Calendula, or pot marigold (Calendula officinalis), is a hardy annual plant native to southern Europe, but frequently grown in flower gardens in this country. The dried flower heads are sometimes used in soups and stews, and the so-called petals (ligulate florets) are employed in medicine.
Calendula grows well on a variety of soils, but a moderately rich garden loam will give the best results. The seed may be sown in open ground early in the spring in drills 18 inches apart. As soon as the seedlings are well established they should be thinned to stand about a foot apart in the row. In the North it is desirable to sow the seed about the first of April in coldframes or spent hotbeds and transplant the young seedlings as soon as the danger of frost is past.
The plants blossom early and continue to bloom throughout the summer. The flowers are gathered at intervals of a few days and carefully dried. The petals (florets) which form the drug may be removed either before or after the flower heads are dried. The petals are removed by hand, but this process requires so much time that when the cost of the necessary labor is taken into account it is doubtful whether the price received for the drug would cover the cost of production.
The dried whole flowers produced in this country were quoted in the wholesale markets in June, 1920, at 25 cents to $1 a pound, according to quality; the petals, at $1.95 to $2.10 a pound.
German camomile (Matricaria chamomilla) is a European annual herb of the aster family, cultivated in this country in gardens, from which it has escaped in some localities. The dried flower heads are used in medicine.
This species of camomile does well on moderately heavy soil which is rich in humus and rather moist. Since the plants bloom about eight weeks after sowing the seed, a crop of camomile may be grown from seed sown either early in the spring or late in the summer, following early vegetable crops. The seed may be sown in drills and barely covered or may be broadcast, since the plants will soon occupy the ground and exclude the weeds. When the plants are In full bloom the flower heads are gathered and may be spread thinly on canvas sheets and dried in the sun. All leaves and stems should be removed, and when the flowers are thoroughly dry they should be packed for market in boxes or bales rather than in bags, since in the latter the flowers are likely to be badly broken in handling.
Returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about 400 pounds of dry flowers per acre may be expected under favorable conditions. Prewar wholesale prices usually ranged from about 15 to 40 cents a pound. The prices in June, 1920, were 41 to 43 cents a pound.
Roman camomile (also called English camomile,Anthemis nobilis) is a European perennial herb of the aster family, frequently cultivated in gardens in this country and sometimes found growing wild. In America, camomile is grown chiefly as an ornamental plant, especially for use in borders, since the plants blossom from midsummer until killed by frost. The dried flower heads from cultivated plants are used in medicine.
Camomile grows well in almost any good, rather dry soil which has full exposure to the sun. The plants may be grown from seeds or propagated by dividing the roots early in the spring. The divisions of the root may be planted 9 inches apart in rows spaced according to the method of cultivation to be used. When planted on a small scale the divisions, or offsets, may be set 9 inches apart each way in carefully prepared soil. Hand weeding is necessary, but since the plants soon spread and fully shade the ground, weeds usually have small chance of becoming troublesome.
The flower heads are gathered just as they open, either by hand or by means of a flower picker, and are dried in the open in bright weather or, when necessary, on canvas trays in a heated room. Rapid drying is essential, as it is desirable to retain the white color as far as possible.
The yield is variable, but from 400 to 600 pounds of dried flowers per acre may be expected. The prices for Roman camomile quoted in the wholesale drug markets of this country prior to the war usually ranged from about 10 to 12 cents a pound. The prices in June, 1920, were 18 to 20 cents a pound. Since this crop requires much hand labor, its cultivation in this country on a commercial scale does not promise to be very profitable.
The camphor tree (Camphora officinalis) is a large evergreen, native to Asia. It is hardy in situations where the winter temperature does not fall below 15° F., and for many years has been grown as an ornamental in the southern and southwestern United States. Young trees suitable for planting as ornamentals may usually be obtained from the nurseries in Florida and other parts of the South, or they can be easily grown from fresh seed.
For culture on a commercial scale the climatic requirements of camphor are practically the same as those of citrus fruits. The tree can be grown in almost any soil, but the maximum growth is secured in soils which are rich and well drained. When planted for commercial cultivation new land is preferable. The following statements are based upon actual experiments and observations on the growing and production of camphor under conditions found in Florida.
Camphor seeds ripen about the middle of October and should be planted while fresh, a better germination being obtained when the pulp is removed. The seed bed should be selected with care and the precaution taken to have one that will give sufficient moisture during the dry season and yet be well drained. For small seed beds of 2 or 3 acres or less it may be practicable to provide irrigation. Excellent stands of seedlings have been obtained on slightly rolling land which originally was covered with "blackjack" oak.
About the first of September, or somewhat earlier if conditions permit, the land should be well plowed and thoroughly worked down with a disk harrow. Just before the seeds are planted it should again be worked over and all roots of Bermuda grass or other weeds removed, since rapidly growing grasses or weeds will absorb so much moisture from the soil that the seeds can not germinate.
The seeds begin to ripen during the first part of October and are usually in a fairly well ripened stage by the last of that month. From this time until the heavy frosts they can be gathered and planted with safety. Seeds gathered after heavy frosts have been planted successfully, but it is not advisable to take the risk of too hard a freeze. In determining the time to gather seed a simple test is sufficient. Seeds that fall into the hand when the cluster is slightly twisted are ripe enough to plant.
In planting, a cotton-dropping machine, modified somewhat to meet the new requirements, may be used. The machine is set to plant the seeds 2 or 3 inches apart and cover them 1 inch deep in rows far enough apart to permit horse cultivation. The plants begin to come up in about three months, but four or five months are often required for a full stand. As soon as the plants can be distinguished in the rows cultivation is begun, which at first is done by hand with either a wheel or hand hoe. Later, as the plants attain size, a horse cultivator can be used, but a certain amount of handwork is necessary throughout the time the plants remain in the seed bed. When the plants are well started they should receive a good application of sheep or goat manure or of high-grade fertilizer.
