The Project Gutenberg eBook ofElementary CompositionThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: Elementary CompositionAuthor: Dorothy Canfield FisherGeorge R. CarpenterRelease date: April 9, 2015 [eBook #48673]Most recently updated: October 24, 2024Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Heather Clark and the Online DistributedProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book wasproduced from scanned images of public domain materialfrom the Google Print project.)*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION ***
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Elementary CompositionAuthor: Dorothy Canfield FisherGeorge R. CarpenterRelease date: April 9, 2015 [eBook #48673]Most recently updated: October 24, 2024Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Heather Clark and the Online DistributedProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book wasproduced from scanned images of public domain materialfrom the Google Print project.)
Title: Elementary Composition
Author: Dorothy Canfield FisherGeorge R. Carpenter
Author: Dorothy Canfield Fisher
George R. Carpenter
Release date: April 9, 2015 [eBook #48673]Most recently updated: October 24, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Heather Clark and the Online DistributedProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book wasproduced from scanned images of public domain materialfrom the Google Print project.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION ***
BYDOROTHEA F. CANFIELDFORMERLY SECRETARY OF THE HORACE MANN SCHOOLSANDGEORGE R. CARPENTERPROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND ENGLISH COMPOSITIONIN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
New YorkTHE MACMILLAN COMPANYLONDON: MACMILLAN & CO.Ltd.1918All rights reserved
Copyright, 1906,By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
—————
Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1906. Reprinted July, 1907; February, August, 1909; September, 1910; February, 1911; March, 1913; September, 1914; June, 1915; March, twice, November, 1916.
Norwood PressJ. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
The authors have endeavored to provide an unusually rich collection of material for work in composition,—material well arranged, well graded, well adapted for use in the seventh and eighth grades, and accompanied by a clear and suggestive statement of the grammatical and rhetorical principles involved. For skilled advice and assistance in connection with Chapters II-VI we are greatly indebted to Miss Jennie F. Owens, of the Jersey City Training School.
D. F. C.G. R. C.
New York City, July, 1906.
PAGETable of SectionsixTable of ExercisesxiiiCHAPTERI.Introduction1II.The Sentence4III.The Paragraph29IV.Words49V.Condensation, Expansion, and Paraphrase69VI.Whole Compositions; Outlines88VII.Oral Composition102VIII.The Diary106IX.The Letter112X.Narration137XI.Description155XII.Narration(continued)188XIII.Exposition199XIV.Argument214XV.Secretarial Work225XVI.Versification234XVII.Punctuation247Appendix:A.Rules for Spelling269B.Model of Constitution271Index273
[The roman numerals refer to chapters; the arabic, to sections.]
CHAPTERPAGEI.Introduction1II.The Sentence:1.Phrases, clauses, and sentences.—2.Simple, complex, and compound sentences.—3.Variety in the use of sentences.—4.Periodic sentences.—5.Bad sentences.—6.The "comma" sentence.—7.Sentences without unity.—8.The formless sentence4III.The Paragraph:9.The use of the paragraph.—10.The beginning.—11.Unity in the paragraph.—12.The body of the paragraph.—13.Too many paragraphs.—14.The end of a paragraph.—15.Quotations29IV.Words:16.How we learn words.—17.The size and character of the English vocabulary.—18.Increasing one's vocabulary.—19.Synonyms.—20.Accuracy in the use of words.—21.Figures of speech.—22.Mistakes in the use of words.—23.Spelling.—24.Slang.—25.Errors in the forms of words49V.Condensation, Expansion, and Paraphrase:26.Writing in which the ideas are already at hand.—27.Condensation.—28.Method in condensation.—29.Expansion.—30.The purpose of expansion.—31.Paraphrase.—32.Paraphrase of complete compositions69VI.Whole Compositions; Outlines:33.Whole compositions.—34.Outlines.—35.Essentials in a whole composition.—36.How to plan an essay88VII.Oral Composition:37.The great essential.—38.How to be heard.—39.Pronunciation.—40.A plan necessary102VIII.The Diary:41.The value of a diary.—42.Contents of a diary.—43.Imaginary diaries.—44.The class diary106IX.The Letter:45.Various kinds of letters.—46.Friendly letters.—47.Letters of social intercourse.—48.Formal invitations.—49.Telegrams.—50.Business letters.—51.Notices.—52.Appeals.—53.Petitions.—54.Advertisements112X.Narration:55.The essentials of a good narrative.—56.Autobiography.—57.Biography.—58.History.—59.Plain reporting of facts.—60. Conversation137XI.Description:61.Observation.