CHAPTER IV

"O love, they die in yon rich sky,They faint on hill, or field, or river;Our echoes roll from soul to soulAnd grow forever and forever."

Exercise 36.—Rewrite the following sentences, putting in the quotation marks. Make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself.

1. The mother turned her head as Alice entered, and said, Who is it? Is it you, Alice? Yes, it is I, mother. Where have you been so long? I have been nowhere, dear mother. I have come directly home from church. How long it seems to me! It is very late. It is growing quite dark. I was just going to call for the lights. Why, mother! exclaimed Alice, in a startled tone, what do you mean? The sun is shining directly into your face! Impossible, my dear Alice. It is quite dark. I cannot see you. Where are you? Alice leaned over her mother and kissed her. Both were silent,—both wept. They knew that the hour, so long looked forward to with dismay, had suddenly come. Mrs. Archer was blind!

2. Yonder comes Moses. As she spoke, Moses came in on foot, sweating under the deal box, which he had strapped round his shoulders like a peddler. Welcome, welcome, Moses; well, my boy, what have you brought us from the fair? I have brought you myself, cried Moses, with a sly look, and resting the box on the dresser. Ah, Moses, cried my wife, that we know, but where is the horse? I have sold him, cried Moses, for three pounds five shillings and twopence. Well done, my good boy, returned she. Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and twopence is no bad day's work. Come, let us have it, then. I have brought back no money, cried Moses again. I have laid it all out in a bargain, and here it is, pulling out a bundle from his breast; here they are, a gross of green spectacles, with silver rims and shagreen cases. A gross of green spectacles! repeated my wife in a faint voice. And you have parted with the colt, and bought us back nothing but a gross ofgreen paltry spectacles! Dear mother, cried the boy, why won't you listen to reason? They were a dead bargain, or I should not have bought them.

Exercise 37.—Change the followingindirectquotations todirectquotations:—

1. The fir tree wished it were tall enough to go to sea, and asked the stork to tell it what the sea looked like; but the stork replied that it would take too much time to explain.

2. The little boy asked his grandmother whether the swarm of white bees had a queen bee and she replied that they certainly had.

3. Rip asked in despair whether nobody there knew Rip Van Winkle, and some one answered that he stood leaning against a tree yonder. Rip looked, and beheld a precise counterpart of himself as he went up the mountain. The poor fellow was now completely confounded and wondered whether he was himself or another man. In the midst of his bewilderment, the man in the cocked hat demanded who he was and what was his name. Rip replied that he was not himself but somebody else, and that he could not tell who he was.

Exercise 38.—Write from dictation.

1. A little daughter of a clergyman was not feeling well, and had to be put to bed early.

"Mother," she said, "I want to see my dear father."

"No, dear," said her mother, "father is not to be disturbed just now."

Presently came the pleading voice, "I want to see my father."

"No, dear," was the answer, "I cannot disturb him."

Then the four-year-old parishioner rose to the question of privilege.

"Mother," said she, "I am sick woman, and I want to see my minister."

2. One night my friend put up at a small country hotel. The next morning, at breakfast, the landlord said to him, "Did you enjoy the cornet playing in the room next to yours last night?"

"Enjoy it!" my friend replied, "I should think not. Why, I spent half the night pounding on the wall to make the man stop."

"It must have been a misunderstanding," said the landlord. "The cornet player told me that the person in the next room applauded him so heartily that he went over every piece he knew three times."

16. How We Learn Words.—We have now for some time been studying about combinations of words, but we have said very little about words themselves. This was the proper course to follow, for in our native language we need to be told about combinations of words more than about words themselves; about these we cannot help finding out much by ourselves. Indeed, it is life that teaches us words,—life and association with our fellows. We could scarcely avoid learning rapidly the names which the people who speak our language have given to the multitude of actual things which we see and touch, and the common words which are customary to express our feelings and thoughts with regard to these objects. As we grow older and wiser, and particularly if we associate with persons of intelligence and information, and read widely in books of all sorts, we become rapidly acquainted also with a great mass of words that have grown up to express the most abstract thoughts and the most delicate shades of feeling.

Life, then, and association with our fellows, and reading will bring to our knowledge, in due course of time, all the words we shall ever need to use. There are a few hints to be given, however, which will be of service to you in this process of learning the customary wordswhich the people of our race and nation use to express their thoughts and feelings.

17. The Size and Character of the English Vocabulary.—We use the wordvocabularyto express the total number of words used by a person or group of persons. The English vocabulary, then, is the total number of words used by the people who write and speak English. There are more than three hundred thousand such words collected in our dictionaries, and the number is being added to every year. No single person would be acquainted with all these words, for many of them have been used only rarely, or only among little groups of people, or in connection with sciences not understood by the people at large. The number of words that an intelligent and educated person would understand when he saw or heard them is not often more than sixty thousand; the number of words that such a person would himself use is very much less—probably not, as a rule, more than twenty thousand.

A great many of our words come from the Latin language, and you will be greatly aided in your study of English words if you can learn something of that language.

18. Increasing One's Vocabulary.—It is clear, then, that you will greatly increase your vocabulary as you grow older and wiser. It is also true, in general, that as your vocabulary grows you will grow, to some extent, in knowledge of the world. It will be worth while for you, therefore, to get into the habit of learning new words. This could, of course, be done by reading thedictionary (and the dictionary is by no means an uninteresting volume to pick up from time to time), but the more natural way is to reach this result by cultivating the habit ofattentionto words. You might begin the habit by noticing accurately the names of things you see or handle,—of tools and implements, birds, animals, and flowers; the names of different colors and shades; the names applied to persons to describe their duties and occupations.

Exercise 39.—Write as many words as possible that name:—

1. Various trades and professions. 2. Vehicles used on land. 3. Boats (from a man-of-war to a flatboat). 4. Buildings—(a) churches, (b) public buildings, (c) educational buildings, (d) buildings used for amusements. 5. Parts of a bicycle. 6. Tools. 7. Birds. 8. Flowers. 9. Colors. 10. Musical instruments.

Exercise 40.—After each of the following nouns place a verb that describes the sound made by the animal mentioned.

Sheep, owls, sparrows, goats, oxen, frogs, hens, bears, horses, robins, roosters, doves, lions, parrots, ravens, monkeys, elephants, snakes.

Exercise 41.—Notice the following words which might be used in describing some one's appearance:—

Eyes: bright, dull, sparkling, clear, heavy, close-set, shifting, narrow, honest, gentle, penetrating, keen, kindly, expressive, lovely, hard.

Forehead: noble, high, receding, low, broad, narrow, well-shaped.

Figure: muscular, wiry, broad-shouldered, well-proportioned, slender, thick-set, stout, short, tall.

