I.Dermal vertebra.A.Sexual vertebræ.a. Coccygeal vertebræ5,b. Sexual vertebræ5,c. Pedal vertebræ5.B.Abdominal vertebræ5.C.Thoracic vertebræ.a. Pulmonary vertebræ5,b. Brachial vertebræ5,c. Cervical vertebræ5.II.Auditory vertebra1.III.Lingual vertebra1.IV.Optic vertebra1.V.Nasal vertebra1.
This regularity is found too only in the human skeleton. The animals are irregular men. (Vide Oken's Zahlengesetz in den Wirbeln. Isis, 1829, S. 306.)
Cavities of the Trunk.
2115. The osseous system forms the trunk or body, because it follows the vascular system; the two other galvanic systems, the dermal and intestinal systems, form the large portions of the trunk or its cavities; to them is added the sexual cavity or pelvis.
2116. There are thus three truncal cavities, a pulmonary, an intestinal, and a sexual cavity, or thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavity.
2117. The osseous system will develop itself most feebly around the abdominal, because it is the indifferent cavity. Therefore there are either no ribs at all, or they are so short that they do not reach to the anteriorvertebral column or the sternum. The short or false ribs are, according to their physiological sense,abdominalorsplanchnicribs. The thoracic ribs must be perfectly developed, i. e. abut against both vertebral columns, be entire ribs; the entire or perfect ribs are thoracic orpulmonaryribs. The sexual ribs are arrested on the pedal and coccygeal vertebræ, but on the proper sexual vertebræ, namely, the sacral bone, they are still present as rudiments.
3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
2118. As the intestinal system reappears in what is animal under the condition of a vertebral column, so also does the aggregate of the vascular system ascend, and the vessels become animal.
2119. The animal vessels are the muscles, or filled-up vessels. The polar process enters the body through the vessels; thereby the tubes obtain two strong poles, and are drawn out lengthways. They arefibres, and consist of a series of strongly oxydized blood-globules.
2120. The fibre is chiefly apparent in those vessels, such as the arteries, in which the influence of air operates more forcibly. Now an artery has, in addition to the external cellular coat, two coats, like the first animal body, or one wall turned towards the mucus, and one towards the air. The internal arterial wall is enteroid, the external dermoid in character; the one being simply granular, the other fibrous membrane. The two membranes separate into two cysts or tubes, which likewise adhere within each other like intestine and skin. The external will become fibre, the internal bone.
2121. There is a vegetative and an animal fibre-or muscle-system. The one is associated with the tegumentary formations, the other with the bones and nerves.
a.Vegetative Muscles.
2122. The muscles of vegetative life are simply fibrous tunics, as in the arteries, and are found in the skin, in the intestine, and in the vessels.
2123. The tegumentary muscles lie under the skin, and are inserted into it, or into the dermo-osteous system, when such an one is present. If the fibrous membrane be strongly developed under the skin, then it receives the name of aPanniculus carnosus.
2124. The intestine has also its fibrous coat, which, upon the stomach, anus, and pharynx, is frequently developed as a panniculus carnosus.
2125. The same holds good of the vessels, especially of the arteries and trachea.
2126. The fibres are either elongated or else annular fibres. The latter obtain the preponderance at the extremities of the tubular formations, as on the pharynx, anus, lips, and eyelids.
2127. We have consequently a dermal, splanchnic, and osseo-muscular system.
b.Animal Muscles.
2128. In the oxydizing part of the vascular system the formation of fibres must be preponderant over that of cells, and thus at the root of the lungs.
2129. The vessel becomes in the lungs a fleshy cavity. The fleshy vessel is theheart.
2130. The heart is a vascular fragment, with a preponderating development of fibrous membrane.
2131. This fibrous membrane is developed at a spot where all vascular systems enter into mutual proximity, such as the respiratory ducts and the intestinal lymphatic vessel, the artery and the vein.
2132. In the union of all the highest galvanism is attained, and then the formation may launch out into what is animal.
2133. The heart is the animal in the plant.
2134. The first heart is an arterial heart. There is originally no venous heart. In the embryo, particularly in that of the bird, this is extremely distinct; the arterial heart also emerges for the first time, and per se, in the lowest animals, in the Molluscs, Snails, and even in the Fishes, although in the latter it is regarded as a venous heart.
2135. The arterial heart is the central, the venous heart the peripheric.
2136. The heart is the prototype of the muscular system. All muscles must be a metatype of the heart.
2137. The muscle is hollow. It is a cyst.
2138. The muscular system is a manifold and serial juxtaposition of fibrous cysts or of hearts. In this respect the muscle has been formed in a corresponding manner to bone. Both are rows of cysts.
2139. But the muscle, as being the external fibrous tunic, is the enveloping or external cyst.
2140. In idea, the muscle can only directly envelop the bones, and not the other parts, for it ranks upon the same grade of development with the bone; it is the arterio-fibrous wall, while the bone is the internal arterial wall.
2141. Bone and flesh stand in antagonism like air and earth. The muscle is that which is polarizing—moving, the bone what is polarized, moved. The muscle is heart, the bone the moved blood. Bone and muscle are related as that which is contained and what is containing. The muscle is the wall of the cyst, the bone, the fluid which has been secreted from it and rigidified.
2142. As therefore the muscle is an individual cyst, a heart, which cannot invest the whole body like a single large cyst, so also must the muscular contents be only a discrete cyst. The uninterrupted character of the bones depends therefore upon that of the muscles, and the latter upon the meaning of the heart.