The first season a growth of from 3 to 18 inches may be expected, the irregularity of development depending on the vitality of the seed, variation in the soil, and numerous other factors. The plants are allowed to grow in the seed bed usually for a year and are then transplanted to the field. In transplanting it is customary to separate the plants into two grades, "sturdy" and "weak," planting each grade in a field by itself. By doing this the replanting is simplified, since the sturdy stock requires but few trees for replanting and the weak stock, which will require considerable replanting, is all in one section.
Previous to transplanting, the land is well prepared by deep plowing and thorough harrowing, and rows are laid off 15 feet apart. The young trees are set in these rows 4 feet apart, either by hand or with a tree-setting machine. This machine is simply a tobacco-setting machine fitted with a trench opener set to open a furrow 8 inches deep, in which the trees are placed. The trees used for transplanting are headed back to within 1 inch of the crown, and the lower end of the taproot and all large laterals are removed. The taproot of the tree as planted is thus reduced in length to 8 or 10 inches and varies in diameter according to the vitality and previous growth of the seedling. Transplanting should be done in the winter months, when the trees are dormant.
Cultivation is begun as soon as the trees put forth shoots in the spring and continued until the rainy season of each year. After the rainy season the plants are again cultivated and all grass and weeds removed. At times cultivation is necessary during the rainy season in order to keep the trees from becoming smothered and killed by the fast-growing weeds. One-horse cultivators drawn by mules or a gang cultivator drawn by a light tractor may be used.
In three or four years, after transplanting, the trees should be from 7 to 8 feet high. They are then trimmed by means of a special machine[3]to form anA-shaped hedge and the trimmings distilled for the oil and camphor gum. Trimming is carried on when the trees are in the dormant stage, which is twice each year, usually November to January and May to June. The summer dormant season is somewhat irregular and governed entirely by local conditions.
[3]A detailed description of this machine is given in U. S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 78, entitled "A Machine for Trimming Camphor Trees." 1920.
[3]A detailed description of this machine is given in U. S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 78, entitled "A Machine for Trimming Camphor Trees." 1920.
The cuttings are hauled from the field to the distilling plant, and if many large branches are present they are run through a heavy ensilage cutter. For distillation they are packed in large iron retorts, to which steam is admitted at the bottom. The outlet pipe of the retort is connected with a specially constructed condensing apparatus in which the oil and camphor carried over by the steam are condensed and partly collected. Portions of oil and camphor not collected in the condenser are caught in a tub fitted with an outlet siphon which carries away the excess condensed steam but leaves the oil and camphor behind.
When removed from the condenser the product is very crude, consisting of a mixture of oil, water, and camphor. This mixture is either thrown into a centrifuge and the oil and water removed or it is placed in large cylindrical vats and the oil and water allowed to drain out. The oil is then separated from the water by means of a siphon. The camphor and oil are marketed separately.
The annual yield of cuttings has varied from 2 to 5 tons per acre, which should give approximately 40 to 100 pounds of marketable camphor. At present the planting of small areas does not seem advisable, in view of the heavy outlay required for the machinery necessary to produce camphor gum at a profit. An area of less than 500 acres would probably not warrant the installation of the machinery necessary for the commercial production of camphor, and 1,000 acres or more will doubtless give a greater net return per acre. Although the crop is a low-priced one, under favorable conditions it is estimated that a fair return per acre may be expected, but the data so far accumulated are not sufficient to warrant specific statements concerning the profitableness of the industry.
Camphor oil, or the oil from which camphor has been removed, is used in Japan for illuminating purposes, and as a solvent for resins in the manufacture of lacquer. It is used in Europe for its safrol content, and may probably be utilized for the same purpose in this country. There exists already in the American market a demand for the Japanese oil at prices ranging from 11 to 14 cents per pound.
Camphor imports into the United States usually exceed 3,000,000 pounds annually; hence, it does not seem probable that there is any danger of overproduction in the Southern States. However, it is possible that at times camphor may be imported at a price so low as to render production in this country financially unprofitable.
The drug cannabis or Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa), consists of the dried flowering tops of the female plants. It grows well over a considerable portion of the United States, but the production of the active principle of this plant is believed to be favored by a warm climate. For drug purposes, therefore, this crop appears to be adapted to the Southern rather than to the Northern States.
Cannabis is propagated from seeds, which should be planted in the spring as soon as conditions are suitable, in well-prepared sandy of clayey loam at a depth of about an inch in rows 5 or 6 feet apart. The seeds may be dropped every two or three inches in the row or planted in hills about a foot apart in the row, 6 to 10 seeds being dropped into each hill. Two or three pounds of seed peracre should give a good stand. About half the seeds will produce male plants, which must be removed before their flowers mature; otherwise, the female plants will set seed, thereby diminishing their value as a drug. The male plants can be recognized with certainty only by the presence of stamens in their flowers.
Ordinary stable or barnyard manure plowed in deeply is better for use as a fertilizer than commercial preparations and may be safely applied at the rate of 20 tons per acre. However, good results may be obtained with commercial fertilizers, such as are used for truck crops and potatoes, when cultivated in between the rows at the rate of 500 or 600 pounds per acre.
When the female plants reach maturity, a sticky resin forms on the heavy, compact flower clusters, and harvesting may then be begun. The tops of the plants comprising the flower clusters are cut and carefully dried in the shade to preserve the green color as far as possible. Drying can best be done, especially in damp weather, by the use of artificial heat, not to exceed 140° F.
For several years cannabis of standard (U. S. P.) quality has been grown on a commercial scale in this country, chiefly in South Carolina and Virginia. After the flowering tops are harvested they are thoroughly dried under cover, then worked over by hand, and all the stems and large foliage leaves removed. This process gives a drug of high quality but greatly reduces the net or marketable yield per acre, which usually ranges from 350 to 400 pounds. Some growers do not remove the stems and leaves, thus increasing the acreage yield but reducing the market value of their product. The quality of cannabis can be determined only by special laboratory tests, which most dealers are not equipped to make; consequently, they are usually unwilling to pay growers as high prices as they would if the low-grade cannabis were kept off the market.
