New Names.Correspondent Old Names.Antimony}{Antimony.Arsenic}{Arsenic.Bismuth}{Bismuth.Cobalt}{Cobalt.Copper}{Copper.Gold}{Gold.Iron}{Iron.Lead} Regulus of{Lead.Manganese}{Manganese.Mercury}{Mercury.Molybdena}{Molybdena.Nickel}{Nickel.Platina}{Platina.Silver}{Silver.Tin}{Tin.Tungstein}{Tungstein.Zinc}{Zinc.
New Names.Correspondent old Names.Lime{Chalk, calcareous earth.{Quicklime.Magnesia{Magnesia, base of Epsom salt.{Calcined or caustic magnesia.BarytesBarytes, or heavy earth.ArgillClay, earth of alum.SilexSiliceous or vitrifiable earth.
The principle object of chemical experiments is to decompose natural bodies, so as separately to examine the different substances which enter into their composition. By consulting chemical systems, it will be found that this science of chemical analysis has made rapid progress in our own times. Formerly oil and salt were considered as elements of bodies, whereas later observation and experiment have shown that all salts, instead of being simple, are composed of an acid united to a base. The bounds of analysis have been greatly enlarged by modern discoveries[36]; the acids are shown to be composed of oxygen, as an acidifying principle common to all, united in each to a particular base. I have proved what Mr Haffenfratz hadbefore advanced, that these radicals of the acids are not all simple elements, many of them being, like the oily principle, composed of hydrogen and charcoal. Even the bases of neutral salts have been proved by Mr Berthollet to be compounds, as he has shown that ammoniac is composed of azote and hydrogen.
Thus, as chemistry advances towards perfection, by dividing and subdividing, it is impossible to say where it is to end; and these things we at present suppose simple may soon be found quite otherwise. All we dare venture to affirm of any substance is, that it must be considered as simple in the present state of our knowledge, and so far as chemical analysis has hitherto been able to show. We may even presume that the earths must soon cease to be considered as simple bodies; they are the only bodies of the salifiable class which have no tendency to unite with oxygen; and I am much inclined to believe that this proceeds from their being already saturated with that element. If so, they will fall to be considered as compounds consisting of simple substances, perhaps metallic, oxydated to a certain degree. This is only hazarded as a conjecture; and I trust the reader will take care not to confound what I have related as truths, fixed on the firm basis of observation and experiment, with mere hypothetical conjectures.
The fixed alkalies, potash, and soda, are omitted in the foregoing Table, because they are evidently compound substances, though we are ignorant as yet what are the elements they are composed of.
Names of the radicals.Oxydable or acidifiable{ Nitro-muriatic radical orbase, from the mineral{ base of the acid formerlykingdom.{ called aqua regia.{ Tartarous radical or base.{ Malic.}{ Citric.}{ Pyro-lignous.}Oxydable or acidifiable{ Pyro-mucous.}hydro-carbonous or{ Pyro-tartarous.}carbono-hydrous radicals{ Oxalic.}from the vegetable{ Acetous.}kingdom.{ Succinic.} Radicals{ Benzoic.}{ Camphoric.}{ Gallic.}}Oxydable or acidifiable{ Lactic.}radicals from the animal{ Saccholactic.}kingdom, which{ Formic.}mostly contain azote,{ Bombic.}and frequently phosphorus.{ Sebacic.}{ Lithic.}{ Prussic.}
Note.—The radicals from the vegetable kingdom are converted by a first degree of oxygenation into vegetable oxyds, such as sugar, starch, and gum or mucus: Those of the animal kingdom by the same means form animal oxyds, as lymph, &c.—A.
The older chemists being unacquainted with the composition of acids, and not suspecting them to be formed by a peculiar radical or base for each, united to an acidifying principle or element common to all, could not consequently give any name to substances of which they had not the most distant idea. We had therefore to invent a new nomenclature for this subject, though we were at the same time sensible that this nomenclature must be susceptible of great modification when the nature of the compound radicals shall be better understood[37].