—62.General scientific description.—63.Specific scientific description.—64.Technical terms.—65.Literary description.—66.Description of people.—67.Longer description.—68.Description of conditions.—69.Description by contrast.—70.Description of events.—71.Picture making of scenes of action.—72.Travel.—73.Descriptions of an hour155XII.Narration(Continued):74.Historical stories.—75.Fictitious stories.—76.The beginning.—77.The ending.—78.The body188XIII.Exposition:79.General principles.—80.Explanation of a material process.—81.Explanation of games.—82.Exposition of abstract ideas.—83.Exposition by example.—84.Exposition by repetition.—85.Exposition by contrast.—86.Exposition by a figure of speech199XIV.Argument:87.General principle.—88.The introduction.—89.The reasons.—90.The outline.—91.The plea.—92.Other forms214XV.Secretarial Work(93)225XVI.Versification(94)234XVII.Punctuation:95.General theory of punctuation.—96.The period.—97.The question mark.—98.The exclamation point.—99.The semicolon.—100.The colon.—101.The comma.—102.Parentheses and brackets.—103.The dash.—104.The apostrophe.—105.Quotation marks.—106.Italics.—107.The hyphen.—108.Capitals.—109.List of common abbreviations247
The Sentence:1.Phrases, clauses, and sentences.—2.Simple, complex, and compound sentences.—3.Variety in the use of sentences.—4.Periodic sentences.—5.Bad sentences.—6.The "comma" sentence.—7.Sentences without unity.—8.The formless sentence
The Paragraph:9.The use of the paragraph.—10.The beginning.—11.Unity in the paragraph.—12.The body of the paragraph.—13.Too many paragraphs.—14.The end of a paragraph.—15.Quotations
Words:16.How we learn words.—17.The size and character of the English vocabulary.—18.Increasing one's vocabulary.—19.Synonyms.—20.Accuracy in the use of words.—21.Figures of speech.—22.Mistakes in the use of words.—23.Spelling.—24.Slang.—25.Errors in the forms of words
Condensation, Expansion, and Paraphrase:26.Writing in which the ideas are already at hand.—27.Condensation.—28.Method in condensation.—29.Expansion.—30.The purpose of expansion.—31.Paraphrase.—32.Paraphrase of complete compositions
Whole Compositions; Outlines:33.Whole compositions.—34.Outlines.—35.Essentials in a whole composition.—36.How to plan an essay
Oral Composition:37.The great essential.—38.How to be heard.—39.Pronunciation.—40.A plan necessary
The Diary:41.The value of a diary.—42.Contents of a diary.—43.Imaginary diaries.—44.The class diary
The Letter:45.Various kinds of letters.—46.Friendly letters.—47.Letters of social intercourse.—48.Formal invitations.—49.Telegrams.—50.Business letters.—51.Notices.—52.Appeals.—53.Petitions.—54.Advertisements
Narration:55.The essentials of a good narrative.—56.Autobiography.—57.Biography.—58.History.—59.Plain reporting of facts.—60. Conversation
Description:61.Observation.—62.General scientific description.—63.Specific scientific description.—64.Technical terms.—65.Literary description.—66.Description of people.—67.Longer description.—68.Description of conditions.—69.Description by contrast.—70.Description of events.—71.Picture making of scenes of action.—72.Travel.—73.Descriptions of an hour
Narration(Continued):74.Historical stories.—75.Fictitious stories.—76.The beginning.—77.The ending.—78.The body
Exposition:79.General principles.—80.Explanation of a material process.—81.Explanation of games.—82.Exposition of abstract ideas.—83.Exposition by example.—84.Exposition by repetition.—85.Exposition by contrast.—86.Exposition by a figure of speech
Argument:87.General principle.—88.The introduction.—89.The reasons.—90.The outline.—91.The plea.—92.Other forms
Secretarial Work(93)
Versification(94)
Punctuation:95.General theory of punctuation.—96.The period.—97.The question mark.—98.The exclamation point.—99.The semicolon.—100.The colon.—101.The comma.—102.Parentheses and brackets.—103.The dash.—104.The apostrophe.—105.Quotation marks.—106.Italics.—107.The hyphen.—108.Capitals.—109.List of common abbreviations
Chapter II. The SentenceEXERCISESPAGES1-3.Distinguishing and constructing phrases, clauses, and sentences5,64-13.Distinguishing and constructing simple, complex, and compound sentences7-1314, 15.Variety in the form and length of sentences15,1616.Distinguishing the periodic sentence1917-21.Constructing the periodic sentence19-2122-24.Distinguishing and correcting the "comma" sentence22,2325.Correcting sentences that are without unity2426, 27.Reconstructing formless sentences26-28Chapter III. The Paragraph28.Noting the force of topic sentences3329.Supplying topic sentences3430.Writing short paragraphs from topic sentences3531.Noting when and why paragraphs lack unity3632.Making notes for paragraphs suggested by topic sentences4033.Correcting bad division into paragraphs4134.Making notes for paragraphs suggested by summary sentences4335.Making summary sentences for paragraphs