The market price in June, 1920, for tested (U. S. P.) domestic cannabis was 30 to 35 cents; for nontested, 20 to 25 cents a pound.
Caraway (Carum carvi) is a European biennial herb of the parsley family. It grows and fruits well over a considerable portion of the United States, especially in the North and Northwest, but its cultivation in this country seems never to have assumed commercial proportions. The seeds are used medicinally, but are mainly utilized for flavoring cakes, confectionery, and similar products. On distillation with steam, the seeds yield an aromatic oil, which is more used in medicine than the seed itself.
Soil of a somewhat clayey nature and containing a fair proportion of humus and available plant food is particularly suited to caraway, but the plant generally grows well in any good upland soil which will produce fair crops of corn or potatoes. Seeds should be sown in early spring in drills about 16 inches apart, and from 6 to 8 pounds of seed are sown to the acre. Frequent shallow cultivation throughout both growing seasons is desirable in order to keep the soil mellow and free from weeds, as a weedy crop at harvest time usually means a product inferior in quality.
As soon as the oldest seeds ripen, which is usually in June of the second year, the crop should be harvested. The plants may be cut with a mower and should be left in the swath until they have lost most of their moisture, when they may be built up into small cocks, or they may be brought in from the field and the curing finished in a barn loft. If on handling in the field the seeds shatter extensively, the crop should be brought in in tight wagons. When drying is finished the seeds are thrashed out, cleaned, and stored in bags which contain about 100 pounds each.
Returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about 1,000 pounds of seed per acre may be expected. One hundred pounds of seed will usually yield 4 to 6 pounds of oil. The average annual importation of caraway seed for several years has been about 2,000,000 pounds, valued at about 9 cents a pound. The war reduced the annual importations of oil of caraway from 30,000 to 9,000 pounds and increased the value from 80 cents to about $4.25 a pound.
Cascara, or cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana), is a small tree 20 to 30 feet high, native to the Western part of the United States, and found most abundantly in a narrow belt along the Pacific slope from northern California to southern British Columbia. The bark from the trunk and branches is the source of the drug, for which there is a constant and steady demand.
Plantings which have been made in the Eastern States indicate that this tree may probably be grown along the Atlantic slope in the Piedmont or foothill belt from Pennsylvania to Georgia. The trees have been found to grow better in clay loam than in either sand or clay. Propagation from seed is easy, but the seeds should be planted in the fall soon after they ripen or stratified in sand until used, since germination is very poor if the seeds are allowed to become dry. The seeds are sown in a seed bed under shade in drills 8 inches apart and covered about 1 inch deep. The seedlings reach a height of 10 to 15 inches the first year, and in the following spring before the leaves appear they are set in the field 6 feet apart each way. It is advisable to cultivate frequently, in order to keep the weeds down and to maintain a shallow surface mulch.
If the trees are pruned properly, a crop of bark may be harvested each year without killing the whole tree, as is done in collecting the bark from wild trees. At the time of transplanting, the trees are cut back to a straight stem about a foot high, from which all except the four uppermost buds are removed. The branches which afterwards develop from these buds are later deprived of their lower side shoots, thus causing the tree to grow a head of four long, stout branches instead of a single straight trunk. When the trees are large enough to yield a crop of bark, the longest of the four branches is cut off early in the spring flush with the trunk and a new branch is allowed to grow in its place. This process may be repeated yearly, removing only the largest branches of each tree in any one season.
The bark on the cut-off branches is divided with a sharp knife into lengthwise strips of about an inch or two in width, which may be readily pulled off. It is then dried carefully at a low temperature in the shade and broken into small pieces to facilitate packing and handling.
The price paid to collectors for cascara bark, which before the war usually varied from 1 to 4 cents a pound, in June, 1920, was about 10 cents a pound. So long as a supply of the wild bark continues to be available it is doubtful whether cascara can be cultivated at a profit.
The castor-oil plant or Palma Christi (Ricinus communis) is a robust perennial in tropical countries which becomes an annual in regions subject to frost. The seeds of this plant, called "castor beans" or "mole beans," yield the castor oil of commerce. Between 1860 and 1900, the castor bean was an important crop in certain sections of Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois, but during recent years its culture has been practically abandoned in favor of crops which are easier to handle and more profitable.
For the commercial production of castor beans a warm climate and long growing season are necessary. If planted much farther north than St. Louis, Mo., or Washington, D. C, the crop is very likely to be caught by frost. In general, any fertile soil which produces good crops of cotton or corn is suitable for castor beans, but a very fertile soil favors the growth of the plant at the expense of seed production and early maturity. The land is prepared in much the same manner as for cotton or corn; that is, plowed, disked, and harrowed level before planting, which may be done by hand or with a corn planter with specially prepared plates. The seed should be planted early in the spring, as soon as the soil is warm but still moderately moist. The time of planting varies according to locality, but in general corresponds to that of cotton.
The seed is planted in hills at a depth of 1 to 2 inches. Toward the north, the rows are usually made 4 feet apart and the hills spaced 3 feet apart in the row. Farther south the rows should usually be made about 6 to 8 feet apart. On very light land the hills may be 4 feet apart in the row; on heavier land, 6 to 8 feet apart. As a general rule three seeds are planted to the hill, and not less than two should be planted. One bushel of medium-sized seed should plant from 5 to 6 acres. When the plants are from 4 to 6 inches tall, the weaker ones should be removed, leaving one plant in a hill.