1. Make a similar list to describe a person's disposition, ability, conversation.

2. Make a list of the descriptive words used by Longfellow inThe Village Blacksmith.

Exercise 42.—Find as many descriptions of winter as you can. Make lists of words used by the authors in describing it. Make lists of words that you might use in describing the following:a picnic;Christmas night;the weather;the character of Washington;an old house;a shell;a feather;a sunset;Mount Washington;a lily-of-the valley;your favorite walk.Exercise 43.—The same scene may look very different to you at different times,—for instance, a piece of woods which you visit in company with some merry boys and girls in search of spring flowers, and the same woods in which you wander alone, having lost your way.Select from the following list adjectives which you might use in writing the first description; the second.Things described: path, leaves on the ground, birds, squirrels, trees, brook.Descriptive words: lonely, crisp, solitary, chattering, moaning, merry, mournful, timid, scolding, shady, romantic, charming, singing, sweet-voiced, warning, sobbing, dismal, gloomy.Exercise 44.—Compare the following: 1. New York Harbor seen by a citizen of New York who is returning home after a long absence in some foreign country. 2. The same viewed by a homesick Norwegian girl who has left all her friends in Norway.Select some of your descriptive words from the following, adding as many others as you feel that you need:inhospitable,gloomy,cold,hard,welcome,joyous,sad,bright,glorious,fearful,lonely,pathetic,homesick.Exercise 45.—1. The village bell is ringing. Describe the way it sounds to you on the following occasions:—Calling to church service on a clear, sunny Sabbath morning; tolling for the death of a dear friend; ringing in celebration of a victory (suppose that we are at war with another country); ringing to celebrate a wedding; ringing "the old year out, and the new year in." [ReadThe Bells, by Edgar Allan Poe, before writing.]2. Write a paragraph telling how you felt when you heard that you were to have some unexpected pleasure.3. Imagine yourself living on the morning of April 15, 1865. Describe your feelings on learning of the death of Lincoln.

Exercise 43.—The same scene may look very different to you at different times,—for instance, a piece of woods which you visit in company with some merry boys and girls in search of spring flowers, and the same woods in which you wander alone, having lost your way.

Select from the following list adjectives which you might use in writing the first description; the second.

Things described: path, leaves on the ground, birds, squirrels, trees, brook.

Descriptive words: lonely, crisp, solitary, chattering, moaning, merry, mournful, timid, scolding, shady, romantic, charming, singing, sweet-voiced, warning, sobbing, dismal, gloomy.

Exercise 44.—Compare the following: 1. New York Harbor seen by a citizen of New York who is returning home after a long absence in some foreign country. 2. The same viewed by a homesick Norwegian girl who has left all her friends in Norway.

Select some of your descriptive words from the following, adding as many others as you feel that you need:inhospitable,gloomy,cold,hard,welcome,joyous,sad,bright,glorious,fearful,lonely,pathetic,homesick.

Exercise 45.—1. The village bell is ringing. Describe the way it sounds to you on the following occasions:—

Calling to church service on a clear, sunny Sabbath morning; tolling for the death of a dear friend; ringing in celebration of a victory (suppose that we are at war with another country); ringing to celebrate a wedding; ringing "the old year out, and the new year in." [ReadThe Bells, by Edgar Allan Poe, before writing.]

2. Write a paragraph telling how you felt when you heard that you were to have some unexpected pleasure.

3. Imagine yourself living on the morning of April 15, 1865. Describe your feelings on learning of the death of Lincoln.

19. Synonyms.—Synonyms are words which have the same or nearly the same meaning.

Examples: Liberal, generous; face, countenance.

A knowledge of synonyms will be valuable to you in several ways. First, it will enable you to avoid the too frequent repetition of a word. By using synonyms, then, you add variety to your writing.

"When thewalkis over there is abundance to think about; and theramblereviewed at night before the andirons is a repetition of the day's enjoyment."If you will substitutewalkforramblein the preceding sentence, you will see how much the sentence loses by not using the synonym.Exercise 46.—In each of the following fill each blank with an appropriate synonym of the italicized word in the same sentence:—

"When thewalkis over there is abundance to think about; and theramblereviewed at night before the andirons is a repetition of the day's enjoyment."

If you will substitutewalkforramblein the preceding sentence, you will see how much the sentence loses by not using the synonym.

Exercise 46.—In each of the following fill each blank with an appropriate synonym of the italicized word in the same sentence:—

1. Be astir at ——, then, and receive the greeting of that lover of thedawn, the blackcap. 2. The —— thickened, so that now you waded through a condensation ofgloom. 3. The thrush filled every lone pathway with its sweetmusic, and I wondered that the world should hear so little of this woodside ——. 4. The soberingsilenceof the night was the subject of our conversation, when suddenly a sad, sweet song broke the ——. 5. In thecitythese conditions are not so well marked; but beyond the —— limits, nature still rules. 6. It was just the day for aramble, and I was off early for an all-day ——. 7. Thegaledied away, and he tried to go northward again; but again came the —— and swept him back into the waste. 8. And what became ofthe little ——, the poorboyin the pretty town of Marbach? 9. He comes up the stairs —— and opens the doornoiselessly. 10. When the first week hadpassed, the queen took little Eliza into the country, and but a short month had —— when the king had entirely forgotten his little daughter.

Exercise 47.—In the following use a synonym in place of one of the underlined words:—

1. He has manywealthyfriends, although he is not awealthyman himself. 2. At his first glimpse of thecountenance, Ernest did fancy that there was a resemblance between it and the familiarcountenanceupon the mountain side. 3. Celia considered that it would be unsafe for two youngmaidsof rank to travel in their rich clothes; she therefore proposed that they should dress like countrymaids. 4. When the servant of the house of Montague met the servant of the house of Capulet, aquarrelensued; and frequent were thequarrelsfrom such accidental meetings. 5. Portia dressed herself and Nerissa in men'sapparel, and putting on theapparelof a counselor, she took Nerissa with her as clerk and set out for Venice. 6. Portia nowdesiredShylock to let her see the bond; and when she had read it shedesiredhim to be merciful. 7. The importance of the arduoustaskPortia had engaged in gave her courage, and she boldly proceeded to perform thetaskshe had undertaken. 8. Theladyexpressed great sorrow at hearing this, and said she wished to see the father of Helena, a youngladywho was present. 9. The mourners sat insilence, with only a smothered sob now and then to break thesilence. 10. She tried tocomfortthe sorrowful girl, but could think of nothing that wouldcomforther.

Exercise 48.—1. Give one or more synonyms for each of the following words. Consult your dictionary.Dawn, neglect, perform, astonish, collect, bestow, appeal,destroy, attend, grieve, joy, brilliance, gloomy, happy, gentle, calm, excitable, fond, sweet, simple, just, honorable, gloaming, bewilder.2. Rearrange the following list, putting together all words that are synonyms:—Crime, smite, maid, fault, fervent, labor, reverence, ardent, instantly, respect, fraternal, quickly, work, glowing, entreat, toil, honor, brotherly, beg, venerate, beseech, gloaming, waste, importune, twilight, squander, glitter, shine, glisten, sparkle, offense, girl, strike, lass, sincere, faithful, transgression, true, desire, wish.