indicated by notes4436-38.Use of quotation marks46-48Chapter IV. Words39-45.Increasing the vocabulary51,5246-52.Synonyms53-5753.Distinguishing between similar words5954-60.Metaphors and similes60-6261-62.Slang6463-66.Errors in the forms of words65-67Chapter V. Condensation, Expansion, and Paraphrase67.Condensing paragraphs7068-69.Condensing longer passages75-7770.Expanding short and suggestive statements7971.Expanding for the sake of clearness8072-73.Paraphrasing short passages82-8474.Paraphrasing complete poems87Chapter VI. Whole Compositions; Outlines75-76.Preparing outlines96,101Chapter VII. Oral CompositionChapter VIII. The Diary77.Imaginary diaries109Chapter IX. The Letter78.Friendly letters11879.Letters of social intercourse12180.Formal invitations12381.Telegrams12482-84.Business letters126,128,12985-87.Notices131,13288.Appeals13489.Petitions13590-91.Advertisements135,136Chapter X. Narration92.Fables13893.Autobiographical sketches14194-96.Biographical sketches142,14397.Historical sketches15098.Reporting facts15299.Fables told by conversation153100-101.Imaginary conversations153,154Chapter XI. Description102.Practice in accurate observation157103-104.General scientific description162105-107.Specific scientific description163,164108-109.Literary description168,169110-111.Description of people and animals170,171112.Longer descriptions173113, 114.Description of conditions175,176115.Description by contrast177116.Description of events179117, 118.Picture making of scenes of action180,181119.Sketches of travel185120.Descriptions of an hour187Chapter XII. Narrative(Continued)121, 122.Historical stories190,191123.Fictitious stories193124.Completing stories, when the beginning is given194125.Completing stories, when the ending is given196126.Completing stories, when the plot is suggested198Chapter XIII. Exposition127-129.Explanation of processes203,204130-131.Explanation of games, sports, etc.206132.Explanation by comparison and example209133.Explanation (general)211134.Explanation of proverbs and quotations212135.Explanations of national festivals213Chapter XIV. Argument136.Statement and definition of subject216137.Pleas221138.Argument (general)222139.Giving reasons for personal preference223Chapter XV. Secretarial Work140-141.Minutes, official letters, etc.228,230Chapter XVI. Versification142.Arranging verse in stanza form240Completing rhymes241143-144.Putting fables into verse243145.Writing letters, invitations, and stories in verse245Chapter XVII. Punctuation146.The semicolon251147.The colon and the semicolon252148.The comma257149.Punctuation of direct quotations260150.Punctuation of partial quotations262151.Punctuation of quotations within quotations262152.Capital letters265153.Review of punctuation266
For several years you have written, from time to time, short compositions. These have been letters, or stories, or descriptions, or explanations of ideas you had in mind, or summaries of your lessons in history or geography. You have now come to a point in your education where it will be well for you to take upcompositionas a separate subject, studying it as you would geography or history. Let us begin by asking ourselves what it is. What is composition?
What geography and history are, it is easy to see. Geography is the subject that has to do with the world as a place. We learn the names that men have given to the parts of the world, large and small; and, with regard to each country, what are its climate and the nature of its soil, its products and manufactures, its cities, and mountains, and rivers. History is the subject that has to do with the actions of the inhabitants of the world. We learn what were the chief nations that have existed or still exist, what were the important events that took place in each nation, as time went on, and who were the great men that shaped its destinies. Any one who knew about all the main events inthe life of all the great nations would be a very learned person indeed; but you have already read or studied some very important things in the history of Greece or Rome, or the United States, and thus have a general idea of the history of one or more of these nations.
Since the beginning of time men have been talking to one another, and many thousand years ago they found a way of communicating with one another by written signs or letters; and not so many hundred years ago they discovered printing, which enables one person to communicate with many people in different places at the same time. All over the world, then, people are speaking words or writing words, and other people are hearing or reading these words and trying to understand the thoughts intended to be expressed by them. We have various words to express combinations of spoken or written words, such astalkorconversation,speech,oration,address,lecture,sermon,letter,telegram,essay,novel,poem, and very many others.