The crop is cultivated similar to corn until the plants are large enough to shade the ground. In case the field becomes foul with weeds and grass, some hoeing may be necessary, but practically all the cultivation required can be done with a horse-drawn weeder. Some varieties in which the beans pop out when the hull is fully ripe are known locally as "poppers," and after the beans begin to ripen, the field must be gone over every few days and the ripe beans collected in order to avoid loss. Other varieties tend to retain the beans in the hull after they are ripe. The climate affects the popping of the beans, and a variety which shatters badly in one region may shatter very little when grown in another.
In harvesting, a common method is to cut off the spikes with a knife and collect them in large sacks. They are then hauled to a shelter of some kind and allowed to dry until the pods will crush easily. Various methods are used in thrashing castor beans. If the variety grown is one which "pops" or drops its seeds when they are ripe, the spikes are sometimes piled on a hard ground or plank floor fully exposed to the sun and furnished with sides of boards or cloth 6 to 8 feet high to catch the beans as they pop out. In some varieties mere drying does not cause the pods to open, and specially constructed machines have been used to remove the beans from the pods. After the beans have been thrashed or popped out, a fanning mill is used to separate the hulls, chaff, and dirt from the beans, which are then sacked and stored for market.
The yield varies greatly and will depend much upon cultural conditions, the season, the variety grown, and the care exercised in harvesting and thrashing the seeds. In Oklahoma the average yield of the popping varieties is said to be 8 to 10 bushels per acre. Yields up to 25 bushels per acre have been reported for favorable conditions.
For some years prior to the war the farm price for castor beans was about $1 a bushel. Early in the war the increased demand for castor oil caused a sharp advance in the price of the beans, which has gradually declined. In June, 1920, the wholesale market quotation was about $3 a bushel. The normal market requirement in the United States for castor beans is about 1,000,000 bushels annually, but during the last year of the war nearly 3,000,000 bushels were imported.
In the United States castor beans are used in quantity only by manufacturers of castor oil. In general, the equipment and operation of a castor-oil mill resembles that of a cottonseed-oil mill or linseed-oil mill, but special and expensive equipment is necessary for the proper extraction of the oil from castor beans. The best grade of oil is obtained from the beans by hydraulic pressure. An additional quantity of oil of lower grade is obtained by treating the press cake with naphtha or some other volatile solvent. The pomace resulting from the second extraction is used as a fertilizer for tobacco, corn, and other crops, but because of a poisonous principle can not be used for cattle feeding unless specially treated.
Owing to the heavy outlay required for the necessary machinery and the high cost of manufacture on a small scale, it has not been found profitable for the growers of castor beans to undertake the extraction of the oil.
The castor-oil plant is not known to be poisonous, and although the leaves are not relished by farm animals they are said to be used as fodder for cattle in India. Castor beans, however, contain a poisonous principle, and though harmless when handled, may cause serious if not fatal effects when eaten, especially in the case of small children. Care should be taken to prevent these beans from being accidentally mixed with the grain fed to animals, since many cases have been reported in which the death of horses has been due to eating feed in which they have become mixed.
Catnip (Nepeta cataria) is a European perennial plant of the mint family, which frequently occurs in this country as a weed in gardens and about dwellings. It has long had a popular use as a domestic remedy. Both leaves and flowering tops find some demand in the crude-drug trade.
Catnip does well on almost any good soil, but thrives best on a well-drained and moderately rich garden loam. However, a more fragrant and attractive herb can be grown in sandy situations than in heavy soils. The plant may be propagated from seeds or by root division. The seed may be sown in rows either late in the fall or in early spring and covered lightly. Fall-sown seed usually gives a more even stand and a heavier growth of herb. When the plants have reached a height of 4 to 5 inches they should be thinned to stand from 12 to 16 inches apart in the rows. In some localities the field sowing of seed does not give good results, in which case plants may be started in a coldframe and later transplanted to the field. Shallow cultivation will favor a vigorous growth of the herb.
The flowering tops are harvested when the plants are in full bloom and are dried in the shade to preserve their green color. In case the herb is grown in large quantity, it may be cut with a mowing machine, the cutter bar of which should be set high. The plants should lie in the swath until partially dry, and the curing may then be finished either in small cocks in the field or in the barn, care being taken to preserve the natural green color as far as possible.
Returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about 2,000 pounds of dried flowering tops per acre may be expected under good conditions. The herb must be carefully sorted and all the large or coarse stems removed, after which it may be made up for the market in bales of 100 to 300 pounds each. Prewar prices to collectors ranged from 2 to 4 cents a pound. The prices in June, 1920, for the herb were 5 cents; for the leaves, 10 cents; and for the leaves and flowers, 14 cents a pound.
Conium, or poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), is a large, poisonous European biennial plant of the parsley family, naturalized in the Northeastern States and in California. The full-grown but unripe seeds (fruits) and the leaves are used medicinally.
Conium is easily grown, and has been found to thrive in both comparatively moist clay soil and in dry sandy loam. In rich, moist land it may easily become a troublesome weed. Conium grows readily from seed, which may be sown either in the fall or early in the spring in drills 2 or more feet apart. As soon as the seedlings can be distinguished in the row, cultivation similar to that given ordinary garden crops is begun. The plants usually blossom in the second year, and when the oldest seeds are full grown but still green in color the plants are harvested and the seed at once thrashed out and dried with the least possible exposure to the light. The small and undeveloped seed should be screened out and rejected and the good seed stored in containers that will exclude light and air. The leaves are collected when the plant is in flower, quickly dried in the sun, and stored in the same manner as the seed.
Estimated yields at the rate of 600 to 800 pounds of seed per acre have been obtained, but the yield is very uncertain, since the flowering plants are especially subject to the attacks of insects which destroy the crop of seed. The prewar prices as quoted in the wholesale drug markets ranged from 5 to 10 cents a pound for the seed and 5 to 6 cents for the leaves. The prices in June, 1920, for the seed were 35 to 36 cents, and for the leaves 25 to 26 cents a pound.