Exercise 48.—1. Give one or more synonyms for each of the following words. Consult your dictionary.

Dawn, neglect, perform, astonish, collect, bestow, appeal,destroy, attend, grieve, joy, brilliance, gloomy, happy, gentle, calm, excitable, fond, sweet, simple, just, honorable, gloaming, bewilder.

2. Rearrange the following list, putting together all words that are synonyms:—

Crime, smite, maid, fault, fervent, labor, reverence, ardent, instantly, respect, fraternal, quickly, work, glowing, entreat, toil, honor, brotherly, beg, venerate, beseech, gloaming, waste, importune, twilight, squander, glitter, shine, glisten, sparkle, offense, girl, strike, lass, sincere, faithful, transgression, true, desire, wish.

A knowledge of synonyms, then, is valuable, since it enriches your vocabulary and enables you to give variety to your writing. There is still another way in which this knowledge may be useful to you, There is generally some slight difference in meaning, even in words classed as synonyms, and a wise choice will enable you to express your thought with more exactness.

Example. "I franticallybeggeda knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes."In the dictionary you will find the following synonyms forbeg, with an explanation of the different shades of meaning: ask, entreat, beseech, implore, supplicate."Oneaskswhat he feels he may fairly claim; hebegsfor that to which he advances no claim but pity;entreatimplies a special earnestness of asking, andbeseech, a still added and more humble intensity. Toimploreis to ask with weeping and lamentation; tosupplicateis to ask, as it were, on bended knees." (Standard Dictionary.)It would be better, then, to write,—"I franticallyimploreda knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes."Exercise 49.—Choose one of the synonyms given in each of the following sentences. Consult your dictionary to get the different shades of meaning.

Example. "I franticallybeggeda knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes."

In the dictionary you will find the following synonyms forbeg, with an explanation of the different shades of meaning: ask, entreat, beseech, implore, supplicate.

"Oneaskswhat he feels he may fairly claim; hebegsfor that to which he advances no claim but pity;entreatimplies a special earnestness of asking, andbeseech, a still added and more humble intensity. Toimploreis to ask with weeping and lamentation; tosupplicateis to ask, as it were, on bended knees." (Standard Dictionary.)

It would be better, then, to write,—

"I franticallyimploreda knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes."

Exercise 49.—Choose one of the synonyms given in each of the following sentences. Consult your dictionary to get the different shades of meaning.

1. They were making out to me, in an [agitated, excited, disturbed] way that the lifeboat had been bravely manned an hour ago, and could do nothing.

2. The thunder was loud and [ceaseless, incessant, continuous].

3. I was [perplexed, confused, distracted] by the terrible sight.

4. The excited voice went [calling, crying, clamoring] along the staircase.

5. I was [tired, fatigued, exhausted] with traveling and want of rest.

6. I made a most [awkward, ridiculous, absurd, grotesque] appearance.

7. A man is sometimes more [generous, liberal, open-handed] when he has but a little money than when he has plenty.

8. Dost thou love life? Then do not [squander, waste, spend] time.

9. He [continued, admonished, warned, counseled, advised] me not to let so good an offer pass.

10. The eagle listens to every sound, [looking, gazing, glancing] now and then to the earth beneath.

Exercise 50.—Fill the blanks below with words from the following groups of synonyms:—

I. Large, colossal, great, big, commodious, huge, vast, capacious, immense, spacious, huge.

1. Joan of Arc rode at the head of a —— body of troops. 2. Our world itself is a very —— place. 3. If a —— giant could travel all over the universe and gather worlds, all as---- as ours, and were to make first a heap of merely ten such worlds, how —— it would be. 4. I pushed aside the heavy leathern curtain at the entrance, and stood in the ---- nave. The —— cupola alone is sixty-five feet higher than the Bunker Hill Monument, and the four —— pillars on which it rests are each one hundred and thirty-seven feet in circumference. The awe I felt in looking up at the —— arch of marble and gold did not humble me. 5. The old lady drew a package of peppermints from her —— pocket. 6. He lived in a —— mansion with —— rooms.

II. Tiny, little, small, diminutive, minute.

1. The Lilliputians were a very —— people. 2. Each ---- point was carefully explained. 3. I met a —— cottage girl. 4. Far away in the forest, grew a pretty —— fir tree. 5. The lame boy was so —— that they called him ---- Tim.

Exercise 51.—Consult your dictionary to get the exact meaning of each word in the following two groups of synonyms. Insert words in the blanks, using each word but once.1. Funny, odd, strange, queer, grotesque, peculiar.2. Brave, bold, daring, fearless, courageous, reckless.

Exercise 51.—Consult your dictionary to get the exact meaning of each word in the following two groups of synonyms. Insert words in the blanks, using each word but once.

1. Funny, odd, strange, queer, grotesque, peculiar.

2. Brave, bold, daring, fearless, courageous, reckless.

1. He told us of many —— happenings. 2. The bird has a —— cry. 3. We laughed at the —— story. 4. What an ---- stick he is, to be sure. 5. —— faces were carved over the door. 6. It is a —— coincidence. 7. He was a ---- bad man. 8. The —— soldier was foremost in the fray. 9. The —— deed was applauded. 10. He is a ---- man, and never considers consequences. 11. He seems to be perfectly ——. 12. The fireman received a medal for his —— act.

Exercise 52.—Do you see any difference in meaning in the pairs of words given below? Write sentences using each correctly.Artist, artisan; healthy, healthful; bring, fetch; applause, praise; propose, purpose; in, into; distinct, clear; few, little; defend, protect; thankful, grateful; right, privilege; occasion, opportunity; custom, habit; brutal, brutish; temperance, abstinence; exile, banish; excuse, apology; duty, obligation; doubt, suspense; price, worth; interfere, interpose; surprised, astonished; flexible, pliable.

Exercise 52.—Do you see any difference in meaning in the pairs of words given below? Write sentences using each correctly.

Artist, artisan; healthy, healthful; bring, fetch; applause, praise; propose, purpose; in, into; distinct, clear; few, little; defend, protect; thankful, grateful; right, privilege; occasion, opportunity; custom, habit; brutal, brutish; temperance, abstinence; exile, banish; excuse, apology; duty, obligation; doubt, suspense; price, worth; interfere, interpose; surprised, astonished; flexible, pliable.

20. Accuracy in the Use of Words.—Accuracy in the use of words comes from practice. It is better to blunder by using a word without a complete knowledge of its meaning than to be afraid to use any but the commonest words. Some words sound very much alike and yet have very different meanings, and some words are so nearly alike in meaning that it is almost or quite impossible to define the difference between them, though we may perhaps feel it. All that we can do, then, is simply to go on learning, using new words as fast as we get fairly well acquainted with them, and depending upon our teachers and older friends to point out to us when we are wrong.