Now, it is obvious that a person may wish to express his ideas and yet not be successful in doing so. Words may be combined so as to express thoughts well or to express them badly.Composition is the subject that has to do with the best expression of thought by language.
But how, then, does composition differ from grammar? Grammar is really a part—a small part—of composition. Each language has certain customs with regard to the forms which words have under various circumstances, and to the order in which the parts of a sentence are placed, as well as a system of names fordifferent kinds of words and sentences and parts of sentences. This body of customs or rules we call grammar. But grammar takes into account mainly the form of a sentence, and pays little or no attention to its meaning. Composition, on the other hand, deals mainly with words as expressions of thought.
In our study of composition, then, we are to learn how to combine or group our words so as best to express our ideas. There are three ways of gaining skill in composition:—
1. By following a rule or theory.2. By practice.3. By imitation.
1. By following a rule or theory.2. By practice.3. By imitation.
There are certain rules in composition which are based on the experience of many writers and speakers. These you will learn as we go on. These rules will not be of very much value to you, however, unless you put them intopractice. If you want to learn how to swim, you can get the general idea from a friend or a teacher; but that general idea will not enable you to swim. You must learn to swim by swimming. In the same way, you must learn composition bycomposing. Keep trying to express your ideas; let your teachers and friends tell you how clearly they understand you, take their criticism to heart, andtry again.
The third way to learn composition is by imitation, and that is a very good way indeed. When you think that some one else writes well, try to write like him or her. Imitation is the greatest possible help in learning how to do anything well.
1. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences.—Composition means putting together or combining or grouping. The things that we combine are words. There are three simple ways in which, according to the customs or grammar of our language, words are combined:—
1. Into phrases.2. Into clauses.3. Into sentences.
1. Into phrases.2. Into clauses.3. Into sentences.
A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a predicate.
Examples.On the way. In the morning. By the fire. Sailing over the sea.
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause in which the words do not make complete sense is called a dependent or subordinate clause.
Examples.If I could go. When the sun rose. While I was speaking. Which I saw.
A sentence is a group of words containing at least one subject and one predicate and making complete sense. A sentence is thus a single clause or a group of clauses.In a group of clauses, a clause in which the sense is complete is called an independent or principal clause.
Examples.He started at once. If I could, I should start at once. When the sun rose, the mist disappeared. While I was speaking, the rain fell heavily.
Neither the phrase nor the dependent clause can be used by itself. Each is only a part of a sentence. The first rule of English composition is that we must group our words in sentences.
Exception.Exclamatory words, phrases, or clauses, such as, Fudge! Silence in the ranks! If I could only go!
Exercise 1.—Which are dependent clauses? phrases? sentences? Fill out the phrases and clauses so that they become sentences.
Exercise 1.—Which are dependent clauses? phrases? sentences? Fill out the phrases and clauses so that they become sentences.
1. A little after noon. 2. I found the sea very calm. 3. If we had kept on board. 4. We should have been all safe. 5. Taking off my outer clothes. 6. When I came to the ship. 7. How to get on board. 8. I spied a small piece of rope. 9. By the help of that rope. 10. That all the ship's provisions were dry. 11. When this was done. 12. Putting them together in the form of a raft. 13. I filled the chests with provisions. 14. Toward the land. 15. My raft went very well. 16. In the mouth of a little river. 17. On the right shore of the creek. 18. I made a tent with the sail. 19. Near the sea. 20. Protected from the heat of the sun.
Exercise 2.—Divide the following passages into sentences. Supply the omitted capitals and the periods or question marks.
Exercise 2.—Divide the following passages into sentences. Supply the omitted capitals and the periods or question marks.
1. How late the chimney-swifts are abroad I cannot determine long after I failed to detect any in the air I could hear them in my chimney it was the same rustling sound I heard by day when I could see them coming and going and I know that these birds were leaving and returning when the nightwas very dark I think they can be classed among the nocturnal species
2. Many years ago there was a cold rain-storm in June for comfort a fire was built on the open hearth instead of in the air-tight stove that stood before it all went well until the night was well advanced suddenly a struggle was heard and suppressed cries after a brief silence there was a shuffling of feet at the doorstep the men went out with a lantern but no one was to be seen the windows were then searched but there was nobody near them the matter was discussed in whispers again and again the noises were heard at last when everybody was roused to a high pitch of excitement the long stovepipe heated by the flames upon the hearth parted at a joint and out flew a sooty and bedraggled little owl no one was superstitious then but suppose the owl had made its way back to the chimney and by this way escaped would not every person present have had vague uncanny feelings would not the house from that time have been haunted
Exercise 3.—1. Write a short passage containing the phrases and clauses used in Exercise 1.2. Write a short passage containing the following phrases and clauses:—
Exercise 3.—1. Write a short passage containing the phrases and clauses used in Exercise 1.