The compound oxydable and acidifiable radicals from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, enumerated in the foregoing table, are not hitherto reducible to systematic nomenclature, because their exact analysis is as yet unknown. We only know in general, by some experiments of my own, and some made by Mr Hassenfratz, that most of the vegetable acids, such as the tartarous, oxalic, citric, malic, acetous, pyro-tartarous, and pyromucous, have radicals composed of hydrogen and charcoal, combined insuch a way as to form single bases, and that these acids only differ from each other by the proportions in which these two substances enter into the composition of their bases, and by the degree of oxygenation which these bases have received. We know farther, chiefly from the experiments of Mr Berthollet, that the radicals from the animal kingdom, and even some of those from vegetables, are of a more compound nature, and, besides hydrogen and charcoal, that they often contain azote, and sometimes phosphorus; but we are not hitherto possessed of sufficiently accurate experiments for calculating the proportions of these several substances. We are therefore forced, in the manner of the older chemists, still to name these acids after the substances from which they are procured. There can be little doubt that these names will be laid aside when our knowledge of these substances becomes more accurate and extensive; the termshydro-carbonous,hydro-carbonic,carbono-hydrous, andcarbono hydric[38], will then become substituted for those we now employ, which will then only remain as testimonies of the imperfect state in which this part of chemistry was transmitted to us by our predecessors.
It is evident that the oils, being composed of hydrogen and charcoal combined, are true carbono-hydrous or hydro-carbonous radicals; and, indeed, by adding oxygen, they are convertible into vegetable oxyds and acids, according to their degrees of oxygenation. We cannot, however, affirm that oils enter in their entire state into the composition of vegetable oxyds and acids; it is possible that they previously lose a part either of their hydrogen or charcoal, and that the remaining ingredients no longer exist in the proportions necessary to constitute oils. We still require farther experiments to elucidate these points.
Properly speaking, we are only acquainted with one compound radical from the mineral kingdom, the nitro-muriatic, which is formed by the combination of azote with the muriatic radical. The other compound mineral acids have been much less attended to, from their producing less striking phenomena.
I have not constructed any table of the combinations of light and caloric with the various simple and compound substances, because our conceptions of the nature of these combinations are not hitherto sufficiently accurate. Weknow, in general, that all bodies in nature are imbued, surrounded, and penetrated in every way with caloric, which fills up every interval left between their particles; that, in certain cases, caloric becomes fixed in bodies, so as to constitute a part even of their solid substance, though it more frequently acts upon them with a repulsive force, from which, or from its accumulation in bodies to a greater or lesser degree, the transformation of solids into fluids, and of fluids to aëriform elasticity, is entirely owing. We have employed the generic namegasto indicate this aëriform state of bodies produced by a sufficient accumulation of caloric; so that, when we wish to express the aëriform state of muriatic acid, carbonic acid, hydrogen, water, alkohol, &c. we do it by adding the wordgasto their names; thus muriatic acid gas, carbonic acid gas, hydrogen gas, aqueous gas, alkoholic gas, &c.
The combinations of light, and its mode of acting upon different bodies, is still less known. By the experiments of Mr Berthollet, it appears to have great affinity with oxygen, is susceptible of combining with it, and contributes alongst with caloric to change it into the state of gas. Experiments upon vegetation give reason to believe that light combines with certain parts of vegetables, and that the green of their leaves, and the various colours of their flowers, is chieflyowing to this combination. This much is certain, that plants which grow in darkness are perfectly white, languid, and unhealthy, and that to make them recover vigour, and to acquire their natural colours, the direct influence of light is absolutely necessary. Somewhat similar takes place even upon animals: Mankind degenerate to a certain degree when employed in sedentary manufactures, or from living in crowded houses, or in the narrow lanes of large cities; whereas they improve in their nature and constitution in most of the country labours which are carried on in the open air. Organization, sensation, spontaneous motion, and all the operations of life, only exist at the surface of the earth, and in places exposed to the influence of light. Without it nature itself would be lifeless and inanimate. By means of light, the benevolence of the Deity hath filled the surface of the earth with organization, sensation, and intelligence. The fable of Promotheus might perhaps be considered as giving a hint of this philosophical truth, which had even presented itself to the knowledge of the ancients. I have intentionally avoided any disquisitions relative to organized bodies in this work, for which reason the phenomena of respiration, sanguification, and animal heat, are not considered; but I hope, at some future time, to be able to elucidate these curious subjects.