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is an Old World annual of the parsley family. For years the plant has been cultivated in gardens in the United States, and it is now reported as growing wild in many places. The aromatic seeds and the oil distilled from them have long been used medicinally. Both the seed and the oil are also used for flavoring confectionery and cordials and as a condiment in bread and cake.
Coriander grows well on almost any good soil, but thrives best on deep and fertile garden loam. The soil should be well prepared before planting, which should be done moderately early in the spring. For field cultivation the seed is sown in rows 3 feet apart, but if the cultivation is done by hand the distance between the rows may be reduced to 18 inches. The seed should be sown thickly in order to insure a good stand. When well up, the plants are thinned to stand 4 or 5 inches apart in the row. Cultivation should continue until the plants flower, which will be about two months from the time of planting.
When most of the seeds are ripe the plants are cut with a scythe or mower, preferably early in the morning while moist with dew, in order to avoid shattering the seed. The plants are partially cured in small cocks in the field, the drying being finished in a barn loft or under other suitable shelter, after which the seeds are thrashed out and cleaned.
The yield of seed is quite variable, but returns from experimental areas indicate that from 500 to 800 pounds per acre may be expected. Five hundred pounds of seed will usually yield from 1 to 5 pounds of oil, according to the localities where grown. The annual importation of coriander seed is about1,400,000 pounds. The prewar price of the seed was about 3 cents a pound; in June, 1920, 3 to 4 cents. The wholesale price of the oil of coriander, which was $5 to $7 a pound before the war, in June, 1920, ranged from $42 to $45 a pound.
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) is a well-known and troublesome perennial weed, occurring abundantly almost everywhere in this country except in the Southern States. It is frequently cultivated in market gardens for the leaves, which are used for greens or salads, but the root alone is used in medicine.
This plant will grow well in any good soil and has been successfully cultivated in the South, but in the colder parts of the country it may require slight mulching during the winter if the roots tend to heave out of the soil. The seeds, which are sown in the spring, are drilled in rows 18 inches apart and covered one-half inch deep. About 3 pounds of seeds should sow an acre. The seedlings are thinned to stand a foot apart in the row, and the crop should be well cultivated and kept free from weeds.
The roots are dug in the fall of the second season after planting the seed. They should be washed and may be dried whole, or, to facilitate handling and drying, they may be cut into pierces 3 to 6 inches long and the larger, portions sliced. Under favorable conditions, yields at the rate of 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of dry roots per acre have been obtained from second-year plants. The prices usually offered collectors for the dry root before the war ranged from 4 to 10 cents a pound. The price in June, 1920, was about 16 cents. The quantity annually imported into this country varies from year to year, but averages about 40 tons.
A serious disadvantage attending the cultivation of this crop is the danger of seeding adjacent land with a very undesirable weed.
Digitalis, or foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), is a fairly hardy European perennial, which has long been grown in flower gardens in this country as an ornamental plant. The leaves are used in medicine, those from plants of the second year's growth being required for the official drug.
Digitalis thrives in ordinary well-drained garden soils of open texture and reasonable fertility. Sowing the seed directly in the field occasionally gives good results, but is so often unsuccessful that it can not be recommended. The seeds are exceedingly small and do not germinate well except under the most favorable conditions. They should be mixed with sand, to insure even distribution in seeding, and sown as early as February in seed pans or flats in the greenhouses or in well-protected frames. When danger of frost is past the plants should be hardened off and transplanted to the field, where they may be set about a foot apart in rows spaced conveniently for cultivation.
The plants do not flower until the second year, and it is necessary to cultivate them frequently during the growing seasons of both the first and second year. In localities where the cold weather is severe it may be desirable to protect the plants during the first winter with a light mulch of straw or coarse farmyard manure.
The plants usually flower in June of the second year, and the leaves may then be collected. They are carefully dried in the shade and should be stored in such a manner that they will not be exposed to light and moisture. The results of experiments indicate that yields of 450 to 600 pounds of dry leaves per acre may be obtained under favorable conditions. In considering digitalisculture it should be borne in mind that the crop occupies the soil for the greater part of two seasons and demands even closer attention than many truck or garden crops.
In 1919 small areas of cultivated digitalis, ranging from one-half to 1 acre in extent, were harvested in Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Washington, California, and some other States. Several tons of digitalis leaves were also collected from plants of wild growth in the general region of the Coast Range of mountains on the Pacific coast. Digitalis is of great medicinal importance, but on account of its potency is administered in very small quantities; consequently, a few thousand pounds is sufficient to meet the annual market requirements. Before the war the price for digitalis leaves averaged about 15 cents a pound; in June, 1920, it was about 35 cents a pound.
Dill (Anethum graveolens) is an Old World annual or biennial herb of the parsley family. Although it is a native of southern Europe, it is hardy plant and may be grown in a much cooler climate if given a warm situation and a well-drained soil. The leaves are used for seasoning, and the seeds (fruits), which are greatly valued for flavoring pickles, are used as a condiment and occasionally in medicine. A volatile oil distilled from the seeds is used chiefly for perfuming soap.
Dill is preferably grown as an annual plant, in which case the seed should be sown about one-half inch deep very early in the spring in drills a foot apart. A half ounce of seed is sufficient to sow 150 feet of drill, and at this rate a pound should sow an acre. When sown in the field the rows may be 15 to 18 inches apart, and the seedlings should be thinned to stand about a foot apart in the row. The most favorable soil is a well-prepared loam, but the plants grow well in any good garden soil. Frequent cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential for good results.
Early in the fall, as soon as some of the older seeds are ripe, the plants are mowed and built up; into small cocks in the field, or, if sufficiently dry, the seeds may be thrashed out at once. In very dry weather it is preferable to mow the plants early in the morning while they are moist with dew, in order to avoid shattering the seed. In case the seed is very ripe, it is well to cut the plants high and to place the tops directly on large canvas sheets, in which they may be brought from the field. After thrashing, the seeds should be spread out in a thin layer and turned frequently until thoroughly dry, since they tend to become musty if closely stored before all the moisture has been removed.