2. Write a short passage containing the following phrases and clauses:—
About noon—going toward my boat—on the sand—the print of a man's naked foot—as if I had seen a ghost—up to a rising ground—to look around—so frightened was I—behind me—every now and then—fancying every stump to be a man.
2. Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences.—According to the custom or grammar of our language, we may group our words in sentences in three ways. Sentences are, from the point of grammar, of three kinds: simple, complex, and compound.
A simple sentence consists of a single clause.
Examples.The man fell. The birds sing most sweetly at morning and at evening.
The subject or the predicate of a simple sentence, or both, may, however, consist of several parts.
Examples.The man and the child fell. The man slipped and fell. The man and the child slipped and fell.
A complex sentence contains one independent or principal clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses.
Examples.It was nearly night when we heard the glad news. Before help could reach the city, it had been captured by the enemy.
A compound sentence contains two or more independent or principal clauses, either with or without dependent or subordinate clauses.
Examples.Every minute seemed a day; every hour was a year. Finally, I dropped into an exhausted slumber, but I was awakened by the sound of bells. The sun, which resembled a ball of fire, touched the horizon and passed beneath it, and the darkness of the tropical night came swiftly over us.
Exercise 4.—Which sentences are simple? complex? compound? In the complex sentences, which clauses are dependent? In the compound sentences, separate the independent clauses from each other. Mention any dependent clauses which you find in the compound sentences.
Exercise 4.—Which sentences are simple? complex? compound? In the complex sentences, which clauses are dependent? In the compound sentences, separate the independent clauses from each other. Mention any dependent clauses which you find in the compound sentences.
1. It was now near the beginning of the month of June, and we had twelve weeks of bad weather before us.
2. Our rocky home was greatly improved by a wideporch, which I made along the whole front of our rooms and entrances.
3. The weeks of imprisonment passed so rapidly that no one found time hanging heavy on his hands.
4. As the rainy season drew to a close, the weather for a while became milder.
5. Thunder roared, lightning blazed, torrents rushed toward the sea, which came in raging billows to meet them.
6. Nature resumed her smiling aspect of peaceful beauty; and soon all traces of the ravages of floods and storms disappeared beneath the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics.
7. The recent storms had stirred the ocean to its depths.
8. We crossed the river for a walk along the coast, and presently Fritz observed on a small island something which was long and rounded, resembling a boat bottom upward.
9. The island being steep and rocky, it was necessary to be careful; but we found a good landing place on the farther side.
10. The boys hurried by the nearest way to the beach where lay the great object, which proved to be a huge stranded whale.
11. Look at these glorious shells and coral branches!
12. Did you notice the extreme delicacy of the shells?
13. We were soon ready to return to the boat, but Ernest had a fancy for remaining alone on the island till we came back.
14. The more oil we could obtain the better, for a great deal was used in the large lantern which burnt day and night in the recesses of the cave.
15. It was unpleasant work to cut up blubber.
Exercise 5.—Expand the following simple sentences by substituting clauses for the italicized words or phrases.Example.I consider him atrustworthyman. I consider him a man who can be trusted.
Exercise 5.—Expand the following simple sentences by substituting clauses for the italicized words or phrases.
Example.I consider him atrustworthyman. I consider him a man who can be trusted.
1. Theearlybird catches the worm. 2. We startedbefore sunrise. 3. Thefaithfulsteward received a reward. 4. I do not doubtyour prudence. 5. They lived in arose-emboweredcottage. 6. Santa Claus came atcandle-lightingtime. 7. We pity thefriendless. 8. The prayer of arighteous manavaileth much. 9. We should share the burdens of theheavy-laden. 10. She carried a daintylace-trimmedhandkerchief. 11. We lingered in thelilac-scentedgarden. 12. Akind-heartedman delights in the happiness of others. 13. The traveler wore afur-linedcoat. 14. I enjoy driving aspiritedhorse. 15. Asolemn-lookingservant opened the door.
Exercise 6.—Use single words in place of the italicized phrases and clauses in the following sentences.
Exercise 6.—Use single words in place of the italicized phrases and clauses in the following sentences.
1. We were steppingtoward the west. 2. A shout ofjoyrang through the woods. 3. The songof the bluebirdsounds from the elm. 4. Her wedding gown,which was made of silk, was very expensive. 5. Words of kindness cheerthose who are unhappy. 6. We listened to his tales,which were often repeated. 7. His deedsof mercymade him beloved. 8. A lookof sadnessclouded the faceof the leader. 9. The lawyerwho is ablesecures many clients. 10. He visited the country,which had recently been discovered.