Combinations of oxygen with simple non-metallic substances.Names of the simple substances.First degree of oxygenation.New Names.Ancient Names.CaloricOxygen gasVital or dephlogisticated airHydrogen.Water(A).AzoteNitrous oxyd, or base of nitrous gasNitrous gas or airCharcoalOxyd of charcoal, or carbonic oxydUnknownSulphurOxyd of sulphurSoft sulphurPhosphorusOxyd of phosphorus {Residuum from the combustion of phosphorusMuriatic radicalMuriatic oxydUnknownFluoric radicalFluoric oxydUnknownBoracic radicalBoracic oxydUnknownCombinations of oxygen with the simple metallic substances.AntimonyGrey oxyd of antimonyGrey calx of antimonySilverOxyd of silverCalx of silverArsenicGrey oxyd of arsenicGrey calx of arsenicBismuthGrey oxyd of bismuthGrey calx of bismuthCobaltGrey oxyd of cobaltGrey calx of cobaltCopperBrown oxyd of copperBrown calx of copperTinGrey oxyd of tinGrey calx of tinIronBlack oxyd of ironMartial ethiopsManganeseBlack oxyd of manganeseBlack calx of manganeseMercuryBlack oxyd of mercuryEthiops mineral(B)MolybdenaOxyd of molybdenaCalx of molybdenaNickelOxyd of nickelCalx of nickelGoldYellow oxyd of goldYellow calx of goldPlatinaYellow oxyd of platinaYellow calx of platinaLeadGrey oxyd of leadGrey calx of leadTungsteinOxyd of TungsteinCalx of TungsteinZincGrey oxyd of zincGrey calx of zinc
Combinations of oxygen with simple non-metallic substances.Names of the simple substances.Second degree of oxygenation.New Names.Ancient Names.CaloricHydrogen.AzoteNitrous acidSmoaking nitrous acidCharcoalCarbonous acidUnknownSulphurSulphurous acidSulphureous acidPhosphorusPhosphorous acidVolatile acid of phosphorusMuriatic radicalMuriatous acidUnknownFluoric radicalFluorous acidUnknownBoracic radicalBoracous acidUnknownCombinations of oxygen with the simple metallic substances.AntimonyWhite oxyd of antimonyWhite calx of antimony, diaphoretic antimonySilverArsenicWhite oxyd of arsenicWhite calx of arsenicBismuthWhite oxyd of bismuthWhite calx of bismuthCobaltCopperBlue and green oxyds of copperBlue and green calces of copperTinWhite oxyd of tinWhite calx of tin, or putty of tinIronYellow and red oxyds of ironOchre and rust of ironManganeseWhite oxyd of manganeseWhite calx of manganeseMercuryYellow and red oxyds of mercuryTurbith mineral, red precipitate, calcinated mercury, precipitate per seMolybdenaNickelGoldRed oxyd of goldRed calx of gold, purple precipitate of cassiusPlatinaLeadYellow and red oxyds of leadMassicot and miniumTungsteinZincWhite oxyd of zincWhite calx of zinc, pompholix
Combinations of oxygen with simple non-metallic substances.Names of the simple substances.Third degree of oxygenation.New Names.Ancient Names.CaloricHydrogen.AzoteNitric acidPale, or not smoaking nitrous acidCharcoalCarbonic acidFixed airSulphurSulphuric acidVitriolic acidPhosphorusPhosphoric acidPhosphoric acidMuriatic radicalMuriatic acidMarine acidFluoric radicalFluoric acidUnknown till latelyBoracic radicalBoracic acidHomberg's sedative saltCombinations of oxygen with the simple metallic substances.AntimonyAntimonic acidSilverArgentic acidArsenicArseniac acidAcid of arsenicBismuthBismuthic acidCobaltCobaltic acidCopperCupric acidTinStannic acidIronFerric acidManganeseManganesic acidMercuryMercuric acidMolybdenaMolybdic acidAcid of molybdenaNickelNickelic acidGoldAuric acidPlatinaPlatinic acidLeadPlumbic acidTungsteinTungstic acidAcid of TungsteinZincZincic acid
Combinations of oxygen with simple non-metallic substances.Names of the simple substances.Fourth degree of oxygenation.New Names.Ancient Names.CaloricHydrogen.AzoteOxygenated nitricUnknown acidCharcoalOxygenated carbonic acidUnknownSulphurOxygenated sulphuric acidUnknownPhosphorusOxygenated phosphoric acidUnknownMuriatic radicalOxygenated muriatic acidDephlogisticated marine acidFluoric radicalBoracic radicalCombinations of oxygen with the simple metallic substances.AntimonySilverArsenicOxygenated arseniac acidUnknownBismuthCobaltCopperTinIronManganeseMercuryMolybdenaOxygenated molybdic acidUnknownNickelGoldPlatinaLeadTungsteinOxygenated Tungstic acidUnknownZinc
[Note A: Only one degree of oxygenation of hydrogen is hitherto known.—A.]