The yield of dill seed is quite variable and is much influenced by climatic conditions. From 500 to 700 pounds of seed per acre is considered a good yield. The wholesale price in June, 1920, ranged from 8 to 11 cents a pound.
Echinacea (Brauneria angustifolia,fig. 6) is a native perennial plant of the aster family found on the prairies of the Middle West, occurring most abundantly in Nebraska and Kansas. The roots of the plant are used medicinally.
This plant has been found to do well under, cultivation in moderately rich and well-drained loam. It grows fairly well from seeds, which may be collected when ripe and kept dry until ready for use. Plants should be started in a well-prepared seed bed by sowing the seeds thinly in drills about 8 inches apart.The plants develop slowly and may be left in the seed bed for two years and then transplanted to the field in the spring and set about 18 inches apart In rows. Thorough cultivation is essential for the best results. The roots do not reach a marketable size under three or four years from the time of sowing the seed. They are harvested in the fall, freed from any adhering soil, and dried either in the open air or by means of low artificial heat.
Echinacea has not been cultivated on a scale large enough to give satisfactory data on the probable yield. The prewar wholesale price ranged from 22 to 60 cents a pound; in June, 1920, it was 60 to 65 cents a pound.
Fig. 6.—Echinacea (Brauneria angustifolia).
Fig. 6.—Echinacea (Brauneria angustifolia).
Elecampane (Inula helenium) Is a European perennial plant of the aster family, now growing wild along roadsides and in fields throughout the northeastern part of the United States. The root is used in medicine.
Elecampane will grow in almost any soil, but thrives best in deep clay loam well supplied with moisture. The ground on which this plant is to be grown should be deeply plowed and thoroughly prepared before planting. It is preferable to use divisions of old roots for propagation, and these should be set in the fall about 18 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. Plants may also be grown from seeds, which may be sown in the spring in seeds beds and the seedlings transplanted later to the field and set in the same manner as the root divisions. Plants grown from seed do not flower the first year. Cultivation should be sufficient to keep the soil in good condition and free from weeds.
The roots are dug in the fall of the second year, thoroughly cleaned, sliced, and dried in the shade. The available data on yield indicate that a ton or more of dry root per acre may be expected. The price to producers usually ranges from 3 to 6 cents a pound. Upward of 50,000 pounds of elecampane root were annually imported into this country prior to the war.
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is an Old World perennial plant of the parsley family, occasionally cultivated as a garden herb in the United States. The aromatic seeds (fruits) are used in medicine and for flavoring. The oil distilled from the seeds is used in perfumery and for scenting soaps.
Fennel grows wild in mild climates in almost any good soil and thrives in rich, well-drained loams containing lime. It is propagated from seeds, which may be sown in the open as soon as the ground is ready for planting in the spring. The seed is sown thickly In drills 2 to 3 feet apart and covered lightly. From 4 to 5 pounds of seed should sow an acre. When well established the plants may be thinned to stand 12 to 15 inches apart in the row. Plants may also be started in a seed bed from seed sown either in drills 6 inches apart orbroadcast. When the seedlings are three or four inches high they are transplanted to the field and set 12 to 15 inches apart in rows. The cultivation is the same as for ordinary garden crops.
Frequently, very little seed is formed the first year, but full crops may be expected for one or two succeeding years. The seed is gathered in the fall before it is fully ripe and may be harvested like anise or coriander. A yield of 600 to 800 pounds of seed, per acre may be expected. During recent years about 275,000 pounds of seed have been imported annually. Owing to the war, prices for the seed and oil have about doubled. The prices in June, 1920, for the seed were 11 to 12 cents a pound; for the oil, $2.75 to $3 a pound.
The common or yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea) is the only species recognized in American medicine, although the roots of several other species are found in the drug trade. The plant grows wild in the mountains of central and southern Europe, but it has proved very poorly adapted for cultivation in situations beyond its natural range. For its best development under cultivation, partial shade, similar to that required by ginseng and goldenseal, seems necessary. The plants are said to flower when about 6 years old; hence, several years must elapse after sowing the seed before the roots reach a marketable size. Apparently there have been no attempts to cultivate gentian commercially in this country. The prewar wholesale price of imported gentian root ranged from 4½ to 8 cents a pound. The price in June. 1920, was 12 to 13 cents a pound.
Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) is a fleshy-rooted herbaceous plant native to this country and formerly of frequent occurrence in shady, well-drained situations in hardwood forests from Maine to Minnesota and southward to the mountains of Georgia and the Carolinas. It has long been valued by the Chinese for medicinal use, though rarely credited with curative properties by natives of other countries. When placed under cultural conditions, ginseng should be shielded from direct sunlight by the shade of trees or by lath sheds. The soil should be fairly light and well fertilized with woods earth, rotted leaves, or fine raw bone meal, the latter applied at the rate of 1 pound to each square yard. Seed should be planted in the spring as early as the soil can be worked to advantage, placed 6 inches apart each way in the permanent beds or 2 by 6 inches in seed beds, and the seedlings transplanted to stand 6 to 8 inches apart when 2 years old. Only cracked or partially germinated seed should be used.
Ginseng needs little cultivation, but the beds should at all times be kept free from weeds and grass and the surface of the soil slightly stirred whenever it shows signs of caking. A winter mulch over the crowns is usually essential, but it should not be applied until freezing weather is imminent and should be removed in the spring before the first shoots come through the soil.
The roots do not reach marketable size until about the fifth or sixth year from seed. When dug they should be carefully washed or shaken free from all adhering soil, but not scraped. Curing is best; effected in a well-ventilated room heated to about 90° F. Nearly a month is required to properly cure the larger roots, and great care must be taken in order to prevent molding or souring. Overheating must also be avoided. When well cured the roots should be storedin a dry, airy place until ready for sale. A market may be found with the wholesale drug dealers, some of whom make a specialty of buying ginseng root for export.