What we must avoid is the stupid habit of using words thoughtlessly, after the manner of the blundering Mrs. Malaprop in Sheridan'sRivals, who said:—

I would by no means wish a daughter of mine to be aprogenyof learning; I don't think so much learning becomes a young woman.... As she grew up, I would have her instructed ingeometrythat she might know something of thecontagiouscountries; but above all, Sir Anthony, she should be mistress oforthodoxy, that she might not misspell and mispronounce words so shamefully as girls usually do; and likewise that she mightreprehendthe true meaning of whatshe is saying. This, Sir Anthony, is what I would have a woman know; and I don't think there is asuperstitiousarticle in it.Exercise 53.—Distinguish between the meaning of the following words:luxuriantandluxurious;effectandaffect;diseaseanddecease;descentanddissent;principalandprinciple;suspectandexpect;sensuousandsensible;alludeandelude;notedandnotorious;emigrantandimmigrant;ovationandinnovation;torpidandtepid.

Exercise 53.—Distinguish between the meaning of the following words:luxuriantandluxurious;effectandaffect;diseaseanddecease;descentanddissent;principalandprinciple;suspectandexpect;sensuousandsensible;alludeandelude;notedandnotorious;emigrantandimmigrant;ovationandinnovation;torpidandtepid.

21. Figures of Speech.—There is a strange way we all have of using words in a sense different from that of ordinary expression. We say, for example, that a brave soldier "was a lion." Of course, he was not a lion actually; he merely had certain qualities which we think lions have to a particularly great degree, that is, strength and courage. In the same way, especially in joke, we may speak of a person as an ass, a mule, a fox, a goose, an elephant, etc. Or, instead of saying that a soldier fought bravely, we may say that he fought like a lion, and similarly, that he was as stubborn as a mule, as keen as a fox, etc. We thus say either what a thing isnot, or what it islike, instead of what itis. Such expressions are calledfigures(that is, forms) ofspeech. In a metaphor, one thing is called by the name of another. In a simile, one thing is said to be like another.

We use both the metaphor and the simile quite frequently and naturally in our ordinary speech and writing, particularly when our feelings are aroused in any way.

1. Bread is the staff of life. (Metaphor.)2. The ground was an oven floor; and the breeze that passed by, the breath of a furnace. (Metaphor.) 3. His eye glowed like a fiery spark. (Simile.) 4. The carded wool, like a snowdrift, was piled at her knee. (Simile.)Exercise 54.—Pick out the metaphors and similes in the following sentences:—

Exercise 54.—Pick out the metaphors and similes in the following sentences:—

1. In this world a man must either be anvil or hammer. 2. He beheld the lights in the houses, shining like stars in the dusk and mist of the evening. 3. Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with snowflakes. 4. Their lives glide on like rivers that water the woodland. 5. Their hearts leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman. 6. Life is a sheet of paper white. 7. Her eyes are stars; her voice is music. 8. A fat little steamer rolled itself along like a sailor on shore. 9. He glared at us like a tiger out of a jungle. 10. Cornwallis, speaking of Washington, said he would "bag the old fox" in the morning. 11. He is a little chimney and heated hot in a moment. 12. John is the black sheep of the family. 13. She is like a gleam of sunlight on a dark day. 14. Pleasant words are as a honeycomb, sweet to the soul and health to the bones. 15. Her heart is as pure as the lilies.

Exercise 55.—Change the following similes and metaphors to plain language:—

1. He is a Samson. 2. He is a wet blanket. 3. They are a pair of turtle doves. 4. Never cross bridges until you come to them. 5. He is a tower of strength. 6. You are pure gold. 7. Night's candles are burnt out. 8. He is unstable as water. 9. He carries the world on his shoulders. 10. What a bear he is! 11. That is a hard nut to crack. 12. Don't be a dog in the manger. 13. Mothernature laughs around. 14. Don't rub him the wrong way. 15. The Roman mother said of her children, "These are my jewels."

Exercise 56.—Find similes or metaphors to express the following:—

1. Time passes quickly. 2. Her eyes are very bright. 3. The boat moved rapidly through the water. 4. She sings very sweetly. 5. The wind makes a sound in the tops of the pines. 6. He is very cross. 7. They are exceedingly poor. 8. Do not find fault with a gift. 9. Her hair is fine and soft. 10. The night was very dark.

Exercise 57.—I. Compare the two following passages. Notice how the account of the beginning of the boat race loses in force by the changes from figurative language to plain language.

1. Hark! the first gun. The report sent Tom's heart into his mouth. The crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the shadow of the coming excitement.

Long before the sound of the starting-gun can roll up the river, the pent-up life and energy which has been held in leash is let loose.

2. Hark! the first gun. The report made Tom nervous. The crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the thought of the coming excitement.

Long before the sound of the starting-gun can be heard up the river, the life and energy which has been checked is released.

II. Rewrite the following, changing the similes and metaphors to plain language. Notice how much the paragraph loses in force.

Isn't he grand, the captain, as he comes forwardlike lightning, stroke after stroke? As the space narrows, thefierylittle cockswain's eyesflashwith excitement.

Exercise 58.—Rewrite the following, using two or more similes or metaphors:—

The first snow came. It covered the brown fields and green meadows. It protected the roots of the plants hidden under it. It was very white and clean. It covered the bushes and trees and fences with a soft white covering.

Exercise 59.—Write sentences comparing the descent of an eagle upon its prey to the fall of a thunderbolt; the falling of rain to weeping; a cheerful face to a sunbeam; the loss of hope to the setting of the sun; a modest little girl to a violet; a sailing vessel to a bird; dandelions to pieces of gold; a good book to a friend; a burst of anger to a storm; old age to sunset.Exercise 60.—Write a paragraph describing something you have seen in nature,—a brook, a meadow where cattle are grazing, a field of daisies, a waterfall, or anything else you may choose. Try to use at least one metaphor or simile.

Exercise 60.—Write a paragraph describing something you have seen in nature,—a brook, a meadow where cattle are grazing, a field of daisies, a waterfall, or anything else you may choose. Try to use at least one metaphor or simile.

22. Mistakes in the Use of Words.—Let us now consider the principal errors which we are likely to make with regard to words.

23. Spelling.—If our letters corresponded exactly to our English sounds, we could all spell fairly well, because we could use the symbols that answered to our pronunciation. But our letters do not agree well with our sounds; and there are many oddities and inconsistencies which cause the young student a great deal of trouble. Many plans have been proposed for simplifying our spelling, and it is to be hoped that eventually some wise scheme will be generally adopted, but that is not likely to come to pass for many years, and in the meantime we must follow the established custom. If we do not learn to spell in this way, werun the risk of being thought unintelligent and uneducated. As a matter of fact, however, students of your age are already over the worst of their troubles in this respect. All they have to do is to pay careful attention to the form of words as they read, and to keep a list of the words which they spell incorrectly in their own compositions, making sure that they do not make the same mistake a second time.