[Note B: Ethiops mineral is the sulphuret of mercury; this should have been called black precipitate of mercury.—E.]
Oxygen forms almost a third of the mass of our atmosphere, and is consequently one of the most plentiful substances in nature. All the animals and vegetables live and grow in this immense magazine of oxygen gas, and from it we procure the greatest part of what we employ in experiments. So great is the reciprocal affinity between this element and other substances, that we cannot procure it disengaged from all combination. In the atmosphere it is united with caloric, in the state of oxygen gas, and this again is mixed with about two thirds of its weight of azotic gas.
Several conditions are requisite to enable a body to become oxygenated, or to permit oxygen to enter into combination with it. In the first place, it is necessary that the particles of the body to be oxygenated shall have less reciprocal attraction with each other than they have for the oxygen, which otherwise cannot possibly combine with them. Nature, in this case, may be assisted by art, as we have it in our power to diminish the attraction of the particles of bodies almost at will by heating them, or, in other words, by introducing caloric into the intersticesbetween their particles; and, as the attraction of these particles for each other is diminished in the inverse ratio of their distance, it is evident that there must be a certain point of distance of particles when the affinity they possess with each other becomes less than that they have for oxygen, and at which oxygenation must necessarily take place if oxygen be present.
We can readily conceive that the degree of heat at which this phenomenon begins must be different in different bodies. Hence, on purpose to oxygenate most bodies, especially the greater part of the simple substances, it is only necessary to expose them to the influence of the air of the atmosphere in a convenient degree of temperature. With respect to lead, mercury, and tin, this needs be but little higher than the medium temperature of the earth; but it requires a more considerable degree of heat to oxygenate iron, copper, &c. by the dry way, or when this operation is not assisted by moisture. Sometimes oxygenation takes place with great rapidity, and is accompanied by great sensible heat, light, and flame; such is the combustion of phosphorus in atmospheric air, and of iron in oxygen gas. That of sulphur is less rapid; and the oxygenation of lead, tin, and most of the metals, takes place vastly slower, and consequently the disengagement of caloric, and more especially of light, is hardly sensible.
Some substances have so strong an affinity with oxygen, and combine with it in such low degrees of temperature, that we cannot procure them in their unoxygenated state; such is the muriatic acid, which has not hitherto been decomposed by art, perhaps even not by nature, and which consequently has only been found in the state of acid. It is probable that many other substances of the mineral kingdom are necessarily oxygenated in the common temperature of the atmosphere, and that being already saturated with oxygen, prevents their farther action upon that element.
There are other means of oxygenating simple substances besides exposure to air in a certain degree of temperature, such as by placing them in contact with metals combined with oxygen, and which have little affinity with that element. The red oxyd of mercury is one of the best substances for this purpose, especially with bodies which do not combine with that metal. In this oxyd the oxygen is united with very little force to the metal, and can be driven out by a degree of heat only sufficient to make glass red hot; wherefore such bodies as are capable of uniting with oxygen are readily oxygenated, by means of being mixed with red oxyd of mercury, and moderately heated. The same effect may be, to a certain degree, produced by means of the black oxyd of manganese, the red oxyd of lead,the oxyds of silver, and by most of the metallic oxyds, if we only take care to choose such as have less affinity with oxygen than the bodies they are meant to oxygenate. All the metallic reductions and revivifications belong to this class of operations, being nothing more than oxygenations of charcoal, by means of the several metallic oxyds. The charcoal combines with the oxygen and with caloric, and escapes in form of carbonic acid gas, while the metal remains pure and revivified, or deprived of the oxygen which before combined with it in the form of oxyd.
