This inconvenience would only come on gradually in a course of ages. I and you and other now living readers would hardly forget the use of them. People would long learn to read the old writing, tho they practised the new. And the inconvenience is not greater than what has actually happened in a similar case in Italy. Formerly its inhabitants all spoke and wrote Latin; as the language changed, the spelling followed it. It is true that at present, a mere unlearned Italian cannot read the Latin books, tho they are still read and understood by many. But if the spelling had never been changed, he would now have found it much more difficult to read and write his own language;[194]for written words would have had no relation to sounds; they would only have stood for things; so that if he would express in writing the idea he has when he sounds the wordVescovo, he must use the lettersEpiscopus.[195]

In short, whatever the difficulties and inconveniences now are, they will be more easily surmounted now, than hereafter; and some time or other it must be done, or our writing will become the same with the Chinese, as to the difficulty of learning and using it. And it would already have been such, if we had continuedthe Saxon spelling and writing used by our forefathers.

I am, my dear friend,Your's affectionately,B. FRANKLIN.London, Craven Street, Sept. 28, 1768.

The END.

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