A set of rules which will be of service to you will be found in the Appendix.

24. Slang.—By slang we mean strange words or expressions, not employed in serious or dignified composition, whether written or spoken. They are sometimes used in conversation, largely in jest, by persons of intelligence and education, but more generally by persons of defective education, who are not really acquainted with the forms of the language used by the educated classes. There can be no great objection to playing with words on occasions where play is appropriate, particularly when the speakers are young or full of boisterous fun. It is, however, unwise for young students to get the habit of thus playing with words so firmly established that they play when they should be serious, or that they become unfamiliar with really good English. Particular care should be taken to avoid slang that is vulgar or coarse.

Here is an extract which is intended to represent the natural and playful speech of a boy of high spirits:—

"I say, East, can't we get something else besides potatoes? I've got lots of money, you know.""Bless us, yes, I forgot," said East, "you've only just come. You see all my tin's been gone this twelve weeks. I've got a tick at Sally's, of course; but then I hate running it high, you see, toward the end of the half, because one has to shell out for it all directly one comes back, and that's a bore.""Well, what shall I buy?" said Tom, "I'm hungry.""I say," said East, "you're a trump, Brown. I'll do the same by you next half. Let's have a pound of sausages, then; that's the best grub for tea I know of."—Thomas Hughes:Tom Brown's Schooldays.

"I say, East, can't we get something else besides potatoes? I've got lots of money, you know."

"Bless us, yes, I forgot," said East, "you've only just come. You see all my tin's been gone this twelve weeks. I've got a tick at Sally's, of course; but then I hate running it high, you see, toward the end of the half, because one has to shell out for it all directly one comes back, and that's a bore."

"Well, what shall I buy?" said Tom, "I'm hungry."

"I say," said East, "you're a trump, Brown. I'll do the same by you next half. Let's have a pound of sausages, then; that's the best grub for tea I know of."—Thomas Hughes:Tom Brown's Schooldays.

There is a certain vigor and picturesqueness of expression here, and it would be absurd to expect boys, on all occasions, to speak like dictionaries. On the other hand, you will readily see that the italicized expressions in the following sentences would be wholly inappropriate in serious written composition.

1. John made a badbreak. 2. Your new hat is simplyimmense. 3. I think that's thelimit. 4. Children shouldtake a back seat. 5. Hepassed in his checks. 6. That's only abluff. 7. He's a bigchump. 8. The people made a bigkick. 9. That boy is afresh kid. 10. Hechuckedthe tea overboard.

Exercise 61.—Rewrite the sentences given above, substituting correct English for the slang words or expressions.What slang expression do you use most frequently? Write a paragraph explaining exactly what you mean by it.Exercise 62.—Point out the exaggeration in the use of the italicized words by giving the meaning of the word. Suggest words which might be substituted for them.

Exercise 61.—Rewrite the sentences given above, substituting correct English for the slang words or expressions.

What slang expression do you use most frequently? Write a paragraph explaining exactly what you mean by it.

Exercise 62.—Point out the exaggeration in the use of the italicized words by giving the meaning of the word. Suggest words which might be substituted for them.

1. We had anawfullygood time. 2. Butter isfrightfullydear. 3. I'mterriblytired. 4. We werehorriblybored.5. He istremendouslypleased. 6. This is amagnificentlead pencil. 7. You arefearfullylate this morning. 8. Iadorechocolate fudge. 9. This isbeautifuljelly cake. 10. What asplendidapple!

25. Errors in the Forms of Words.—The following exercises will give you practice in the forms of words in which young students most often make mistakes.

Exercise 63.—Write sentences containing the following:—

Babies', women's, boy's, boys', girl's, children's, man's, men's, girls', baby's, cats', cat's.

Exercise 64.—Write from dictation:—

1. The dog returns at John's call and rubs against his legs. He waits while his master's horse is dozing at the post, and his master talks within, and gossips with the other dogs, who are snapping at the flies. Nobody knows how many dogs' characters are destroyed in this gossip. 2. Malcolm entered the ladies' cabin and looked for a seat. A baby, who was pulling impatiently at its mother's dress, suddenly ran to him, crying, "Baby's papa,"—to his great embarrassment. 3. It's now midnight. 4. Olive's skates are with Alice's. 5. Yours is not so well prepared as ours. 6. Read Dickens's "Christmas Carol."

Exercise 65.—I. Fill the blanks withIorme. Give reasons for your choice.

1. His lecture gave pleasure to Frank and ——. 2. He is cleverer than ——. 3. This is for you and ——. 4. Henry and —— went driving. 5. Is it you? It is ——. 6. May Ethel and —— remain after school? 7. There is an agreement between you and ——. 8. This story was read by ——. 9. My sister and —— were traveling through Yellowstone Park.

II. Fill the blanks withweorus:—

1. —— girls have formed a society. 2. He gave —— boys permission to leave early. 3. Was it —— whom you saw? 4. You know that as well as ——. 5. You are far nobler than ——. 6. You can do it better than ——. 7. He has promised to take our cousin and —— to the circus. 8. He wishes to give —— pleasure.

III. Fill the blanks withheorhim:—

1. It was ——. 2. All except —— came early. 3. I can do it as well as ——. 4. Who saw it first, you or ——? 5. I have no time for children like you and ——. 6. What are you and —— doing? 7. It was either —— or James that did it. 8. —— who had promised failed to fulfill his promise. 9. I thought it was ——. 10. I should not like to be ——.

IV. Fill the blanks withsheorher:—

1. We gave —— one more chance. 2. —— and I are going. 3. You read better than ——. 4. Can it be ——? 5. I am sure it is ——. 6. I will keep you and ——. 7. —— and her friends have gone. 8. If I were —— I would do it. 9. The fault lies between you and ——. 10. I am going with ——.

V. Fill the blanks withtheyorthem:—

1. We are as good as ——. 2. Could it have been ——? 3. It was ——. 4. —— and their company have gone. 5. We are not as well educated as ——.

VI. Fill the blanks withwhoorwhom:—

1. —— are you to believe? 2. —— do you think it was? 3. I like to help those —— deserve it. 4. Do you remember —— you saw? 5. Can you tell —— to believe? 6. —— can this be from? 7. —— do you think this is? 8. I heard from a boy —— was a pupil. 9. He invited all---- he believed to be his friends. 10. He saw a man —— he supposed to be the minister. 11. I gave it to the one —— seemed to need it most. 12. I hardly know —— to believe. 13. I have appointed a clerk —— I believe can be trusted. 14. We know —— you are. 15. Mary, —— is my friend, will certainly support me. 16. Lincoln was the man —— liberated the slaves. 17. If I cannot believe in her, in —— can I believe? 18. I will give it to the one —— gets here first. 19. They left me in doubt as to —— it was. 20. I have found my child —— was lost. 21. A man —— I expected to meet failed to arrive. 22. He spoke to the boy —— he pitied. 23. He helped the boy, —— had been deserted by his parents. 24. He was a man —— was greatly beloved. 25. Helen, ----, I am told, is the winner of the medal, is a very studious child.