All combustible substances may likewise be oxygenated by means of mixing them with nitrat of potash or of soda, or with oxygenated muriat of potash, and subjecting the mixture to a certain degree of heat; the oxygen, in this case, quits the nitrat or the muriat, and combines with the combustible body. This species of oxygenation requires to be performed with extreme caution, and only with very small quantities; because, as the oxygen enters into the composition of nitrats, and more especially of oxygenated muriats, combined with almost as much caloric as is necessary for converting it into oxygen gas, this immense quantity of caloric becomes suddenly free the instant of the combination of the oxygen with the combustiblebody, and produces such violent explosions as are perfectly irresistible.
By the humid way we can oxygenate most combustible bodies, and convert most of the oxyds of the three kingdoms of nature into acids. For this purpose we chiefly employ the nitric acid, which has a very slight hold of oxygen, and quits it readily to a great number of bodies by the assistance of a gentle heat. The oxygenated muriatic acid may be used for several operations of this kind, but not in them all.
I give the name ofbinaryto the combinations of oxygen with the simple substances, because in these only two elements are combined. When three substances are united in one combination I call itternary, andquaternarywhen the combination consists of four substances united.
Names of the radicals.Names of the resulting acids.New nomenclature.Old nomenclature.Nitro muriatic radicalNitro muriatic acidAqua regia.(A)TartaricTartarous acidUnknown till lately.MalicMalic acidDitto.CitricCitric acidAcid of lemons.Pyro-lignousPyro-lignous acidEmpyreumatic acid of wood.Pyro-mucousPyro-mucous acidEmpyr. acid of sugar.Pyro-tartarousPyro-tartarous acidEmpyr. acid of tartar.OxalicOxalic acidAcid of sorel.Acetic{Acetous acidVinegar, or acid of vinegar.{Acetic acidRadical vinegar.SuccinicSuccinic acidVolatile salt of amber.BenzoicBenzotic acidFlowers of benzoin.CamphoricCamphoric acidUnknown till lately.GallicGallic acidThe astringent principle of vegetables.(B)LacticLactic acidAcid of sour whey.SaccholacticSaccholactic acidUnknown till lately.FormicFormic acidAcid of ants.BombicBombic acidUnknown till lately.SebacicSebacic acidDitto.LithicLithic acidUrinary calculus.PrussicPrussic acidColouring matter of Prussian blue.
[Note A: These radicals by a first degree of oxygenation form vegetable oxyds, as sugar, starch, mucus, &c.—A.]
[Note B: These radicals by a first degree of oxygenation form the animal oxyds, as lymph, red part of the blood, animal secretions, &c.—A.]
I published a new theory of the nature and formation of acids in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1776, p. 671. and 1778, p. 535. in which I concluded, that the number of acids must be greatly larger than was till then supposed. Since that time, a new field of inquiry has been opened to chemists; and, instead of five or six acids which were then known, near thirty new acids have been discovered, by which means the number of known neutral salts have been increased in the same proportion. The nature of the acidifiable bases, or radicals of the acids, and the degrees of oxygenation they are susceptible of, still remain to be inquired into. I have already shown, that almost all the oxydable and acidifiable radicals from the mineral kingdom are simple, and that, on the contrary, there hardly exists any radical in the vegetable, and more especially in the animal kingdom, but is composed of at least two substances, hydrogen and charcoal, and that azote and phosphorus are frequently united to these, by which we have compound radicals of two, three, and four bases or simple elements united.
From these observations, it appears that the vegetable and animal oxyds and acids may differ from each other in three several ways: 1st, According to the number of simple acidifiable elements of which their radicals are composed: 2dly, According to the proportions in which these are combined together: And, 3dly, According to their different degrees of oxygenation: Which circumstances are more than sufficient to explain the great variety which nature produces in these substances. It is not at all surprising, after this, that most of the vegetable acids are convertible into each other, nothing more being requisite than to change the proportions of the hydrogen and charcoal in their composition, and to oxygenate them in a greater or lesser degree. This has been done by Mr Crell in some very ingenious experiments, which have been verified and extended by Mr Hassenfratz. From these it appears, that charcoal and hydrogen, by a first oxygenation, produce tartarous acid, oxalic acid by a second degree, and acetous or acetic acid by a third, or higher oxygenation; only, that charcoal seems to exist in a rather smaller proportion in the acetous and acetic acids. The citric and malic acids differ little from the preceding acids.