The price of cultivated ginseng roots, as quoted in wholesale drug lists, ranges from $1.50 to $8 a pound, according to quality and freedom from disease.
Further details respecting the culture of ginseng are given in a Farmers' Bulletin now in press, entitled "Ginseng Culture," and in Farmers' Bulletin 736, entitled "Ginseng Diseases and Their Control."
Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is a native perennial, formerly quite abundant in open woodlands having ample shade, natural drainage, and an abundance of leaf mold. Its range is from southern New York and Ontario west to Minnesota and south to Georgia and Kentucky.
When grown under cultivation the soil should be well fertilized, preferably by decaying vegetable matter, such as woods soil and rotting forest leaves, which should be well worked in to a depth of 10 inches or more. Raw bone meal and cottonseed meal are also favorable in their action. Seed may be sown in October in a well-prepared seed bed. It may be scattered broadcast or dropped one-half inch apart and covered with fine leaf mold to the depth of 1 inch. During the winter the seed bed should be protected with burlap or fertilizer sacks, and should also be guarded against encroachment of moles or mice. Plants may be set 6 to 8 inches apart each way and the rootstocks covered to a depth of about 2 inches. For satisfactory growth goldenseal requires about 75 per cent of shade during the summer, which should be provided by a lath shade or by cloth, brush, or vines. The soil should be kept free from weeds and the plants liberally watered throughout the growing season, but good drainage is necessary, since goldenseal does not thrive in boggy ground.
Under favorable conditions goldenseal reaches its best development in about, five years from seed, or, in a year or two less when grown from root buds or by divisions of the rootstocks. The root is dug in the autumn after the tops have withered. They are washed clean of all soil, sticks, etc., and dried on lath screens in an airy place in mild sunlight or partial shade, or indoors on a clean, dry floor. When dried in the open they should be protected from rain and dew. The cured root is kept in loose masses until marketed, since close packing may cause attacks of mold. The dried leaves and stems of goldenseal, commonly known as "seal herb," are also a marketable product.
The prices in June, 1920, ranged from $5 to $6 a pound for the roots and from 40 to 70 cents a pound for the herb.
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) is a poisonous annual or biennial herb of the nightshade family, introduced into this country from Europe and occasionally found as a weed in a number of the Northern States. The leaves, flowering tops, and sometimes the seeds are used medicinally.
Henbane is propagated from seeds, but when these are sown in the open field germination is uncertain, and a very poor stand or total failure is a frequent result. Germination is usually much more certain when the seeds are sown under glass, but the plants do not readily stand transplanting and often die after they are set in the open. Very good results have been secured by sowing the seed in small pots under glass in January, transferring the seedlings to 3-inch pots in March, and transplanting in May to the field, where the plants may be set at least 15 inches apart in rows. In handling the plants care shouldbe taken to disturb the soil about the roots as little as possible. The soil requirements and method of cultivation are practically the same as for belladonna.
The leaves of henbane usually suffer severely from attacks of the potato beetle, especially during the first year, and the crop is very likely to be destroyed if grown within the range of this insect.
Ordinarily the plants blossom about August of the second year and die after ripening their seed, but individual plants started early frequently bloom and set seed the first year. The leaves and flowing tops are collected when the plants are in full bloom and are carefully dried in the shade.
The American crop of henbane has never much exceeded 10 acres. The yield under favorable conditions is estimated at about 6,000 pounds per acre. The wholesale price in June, 1920, was 35 to 38 cents a pound.
Horehound (Marrubium vulgare) is a hardy perennial herb of the mint family, which occurs as a common weed in many places in the United States, especially on the Pacific coast, where it threatens to become a pest. The leaves and flowering tops find some demand as a crude drug. Their greatest use, however, is in the manufacture of candy, although they are sometimes employed for seasoning.
Horehound grows well in almost any soil and thrives in light, dry soils lacking in fertility. It grows readily from seeds, which are usually sown in drills early in the spring and covered with about an inch of soil. Plants may also be started in coldframes, either from seed or cuttings, and later transplanted to the field. Propagation may also be effected by division of old plants. Plants may stand 6, 12, or 18 inches apart in the row; those which stand close together will have small stems, and hence will yield a crop of finer quality.
The plants are harvested just before flowering and should be cured in the shade in order to preserve the green color. If the stems are small, the plants may be cut close to the ground with a scythe, or with a mower if the area is large. In case the plants are tall and large they must be cut some distance above the ground and all coarse stems removed to make the herb suitable for marketing.
Yields at the rate of 2,000 pounds of dry herb per acre have been obtained. The prewar wholesale prices for the herb ranged from 5 to 8 cents a pound. The price in June, 1920, was 15 to 16 cents. The annual importation of horehound varies from year to year, sometimes reaching 60 to 70 tons.
Insect flowers, from which pyrethrum or insect powder is prepared, are produced by several species of plants of the aster family which occur wild in the eastern Mediterranean region, where they are also cultivated.
The species here considered (Chrysanthemum[Pyrethrum]cinerariaefolium) has been cultivated commercially in California for the production of insect powder. This species seems to thrive best in warm situations and should grow well in any good soil which is well drained and not too heavy. The seeds may be sown directly in the field, either early in the spring or in the fall, but it is preferable to start the plants in coldframes or well-prepared seed beds and transplant them to the field. The seed is mixed with sand and sown broadcast on the surface of the bed and lightly covered with a rake. Water should be used sparingly on the seed bed, since the young seedlings and even matureplants are easily killed by a wet soil. When the seedlings are about a month old they are transplanted, during damp weather if possible, and set 8 to 12 inches apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. Old plants may also be divided and used for propagation. The plants should be well cultivated during the growing season and will yield flowers for several years if they are well cared for. The fertility of the soil is maintained by the application of fertilizers.