Exercise 66.—I. Use some form of verbsetorsit:—

1. —— the plant on the window sill. 2. He —— the table. 3. The hen is ——. 4. Harold is —— out tomato plants. 5. The shepherds —— on the ground in a row. 6. They were —— there at nightfall. 7. He —— in the front seat. 8. She was —— by the fire. 9. We —— under the sycamore tree.

H. Use some form oflieorlay:—

I. —— still and rest. 2. He —— under the lilac bush. 3. He was —— there when I arrived. 4. We —— her in the cold, moist earth. 5. Mary, —— on the couch. 6. The men are —— a board walk. 7. We have —— our plan. 8. The ship is —— in the harbor. 9. She has —— there since seven o'clock.

III. Use some form ofdo:—

1. My work is ——. 2. He —— (past tense) his workwell. 3. We —— (past tense) our duty. 4. Has he —— it yet? 5. You—— (past tense) it.

IV. Use some form ofbringortake:—

1. Horace —— his teacher a rose. 2. Miss Klein —— it home with her. 3. Frank, — me your book. 4. He —— it to me. 5. He has —— it to me. 6. He —— his dog into the garden. 7. He has —— it home.

V. Use some form oflearnandteach:—

1. —— me to sew. 2. Mother has —— me to knit. 3. I have —— how to sew. 4. I am —— how to cook. 5. She —— her brother how to skate. 6. She is —— him to be fearless.

VI. Use some form ofsee:—

1. I —— the sunset. 2. I have —— the sunset. 3. He has —— the procession. 4. He —— it now.

VII. Use correctly in sentencessee,saw,seen.

VIII. Use in sentences all forms of the following verbs:—

Go, drive, break, do, ring, run, bring, lie, lay, sit, set, teach, read, know, take.

IX. Change the form of the verbs below from present to perfect or past perfect:—

1. The boy runs rapidly. 2. The old man rings the bell at sundown. 3. I saw the lights of the village. 4. Tiny Tim sings very sweetly. 5. We sit by the fire in the gloaming. 6. Mr. Towne teaches drawing. 7. Mary reads well. 8. He lays fresh flowers on her grave. 9. He sets a light in the window. 10. Mary plays the piano.

26. Writing in which the Ideas are already at Hand.—Young people have an abundance of things to write about. Their lives are usually full of interesting incidents, and their minds are fresh and eager. Before passing on, however, to the principal part of composition, that in which the writer expresses his own ideas, let us undertake a little practice in a form of composition in which the ideas are furnished us. We shall thus not have to devote so much effort to thinking what we are going to write, and can devote all the more attention to the pleasing form of what we write.

27. Condensation.—Here are two well-written and clear paragraphs on an interesting topic, and beneath each are two or three pleasing sentences which give the same idea in a shorter or condensed form.

1. Centuries ago, in a remote village among some wild hills in France, there lived a country maiden, Joan of Arc, who was at this time in her twentieth year. She had been a solitary girl from her childhood; she had often tended sheep and cattle for whole days where no human figure was seen or human voice was heard; and she had often knelt, for hours together, in the gloomy empty little village chapel, looking up at the altar and at the dim lamp burning before it, untilshe fancied that she saw shadowy figures standing there, and even that she heard them speak to her.—Charles Dickens:A Child's History of England.

Joan of Arc lived centuries ago in a remote French village. Her childhood had been a solitary one. Often she was for days alone with her sheep, and she knelt long alone in the gloomy village chapel, where she fancied that she saw shadowy shapes that spoke to her.

2. I think it was Hans, our Eskimo hunter, who thought he saw a broad sledge track. The drift had nearly effaced it, and we were some of us doubtful at first whether it was not one of those accidental rifts which the gales make in the surface snow. But, as we traced it on to the deep snow among the hummocks, we were led to footsteps; and, following these with religious care, we at last came in sight of a small American flag fluttering from a hummock, and lower down a little banner hanging from a tent pole hardly above the drift. It was the camp of our disabled comrades; we reached it after an unbroken march of twenty-one hours.—E. E. Kane:Arctic Explorations.

Hans, our Eskimo hunter, found what seemed to be the faint traces of a sledge, and this led us to footsteps. Following these with great care, we came at length to the camp of our disabled comrades.Exercise 67.—Condense the following paragraphs, making your sentences pleasing to the ear:—

Hans, our Eskimo hunter, found what seemed to be the faint traces of a sledge, and this led us to footsteps. Following these with great care, we came at length to the camp of our disabled comrades.

Exercise 67.—Condense the following paragraphs, making your sentences pleasing to the ear:—

1. In order to begin at the beginning of the story, let us suppose that we go into a country garden one fine morning in May, when the sun is shining brightly overhead, and that we see hanging from the bough of an old apple tree a black object which looks very much like a large plum pudding. On approaching it, however, we see that it is a large cluster or swarm of bees clinging to each other by their legs; eachbee with its two fore legs clinging to the hinder legs of the one above it. In this way as many as twenty thousand bees may be clinging together, and yet they hang so freely that a bee, even from quite the center of the swarm, can disengage herself from her neighbors and pass through to the outside of the cluster whenever she wishes.—Arabella Buckley:Fairyland of Science.

2. This warning stopped all speech, and the hardy mariners, knowing that they had already done all in the power of man to insure their safety, stood in breathless anxiety, awaiting the result. At a short distance ahead of them the whole ocean was white with foam, and the waves, instead of rolling on in regular succession, appeared to be tossing madly about. A single streak of dark billows, not half a cable's length in width, could be discerned running into this chaos of water; but it was soon lost to the eye amid the confusion. Along this narrow path the vessel moved more heavily than before, being brought so near the wind as to keep her sails touching. The pilot silently proceeded to the wheel, and with his own hands undertook the steering of the ship. No noise proceeded from the frigate to interrupt the horrid tumult of the ocean; and she entered the channel among the breakers in dead silence.—James Fenimore Cooper:The Pilot.

28. Method in Condensation.—The length of any piece of writing depends upon the purpose for which it is intended. For instance, the answer to the question, "Who was Abraham Lincoln?" might, according to the circumstances, be given in a paragraph, in a page, or in a chapter; or it might be expanded into a work of many volumes. If you were required, in preparation for a written lesson in history or geography, to read severalpages, you would not be expected to write all you had read, but to be able to condense; that is, to omit details and select themost importantpoints. The ability to decide which pointsarethe important ones, and which may be omitted with least loss to the passage, will be of great value to you in all your serious reading and study.

The following suggestions will help you in condensing:—

1. Read the whole passage through carefully.

2. Pick out the things so important that they must be retained. As a rule, the more important the point, the greater the space the author allots to it. Drop the minor points.

3. Arrange the facts you decide to retain in order of importance, and in condensing the passage give most space to the most important points.