Ought we then to conclude that the oils are the radicals of the vegetable and animal acids? I have already expressed my doubts upon thissubject: 1st, Although the oils appear to be formed of nothing but hydrogen and charcoal, we do not know if these are in the precise proportion necessary for constituting the radicals of the acids: 2dly, Since oxygen enters into the composition of these acids equally with hydrogen and charcoal, there is no more reason for supposing them to be composed of oil rather than of water or of carbonic acid. It is true that they contain the materials necessary for all these combinations, but then these do not take place in the common temperature of the atmosphere; all the three elements remain combined in a state of equilibrium, which is readily destroyed by a temperature only a little above that of boiling water[39].
Simple Substances.Results of the Combinations.New Nomenclature.Old Nomenclature.CaloricAzotic gasPhlogisticated air, or Mephitis.HydrogenAmmoniacVolatile alkali.{Nitrous oxydBase of Nitrous gas.{Nitrous acidSmoaking nitrous acid.Oxygen{Nitric acidPale nitrous acid.{Oxygenated nitric acidUnknown.{This combination is hitherto unknown; should it{ever be discovered, it will be called, according toCharcoal{the principles of our nomenclature, Azuret of{Charcoal. Charcoal dissolves in azotic gas, and{forms carbonated azotic gas.Phosphorus.Azuret of phosphorus.Still unknown.{Azuret of sulphur.Still unknown. We knowSulphur{that sulphur dissolves in azotic gas, forming{sulphurated azotic gas.{Azote combines with charcoal and hydrogen, andCompound{sometimes with phosphorus, in the compoundradicals{oxydable and acidifiable bases, and is generally{contained in the radicals of the animal acids.{Such combinations are hitherto unknown; if everMetallic{discovered, they will form metallic azurets, assubstances{azuret of gold, of silver, &c.Lime{Magnesia{Barytes{Entirely unknown. If ever discovered, they willArgill{form azuret of lime, azuret of magnesia, &c.Potash{Soda{
Azote is one of the most abundant elements; combined with caloric it forms azotic gas, or mephitis, which composes nearly two thirds of the atmosphere. This element is always in the state of gas in the ordinary pressure and temperature, and no degree of compression or of cold has been hitherto capable of reducing it either to a solid or liquid form. This is likewise one of the essential constituent elements of animal bodies, in which it is combined with charcoal and hydrogen, and sometimes with phosphorus; these are united together by a certain portion of oxygen, by which they are formed into oxyds or acids according to the degree of oxygenation. Hence the animal substances may be varied, in the same way with vegetables, in three different manners: 1st, According to the number of elements which enter into the composition of the base or radical: 2dly, According to the proportions of these elements: 3dly, According to the degree of oxygenation.
When combined with oxygen, azote forms the nitrous and nitric oxyds and acids; when with hydrogen, ammoniac is produced. Its combinations with the other simple elementsare very little known; to these we give the name of Azurets, preserving the termination inuretfor all nonoxygenated compounds. It is extremely probable that all the alkaline substances may hereafter be found to belong to this genus of azurets.
The azotic gas may be procured from atmospheric air, by absorbing the oxygen gas which is mixed with it by means of a solution of sulphuret of potash, or sulphuret of lime. It requires twelve or fifteen days to complete this process, during which time the surface in contact must be frequently renewed by agitation, and by breaking the pellicle which forms on the top of the solution. It may likewise be procured by dissolving animal substances in dilute nitric acid very little heated. In this operation, the azote is disengaged in form of gas, which we receive under bell glasses filled with water in the pneumato-chemical apparatus. We may procure this gas by deflagrating nitre with charcoal, or any other combustible substance; when with charcoal, the azotic gas is mixed with carbonic acid gas, which may be absorbed by a solution of caustic alkali, or by lime water, after which the azotic gas remains pure. We can procure it in a fourth manner from combinations of ammoniac with metallic oxyds, as pointed out by Mr de Fourcroy: The hydrogen of the ammoniac combines with the oxygen of theoxyd, and forms water, whilst the azote being left free escapes in form of gas.
The combinations of azote were but lately discovered: Mr Cavendish first observed it in nitrous gas and acid, and Mr Berthollet in ammoniac and the prussic acid. As no evidence of its decomposition has hitherto appeared, we are fully entitled to consider azote as a simple elementary substance.