Exercise 7.—Substitute, for the italicized words, phrases or clauses with the same meaning.Example.Contentedpeople are happy (word). Peoplewith contented mindsare happy (phrase). Peoplewho are contentedare happy (clause).
Exercise 7.—Substitute, for the italicized words, phrases or clauses with the same meaning.
Example.Contentedpeople are happy (word). Peoplewith contented mindsare happy (phrase). Peoplewho are contentedare happy (clause).
1. Anhonestman is the noblest work of God. 2. Afriendlyman will have friends. 3. He is said to be agood-naturedman. 4. Abeautifulchild opened the garden-gate. 5. She wore a simplemuslinfrock. 6. The king wore hisgoldencrown. 7. He lived anoblelife. 8. The garden is filled withfragrantblossoms. 9. Old King Cole was amerryold soul. 10. The queen made somedelicioustarts. 11. He spokehastily. 12. You have a verycomfortablehome. 13. He treated the boyharshly. 14. Take her uptenderly. 15. Beware the fury of apatientman.
Exercise 8.—Combine each set of simple sentences into one complex sentence by changing one of them into a dependent clause.
Exercise 8.—Combine each set of simple sentences into one complex sentence by changing one of them into a dependent clause.
1. The sun is in the west. Man ceases from labor. 2. The dew is falling. You must not walk in the garden. 3. The clock struck twelve. The door opened to admit Marley's ghost. 4. Mary has not written to me. She has been gone a month. 5. The bee is very industrious. It is always gathering honey. 6. I saw a little red owl. It lives in a hollow tree. 7. We pitched our tents on the shore. Then the sea winds blew. 8. We anchored in the bay. The water was calm. 9. They lived in a village. It was many miles from a railroad. 10. The poor suffered. The good man mourned.
Exercise 9.—Combine the simple sentences, making compound sentences.
Exercise 9.—Combine the simple sentences, making compound sentences.
1. The wind blew freshly from the shore. The uneasy billows tossed up and down. 2. Eustace sat under a tree. The children gathered round him. 3. Cowards are cruel. The brave love mercy. 4. Charms strike the sight. Merit wins the soul. 5. He invited his guests to remain longer. They wished to start before the heat of the day. 6. The heaven was above his head. The sand was beneath his feet. 7. The water trickled among the rocks. A pleasant breeze rustled in the dry branches. 8. The commander was badly wounded. His men were scattered. 9. It was half-pasteight in the evening. The conflict had raged for an hour. 10. The heavens declare the glory of God. The firmament showeth his handiwork.
Exercise 10.—Combine the following statements into simple sentences. In each group express the idea of one statement by a modifying word or phrase.Examples.1. She lay down. She was sorrowful. Sorrowfully she lay down. 2. She had no shoes. She had to go barefoot. Having no shoes, she had to go barefoot.
Exercise 10.—Combine the following statements into simple sentences. In each group express the idea of one statement by a modifying word or phrase.
Examples.1. She lay down. She was sorrowful. Sorrowfully she lay down. 2. She had no shoes. She had to go barefoot. Having no shoes, she had to go barefoot.
1. He looked back. He saw a cloud of dust. 2. He sprang to his feet. He ran after the messenger. 3. He donned the white cockade. He fought for the exiled prince. 4. We climbed the mountain. The day was cool. 5. We started for home. The sun had set. 6. He lifted his eyes. He looked toward heaven. He thanked God. 7. It was early morning. He rowed across the lake. 8. He left early. He wished to catch the train. 9. He was very studious. He won the scholarship. 10. I went for a ramble. I took little Annie with me. 11. John is a blacksmith. He lives in the village. 12. He shoes horses. He does it skillfully. 13. The bluebird sings. He tells us spring is here. 14. We feared to start. The night was stormy. 15. The watchman was weary. He slept at his post.
Exercise 11.—Combine the following statements by usingrelative pronouns.Examples.The flames lit the wreck. They shone on the dead. The flamesthatlit the wreck shone on the dead.
Exercise 11.—Combine the following statements by usingrelative pronouns.
Examples.The flames lit the wreck. They shone on the dead. The flamesthatlit the wreck shone on the dead.