Read, for example, the following narrative, and notice the condensation printed below it:—

In the reign of the great caliph, there lived in the city of Bagdad a celebrated barber, of the name of Ali. He was famous for a steady hand, and could shave a head, or trim your beard or whiskers, with his eyes blindfolded. There was not a man of fashion at Bagdad who did not employ him; and such a run of business had he that at length he became very proud and insolent.

Firewood was always scarce and dear at Bagdad; and it happened one day that a poor woodcutter, ignorant of the character of Ali, stopped at his shop, to sell him a load of wood, which he had just brought from a distance on his donkey. Ali immediately offered him a certain sum "for all the wood that was upon the donkey." The woodcutter agreed, unloaded his beast, and asked for the money.

"You have not given me all the wood yet," said the barber. "I must have your wooden pack saddle into the bargain: that was our agreement."

"What!" said the other, in great amazement; "who ever heard of such a bargain? It is impossible."

But after many words the overbearing barber seized the pack saddle, wood, and all, and sent away the poor peasant in great distress. The woodcutter then ran to the judge and stated his griefs; the judge was one of the barber's customers, and refused to hear the case. Then he went to a higher judge; he also patronized Ali, and made light of the complaint.

The poor woodcutter was not disheartened, but forthwith got a scribe to write a petition to the caliph himself. The caliph's punctuality in reading petitions is well known, and it was not long before the woodcutter was called to his presence. When he had approached the caliph, he kneeled and kissed the ground; and then, folding his arms before him, his hands covered with the sleeves of his cloak, and his feet close together, he awaited the decision of his case.

"Friend," said the caliph, "the barber has words on his side: you have equity on yours. The law must be defined by words, and agreements must be made by words. The law must have its course, or it is nothing; and agreements must be kept, or there would be no good faith between man and man. Therefore the barber must keep all his wood, but"—

Then calling the woodcutter close to him, the caliph whispered something in his ear, and sent him away quite satisfied. The woodcutter, having made obeisance, took his donkey by the halter, and returned home.

A few days later he applied to the barber, as if nothing had happened between them, requesting that he,and a companion of his from the country, might enjoy the dexterity ofhis hand; and the price for which both operations were to be performed was settled. When the woodcutter's beard had been properly shaved, Ali asked where his companion was. "He is standing just outside," said the woodcutter; "he shall come in at once." Accordingly he went out, and led in his donkey by the halter. "This is my companion," said he: "shave him."

"Shave him!" exclaimed the barber, in a rage: "is it not enough that I should degrade myself by touchingyou, but you must insult me by asking me to shave your donkey? Away with you!"

The woodcutter immediately went to the caliph and related his case. "Bring Ali and his razors to me this instant," exclaimed the caliph to one of his officers; and in the course of ten minutes the barber stood before him. "Why do you refuse to shave this man's companion?" said the caliph to the barber: "was not that your agreement?" Ali, kissing the ground, answered, "It is true, O caliph, that such was our agreement; but who ever made a companion of a donkey before?"

"True enough," said the caliph; "but who ever thought of insisting upon a pack saddle's being included in a load of wood? No, no, it is the woodcutter's turn now. Shave this donkey instantly!"

So the barber was compelled to prepare a great quantity of soap, to lather the beast from head to foot, and to shave him in the presence of the caliph and of the whole court, whilst he was jeered and mocked by the bystanders. The poor woodcutter was then dismissed with a present of money; and all Bagdad resounded with the story, and praised the justice of the caliph.

There was once in Bagdad a barber who was so skillful that he was employed by all the men of fashion, and who became so proudthat he would seldom work for any but men of rank. One day a poor woodcutter came to his shop to sell a load of wood. Ali offered him a sum of money for "all the wood upon the donkey." The woodcutter agreed, whereupon Ali seized the wooden pack saddle as well as the wood, saying it was included in the bargain.After in vain seeking redress from the judges, the peasant went to the caliph, who decided that, according to the terms made, the bargain must stand; but, calling the woodcutter to him, he whispered something in his ear.A few days afterward the woodcutter asked the barber to shave him and a companion from the country, agreeing to pay the price asked by the barber. After the woodcutter had been attended to, the barber asked for the companion, whereupon the woodcutter led in his donkey. The barber in rage drove them from his shop, but the woodcutter immediately went to the caliph and stated his case. The tables were now turned, for the caliph decided in favor of the woodcutter. The barber was obliged to shave the beast in the presence of the caliph and the whole court, who mocked at him; and the woodcutter was dismissed with a rich present.Exercise 68.In a similar way condense this account of the battle of Hastings into about two hundred words.

After in vain seeking redress from the judges, the peasant went to the caliph, who decided that, according to the terms made, the bargain must stand; but, calling the woodcutter to him, he whispered something in his ear.

A few days afterward the woodcutter asked the barber to shave him and a companion from the country, agreeing to pay the price asked by the barber. After the woodcutter had been attended to, the barber asked for the companion, whereupon the woodcutter led in his donkey. The barber in rage drove them from his shop, but the woodcutter immediately went to the caliph and stated his case. The tables were now turned, for the caliph decided in favor of the woodcutter. The barber was obliged to shave the beast in the presence of the caliph and the whole court, who mocked at him; and the woodcutter was dismissed with a rich present.

Exercise 68.In a similar way condense this account of the battle of Hastings into about two hundred words.

In the middle of the month of October, in the year one thousand and sixty-six, the Normans and the English came front to front. All night the armies lay encamped before each other in a part of the country then called Senlac, now called Battle. With the first dawn of day they arose. There, in the faint light, were the English on a hill. A wood lay behind them, and in their midst was the royal banner, representing a fighting warrior, woven in gold thread, adorned with precious stones.

Beneath the banner, as it rustled in the wind, stood King Harold on foot, with two of his remaining brothers by his side; around them, still and silent as the dead, clustered the whole English army—every soldier coveredby his shield, and bearing in his hand the dreaded English battle-ax.

On an opposite hill, in three lines,—archers, foot soldiers, and horsemen,—was the Norman force. Of a sudden, a great battle cry, "God help us!" burst from the Norman lines. The English answered with their own battle cry, "God's Rood! Holy Rood!" The Normans then came sweeping down the hill to attack the English.

There was one tall Norman knight who rode before the Norman army on a prancing horse, throwing up his heavy sword and catching it, and singing of the bravery of his countrymen. An English knight, who rode out from the English force to meet him, fell by this knight's hand. Another English knight rode out, and he also fell; but then a third rode out and killed the Norman.

The English, keeping side by side in a great mass, cared no more for the showers of Norman arrows than if they had been showers of Norman rain. When the Norman horsemen rode against them, with their battle-axes they cut men and horses down. The Normans gave way. The English pressed forward. A cry went forth among the Norman troops that Duke William was killed. Duke William took off his helmet, in order that his face might be distinctly seen, and rode along the line before his men. This gave them courage.