The time of harvesting varies from June to September, according to locality. The flower heads are gathered just as they open and may be collected by hand or by means of a flower picker. They are dried, preferably in the shade, on canvas sheets about 15 feet square, on which they are spread in a thin layer and turned two or three times a day until dry.
The average yield of dried flowers appears to be about 450 pounds per acre. The wholesale price for these flowers in June, 1920, was 85 to 90 cents a pound, which is from three to four times the prewar price.
The larkspur of the crude-drug trade is an annual plant (Delphinium consolida), native of southern Europe, which has long been cultivated in this country as an ornamental and is now occasionally found growing wild. Another species of larkspur (Delphinium urceolatum) is native to this country and is said to have properties very similar to those of the European species. Larkspur seed is now used chiefly in remedies for external parasites.
These larkspurs thrive best in a rich sandy or gravelly soil. In heavy soils they are likely to suffer from root-rot, which materially reduces the yield. A rather dry climate is suitable for plants of this character. They do not bear transplanting well and seeds should be sown in the fall or very early in the spring where the plants are to stand. The soil should be well fined and the seed thinly sown in drills spaced according to the method of cultivation to be used. When up, the plants should be thinned to stand 8 inches or more apart in the rows. The necessary cultivation consists in keeping the soil between the rows and about the plants mellow and free from weeds during the growing season.
When the seed capsules are fairly ripe, the seed is harvested by collecting the tops, which should be cut before the seed capsules have become so brittle as to risk the loss of seed by shattering and which can be handled best in the early morning while damp and pliable. They should be cured in a well-ventilated place, sheltered from rain, and when thoroughly dry may be thrashed out and cleaned.
The wholesale price now quoted for larkspur seed is between 32 and 35 cents a pound.
The seed of a European species of larkspur (Delphinium staphisagria), commonly-called stavesacre, possesses medicinal properties and is recognized as an official drug. The wholesale price for stavesacre seed in June, 1920, was about 30 cents a pound.
The true lavender (Lavandula vera) is a small shrubby plant of the mint family, native to southern Europe, and widely cultivated for its fragrant flowers and for the oil distilled from the fresh flowering tops.
Lavender thrives best in light and rather dry soils well supplied with lime, but may be grown in almost any well-drained loam. On low or wet land it is almost certain to winterkill. The plant is not easily grown from seed, but may be readily propagated from cuttings or by division. In cold climates the plantsmust be well protected during the winter, or they may be carried over in a greenhouse or coldframe. Early in the spring the plants or rooted cuttings are set in well-prepared soil, 12 to 15 inches apart in rows spaced to suit the cultivation intended. Frequent and thorough cultivation is desirable.
Not many blooms can be cut the first year, but full crops may be expected for each of the three following years, after which it will be best to start new plantings. The flowering tops are harvested when they are in full bloom, and if used for the production of oil are distilled at once without drying. If the dry flowers are wanted, the tops are carefully dried in the shade and the flowers later stripped from the stems by hand.
On ordinary soil, yields of 600 to 1,200 pounds per acre of fresh flowering tops have been obtained. The dry weight is about four-fifths of the green weight. The yield of oil varies widely, but from 12 to 15 pounds per acre may be expected under good conditions. The wholesale prices in June, 1920, were about as follows: For "ordinary" flowers, from 18 to 24 cents a pound; for "select" flowers, from 30 to 35 cents a pound; for oil of lavender flowers, $11 to $12 a pound.
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is an Old World plant, the culture of which has not succeeded commercially in this country, although the plant grows well in the arid Southwest and in California, where in some localities it threatens to become a weed. Licorice is used to some extent in medicine, and is said to be much in demand by manufacturers of tobacco.
Licorice is a fairly hardy plant, but it thrives best in warm regions, where the season is sufficiently long to promote strong growth. Plants may be grown from seed, but propagation by means of cuttings made from the younger parts of the Rhizome, or so-called root, usually gives best results. The cuttings are set perpendicularly in deep, moist, sandy, or loamy soil, and should stand about 18 inches apart in rows so spaced as to allow for the cultivation necessary to keep the soil mellow and free from weeds.
The yield under good culture is said to average about 5,000 pounds of dry root per acre at the end of every third year. The relatively low price at which, the imported root can usually be obtained has so far prevented the development of commercial licorice growing in this country. Nearly 100,000,000 pounds of licorice root and an average of about 600,000 pounds of licorice paste are annually imported into the United States when trade conditions are normal.
Prewar prices for the imported root usually ranged from 4 to 5½ cents a pound in bales. The price in June, 1920, was 13 to 14 cents.
Lobelia (Lobelia inflata) is a native poisonous annual plant, occurring generally in open woods and pastures, but is most abundant in the States east of the Mississippi River. The leaves, tops, and seeds are used medicinally.
This plant thrives under cultivation in a rather rich, moist loam, and grows well either in the open or in partial shade. It grows readily from seeds, which are very small and must be sown on soil which has been well fined and exceptionally well prepared. The seeds are sown either in the fall or spring in rows 2 feet apart. It is best not to cover the seeds but to sow them on the surface of the soil, which is then firmed with a float or by resting a board over the row and walking upon it. Fall planting usually gives a better stand and a heavier crop. Shallow cultivation should be given until the plants begin to flower.
Lobelia is harvested when in full flower or as soon as some of the older seed pods are full grown. The plants may be cut with a mower if the cutter bar is set high enough to avoid including the large stems. The herb should be dried in the shade, in order to preserve the green color.
Small areas have given yields at the rate of 1,000 pounds of dry herb per acre. The prewar price paid to collectors for the dried herb was about 3 cents a pound. The prices in June, 1920, were, for the herb, 20 cents; for the seed, 75 cents a pound.