1. We heard the roll of ponderous wheels. They roused us from our slumbers. 2. Travelers are surprised at the beauty of the spot. They occasionally come upon it by accident. 3. Our throats are choked with the dust. It lies thick along the road. 4. He drank a cup of cold water. Thisrefreshed him. 5. Along came a flock of sheep. They were being driven to market. 6. I went to live in a country village. It was more than a hundred miles from home. 7. The water gushed from a little spring. It sparkled in the sunshine. 8. The villagers were kindly people. They welcomed strangers. 9. I watch the sunrise stealing down the steeple. This stands opposite my chamber window. 10. Up came a gallant youth. He wore a scarf of the rainbow pattern crosswise on his breast. 11. He found under it a slender little boy. The boy wailed bitterly. 12. The Puritan saw the boy's frightened gaze. He endeavored to reassure him. 13. Here is a little outcast. Providence hath put him in our hands. 14. A young man was on his way to Morristown. He was a peddler by trade. 15. A little canary bird sings sweetly. It hangs in its gilded cage at my window.
Exercise 12.—Fill the blanks with conjunctions selected from the following list.and, also, likewise, moreover, besides, furthermore,but, yet, however, nevertheless,or, either, nor, neither,therefore, hence, then, accordingly.
Exercise 12.—Fill the blanks with conjunctions selected from the following list.
and, also, likewise, moreover, besides, furthermore,but, yet, however, nevertheless,or, either, nor, neither,therefore, hence, then, accordingly.
1. They had been friends in youth, —— whispering tongues can poison truth. 2. The waves beside them danced, ---- they outdid the sparkling waves in glee. 3. The sun sank to rest; —— we lingered. 4. I came, I saw, —— I conquered. 5. He wanted to live, —— he wanted to work. 6. The owl has a backbone; —— it is a vertebrate. 7. Our forest life was rough; —— dangers closed us round. 8. Knowledge comes; —— wisdom lingers. 9. 'Tis winter now, —— spring will blossom soon. 10. We had guns; ---- we had an abundance of ammunition. 11. I go, ---- I return. 12. All the rivers run into the sea; —— the sea is not full. 13. It is storming; —— we will not go.14. He forgave his enemy; —— he was merciful. 15. He is not tired, —— he is lazy. 16. The day proved clear; —— we began our journey. 17. They had —— locks to their doors —— bars to their windows. 18. I assured him of my willingness; —— he hesitated. 19. He proved himself honest; —— I trusted him. 20. The storm raged; —— we pushed on.
Exercise 13.—Two ideas are sometimes stated as of equal importance (compound sentence), when one is really dependent upon the other (complex sentence).Example."I was on my way to school yesterday morning, and I met my cousin Raymond."To revise such a sentence as this, decide which clause contains the main idea, and make this the principal clause, putting the subordinate idea in a subordinate clause.E.g."As I was on my way to school yesterday morning, I met my cousin Raymond."Reconstruct the following sentences, making themcomplexinstead ofcompound:—
Exercise 13.—Two ideas are sometimes stated as of equal importance (compound sentence), when one is really dependent upon the other (complex sentence).
Example."I was on my way to school yesterday morning, and I met my cousin Raymond."
To revise such a sentence as this, decide which clause contains the main idea, and make this the principal clause, putting the subordinate idea in a subordinate clause.
E.g."As I was on my way to school yesterday morning, I met my cousin Raymond."
Reconstruct the following sentences, making themcomplexinstead ofcompound:—
1. The sun was hot, and we rested in the shade.
2. We visited Stratford, and here Shakspere lived.
3. The poor man was bent with age, and he staggered under the heavy load.
4. The old woman lived in a little cottage, and it stood on the edge of the woods.
5. I was walking along the country roads, and I saw some wild strawberries.
6. The little boy carried a bundle, and it seemed very heavy.
7. The night was chilly, and we built a fire in the grate.
8. I wished to pass away the time, and I read a newspaper.
9. He was very ambitious, and he wished to become President.
10. She struck a match, and it burned with a feeble light.
3. Variety in the Use of Sentences:—All your sentences must be simple, or complex, or compound; but there is no reason why you should use one of the three kinds in preference to another. If you examine a passage which you think interesting, you will be quite likely to find that some sentences are simple, some complex, and some compound. The variety is pleasing. If all the sentences had been of one kind, the result would have been decidedly monotonous.
Pupils sometimes ask whether they should use long sentences or short sentences. This question is really answered in the preceding paragraph, for a simple sentence is usually shorter than a complex or a compound sentence. The fact is that what we like isvariety. Until you are more experienced in composition, it will be well for you, in general, to use comparatively short sentences,—that is, sentences of not more than twenty-five or thirty words. You should feel at liberty, however, to follow your own taste in such matters, provided that your sentences are not regularly of about the same length and about the same form, so that your writing is lacking in variety.