As they turned again to face the English, some of their Norman horse divided the pursuing body of the English from the rest, and thus all that foremost portion of the English army fell, fighting bravely.

The main body still remaining firm, heedless of the Norman arrows, and with their battle-axes cutting down the crowds of horsemen when they rode up, like forests of young trees, Duke William pretended to retreat. Theeager English followed. The Norman army closed again and fell upon them with great slaughter.

"Still," said Duke William, "there are thousands of the English firm as rocks around their king. Shoot upward, Norman archers, that your arrows may fall down upon their faces."

The sun rose high, and sank, and the battle still raged. Through all the wild October day, the clash and din resounded in the air. In the red sunset, and in the white moonlight, heaps upon heaps of dead men lay strewn, a dreadful spectacle, all over the ground.

King Harold, wounded with an arrow in the eye, was nearly blind. His brothers were already killed. Twenty Norman knights now dashed forward to seize the royal banner from the English knights and soldiers, still faithfully collected round their blinded king. The king received a mortal wound and dropped. The English broke and fled. The Normans rallied, and the day was lost.

Oh, what a sight beneath the moon and stars when lights were shining in the tent of the victorious Duke William, which was pitched near the spot where Harold fell—and he and his knights were carousing within—and soldiers with torches, going slowly to and fro without, sought for the corpse of Harold among piles of dead—and Harold's banner, worked in golden thread and precious stones, lay low, all torn and soiled with blood—and the Duke's flag, with three Norman lions upon it, kept watch over the field.—Charles Dickens:A Child's History of England.

Exercise 69.—Condense such of the passages suggested below as your teacher may indicate.

1. The passage quoted on pages 88-90.

2. The passage quoted on pages 144-148 (or 182-185).

3. A passage from your text-book in history or geography.

4. An account (of a fire, for instance), from a daily or weekly paper.

29. Expansion.—An exercise just the opposite of the preceding is also highly profitable to young writers. Here, for example, are two sentences that will suggest a good deal to you. You will see at once that it is easy to expand them into a larger piece of writing, and just below is an entire paragraph which is based on these sentences.

1. Lord Fairfax asked George Washington to survey his lands in Virginia. The boy was very glad to do so, for he loved a wild and adventurous life.

2. Lord Fairfax wished very much to have his lands in the valley of Virginia surveyed, and he asked young George Washington if he would undertake the work. The boy was very glad to do so. Nothing could have pleased him better than work of this sort. He loved the open air and horseback riding; he would delight to explore that grand and beautiful country where Indians and wild animals still roamed at will; and he at once began to make ready for his journey.

Here is another example of the same process:—

1. TheMayflowersailed on the 16th of September. After a long and stormy voyage the Pilgrims sighted land.

2. On the 16th of September the sails were spread once more, and theMayflowerglided out upon the waters of the broad Atlantic. Fierce storms arose, and the vessel was tossed like an eggshell upon the waves. The main beam was wrenched from its place, and the ship was in danger of breaking in pieces. One passenger fell overboard and waslost. At length, on the 19th of November, the joyful cry of land rang through the ship. All eyes were strained to see the welcome sight. There it was—a long reach of sandy shore with dark forest trees in the background. The hard, dangerous voyage was almost at an end. The Pilgrims were nearly home.

Exercise 70.—You will now be ready to try this form of writing for yourselves. Below are given a number of short and suggestive statements. Expand them, using your own imagination to fill out the material, and trying, in each case, to make your sentences pleasing to the ear.

1. Rip Van Winkle was a great favorite among the good wives of the village. The children, too, loved him, and followed him about.

2. The Catskill Mountains lie to the west of the Hudson River. They are very beautiful.

3. The news of Lexington and Concord was sent to Philadelphia. Here the Continental Congress was assembled. The members agreed upon Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.

30. The Purpose of Expansion.—We sometimes expand passages in order to make them clearer by explanation or illustration.

Examples.1. In the Old World there are various grades of society, and it is almost impossible for a boy born in the lower to rise into the higher ranks. In this country this is not so; every man is as good as his neighbor.

2. In the aristocracies of the Old World, wealth and society are built up like the strata of rock which compose the crust of the earth. If a boy be born in the lowest stratum of life, it is almost impossible for him to rise through the hard crustinto the higher ranks; but in this country it is not so. The strata of our society resemble rather the ocean, where every drop, even the lowest, is free to mingle with all others, and may shine at last on the crest of the highest wave. This is the glory of our country, and you need not fear that there are any obstacles which will prove too great for any brave heart.

Exercise 71.—Expand into a paragraph such of the following statements as your teacher may indicate:—

1. The early bird catches the worm.

2. If you would be well served, serve yourself.

3. For want of a nail, the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe, the horse was lost; for want of a horse, the rider was lost; for want of the rider, the army was lost.

4. Benedict Arnold's last request, it is said, was that he might die in his old American uniform; his last prayer, that God would forgive him for ever having put on any other.

5. After Washington's retreat from Long Island in September, 1776, he needed information as to the British fortifications. A young American officer, Nathan Hale, volunteered to get the information. While inside of the enemy's lines he was taken prisoner and hanged as a spy. With his latest breath he regretted that he had only one life to lose for his country.

31. Paraphrase.—There is just one further kind of writing, in which the ideas are given you, that will be profitable to you as practice. This isparaphrase. To paraphrase a piece of writing is to restate it in your own words and in a simpler form.

You used one form of paraphrasing in the exercise on page 60, when you explained figurative expressionsby changing them into simpler or plainer language. In figurative language a resemblance between things otherwise unlike is pointed out or taken for granted, and in order to understand the author's meaning you must be able to discover the resemblance. By reducing the figure to plain language you make sure that you understand it; and you are often led in this way to see much more clearly the beauty or the force of the figure.

In a similar manner paraphrasing will aid you in understanding difficult passages, whether in verse or in prose, which you may come on in your reading. It is said of Lincoln that whenever he read anything that seemed to him very difficult, he would try to express it so simply that people who knew less than he could understand it. Perhaps this is one reason why Lincoln's speeches and writings are so beautifully clear.

Examples.1. The reports of the expedition demonstrated the practicability of establishing a line of communication across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

The reports of the expedition proved that it would be possible to build a road across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

2. Two leading objects of commercial gain have given birth to wide and daring enterprise in the early history of the Americas, the precious metals of the south and the rich peltries of the north. While the Spaniard, inflamed with the mania for gold, has extended his discoveries and conquests over those brilliant countries scorched by the ardent sun of the tropics, the Frenchman and Englishman have pursued the no less lucrative traffic in furs amid the hyperborean regions of the Canadas.—Washington Irving:Astoria.

Two important objects of commerce have given birth to daring undertakings in the early history of North and South America. These are the gold and silver of the south and the rich furs of the north. The Spaniard, mad for gold, has explored and conquered the tropical countries. Meanwhile, the Frenchman and the Englishman have followed the equally profitable traffic in furs in the far northern regions of Canada.

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