Be particularly careful, moreover, to avoid the sentence which is so long as not to be easily understood, such as the following:—
I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine, consisting of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs, who were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, until my sudden appearance frightened theminto mute bashfulness, so that they remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape.
I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine, consisting of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs, who were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, until my sudden appearance frightened theminto mute bashfulness, so that they remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape.
See how much this passage is improved when the long sentence is broken up into shorter sentences:—
I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine. It consisted of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs. They were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, but my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness. They remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape.Exercise 14.—I. Improve the following passage by combining some of the sentences, making larger complex or compound sentences:—
I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine. It consisted of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs. They were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, but my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness. They remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape.
Exercise 14.—I. Improve the following passage by combining some of the sentences, making larger complex or compound sentences:—
I explored an old cellar. I noticed a slight break in the wall. The neck of a bottle projected from it. I drew it from its resting place. It proved to be a quaint green glass bottle. It bore a label. The label read "Currant Wine, 1802." I smacked my lips.
I handed the bottle to my companion to open. He pulled the cork out with his teeth. We filled two tumblers. I thanked him. I raised the glass to my lips. I took a deep draught. Instantly I bounded to my feet. My bound would have done credit to an athlete. I made for the spring-house.
"Seems to me," remarked the old tenant of the house,—"seems to me that was horse liniment. I know the smell."
II. Improve the following passage by using a greater number of sentences:—
II. Improve the following passage by using a greater number of sentences:—
Once upon a time there were two princes who were twins and they lived in the pleasant vale of Argos, far away in Hellas, where they had fruitful meadows and vineyards, sheep and oxen, and great herds of horses and all that men could need to make them blest, and yet they were wretched, because they were jealous of each other, and from the moment they were born began to quarrel.
Exercise 15.—Improve the following by varying the length of your sentences, making some long and some short:—
Exercise 15.—Improve the following by varying the length of your sentences, making some long and some short:—
A sleep fell upon the whole castle. The beautiful princess slept in her chamber. The king and the queen were in the great hall. They fell fast asleep. The horses slept in their stalls. The dogs slept in the yard. The pigeons slept on the roof. The very fire on the hearth slept like the rest. The meat on the spit ceased roasting. The wind ceased. Not a leaf fell from the trees about the castle.
Around about that place grew a hedge of thorns. At last the whole castle was hidden from view. Nothing could be seen but the vane on the roof.
Years after a king's son came into that country. He heard about the enchanted castle. He came near the hedge of thorns. It changed into a hedge of beautiful flowers. He passed through into the castle yard. He saw the horses and the hunting dogs lying asleep. On the roof, the pigeons were sitting with their heads under their wings. He entered the kitchen. The flies on the wall were asleep. The cook had her hand uplifted to strike the scullion. The kitchen maid had a fowl in her lap ready to pluck.
He mounted higher. He saw the whole court asleep. The king and the queen were asleep on their thrones. At last he came to the tower. He went up the winding stair. He opened the door. He entered the room of the princess.
He stooped and kissed the princess. She opened her eyes and looked kindly at him. She rose. They went forth together. Then the king and queen and whole court waked up. The horses rose and shook themselves. The hounds sprang up and wagged their tails. The pigeons flew into the field. The kitchen fire leaped up and cooked the meat. The cook gave the scullion a box on the ear. He roared out. The maid went on plucking the fowl.
The wedding of the prince and princess was celebrated with great splendor. They lived happily ever after.
4. Periodic Sentences.—We have now discussed sentences with regard to their grammatical structure and with regard to their length. There is one more way in which they may be looked at; that is, the degree to which the sense is suspended. This will require a little explanation.
In each of the following sentences two vertical lines are placed at the spot where the words first make complete sense.
1. Whenever he comes, he is warmly welcomed.||
2. He is warmly welcomed|| whenever he comes.
3. When Absalom died, David mourned.||
4. David mourned|| when Absalom died.
5. As the President passed, the soldiers saluted.||
6. The soldiers saluted|| as the President passed.
7. While there is life, there is hope.||
8. The sun shines|| on the just and the unjust.
9. The steam tug had long since let slip her hawsers,|| and gone panting away with a derisive scream.
10. The ship seemed quite proud|| of being left to take care of itself, and, with its huge white sails bulged out, strutted off like a vain turkey.
When the words in a sentence are so arranged that the sense is not immediately complete, the sense is said to besuspended. A sentence in which the sense is suspended until the end, or near the end, is called aperiodicsentence. A sentence in which the sense is not suspended until the end, or near the end, is called aloosesentence.