2143.A physiological rationale of the joints is accordingly afforded in the heart.
2144. A bone is a rigidified, ossified heart; the osseous system is a series of mutually dependent, alternately ossified and non-ossified (arteriose and venous) hearts.
2145. The muscular cyst includes the soft bone, or the joint.
2146. At its two extremities there is preponderance of oxydation, whereby the soft osseous cysts are combusted into hard calcareous earth.
2147. The muscle is a cause of the alternating ossification.
RELATION TO THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
2148. As the formation of bone predominates upon the side exposed to the light or the nervous, so does that of muscle upon the shady or vascular side. The abdominal side of the animal is the muscular, just as the dorsal side is the osseous. Upon the thorax, abdomen, on the members which belong to the anterior region of the body, and on the face, the muscular layer is by far the most predominant. Posteriorly, however, or upon the back, it is slightly wanting, and the bones there project.
2149. The back is related to the anterior surface (when regarded in man) as bone is to muscle. What isin frontis muscle, what isbehindis bone. The anterior side is therefore more active, nobler, more powerful and more spiritual than the posterior. Posteriorly stands the earth inert and rigidified, while in front is the air in ceaseless capacity for, and actually in, motion. The anterior muscular layer is more active and powerful than the posterior.
2150. In every muscular cyst there are two kinds of layers, an anterior and a posterior, or stronger and weaker layer.
2151. The stronger layer is the flexing, the weaker the extending. For the limbs have been necessarily bent forwards. The direction alone of the joints at once resides in the structure, which is even determined by these relations. Such a muscular layer, which mostly consists of several bundles, is termed a muscle.
2152. A muscular cyst consists of flexor and extensor muscles. The individual muscle is therefore only a piece of a cyst, and therefore not in itself hollow. It is only an entire muscular layer of flexors and extensors which is the pattern of the heart. The flexors are the strongest and are placed in front, the extensors lie behind.
2153. In the heart the flexor layers have not yetseparated from the extensor layers, because the vegetable flesh has as yet no symmetry in itself.
2154. Flexors and extensors occur in pairs; because the osseous system is in pairs.
2155. There resides in the osseous and in the muscular system no cause for a diversity in the two halves of the body. Thus, if there be a difference, it must only reside in the asymmetrical galvanic systems.
2156. Organs are parts of an anatomical system, which separating, combine with a part of another system, and thereby obtain a peculiar or special function.
2157. For each system therefore there are as many organs, as there are possible combinations of systems. There are vascular, intestinal, pulmonary, sexual and tegumentary organs, with furthermore, osseous, muscular and nervous organs.
A.VEGETATIVE ORGANS.
1. INTESTINAL ORGANS.
2158. The intestinal or splanchnic system falls first of all into three great divisions, into that of the viscera, the sex and the head; the visceral intestine separates moreover into pulmonic, venous and tegumentary intestine, and this in constant accordance with its combinations and functions.
a.Visceral Intestine.
2159. In the digestive system it is the chemical process that takes precedence. This, however, divides into three moments, into that ofsolution,separationandformation, or crystallization, which is hereabsorption. Thus the intestine separates also into a solvent, secernent and absorbent intestine, and that indeed through its combination with the pulmonic, vascular and tegumentary system. The solvent viscus is the stomach, the secondor secernent, the duodenum, the third or absorbent, the small intestine (jejunum and ileum).
Pulmonic Intestine.
2160. All solution is accompanied by oxydation. The gastric juice is in its action an acid.
2161. The gastric juice obtains its oxygen from the spleen. The spleen is the stomachic lung. This is attested by its position and close approximation to the stomach; by its black, venous, and deoxydized blood, which in certain diseases has been secreted even in the stomach; by its want of any excretory duct; by its tissue, which resembles that of the oxydized placenta; furthermore by the natural character of this function when contrasted with the unnatural quality of other useless functions that have been assigned to it; and lastly too, by the fact that, without this opinion be admitted, it must remain a superfluous organ, and as regards use, unknown. After a series of years, during which this doctrine has been combated upon all sides, without, however, a single reason, save and except that it was not believed, being advanced by its opponents, I must still persist in the correctness of the above view.
Vascular Intestine.
2162. In the duodenum theanalysisof the food takes place through the medium of the bile. It is consequently thebiliaryintestine or stomach.
2163. The biliary intestine does not stand upon a par with the other intestines, but has an equal rank with the stomach. It is therefore not confined within the mesentery, but can expand itself like the stomach; it has its vessels and nerves. In it the separation of the chyme into chyle and excrementitious matter takes place.
2164. What the spleen is for the stomach, that is the liver for the duodenum; it is the hepatic stomach, and consequently the vascular stomach.
2165. The liver is the ramification of the intestinal canal along with the whole vascular system.
2166. Now, as the analysis is the principal function in the whole process of digestion; so is the liver the chief organ of all digestive organs.
2167. The liver is the centre, the brain of the digestive system, because it is the blossom, the synthesis of the vascular system. From it everything emanates, and upon it everything which concerns digestion, ay, the whole body, retrogressively operates. If the liver suffers or undergoes functional derangement, the whole vascular and tegumentary formation then becomes a liver, as is exemplified in the disease called jaundice.
2168. The bile effects the analysis or separation through its basic or alkaline character, since it combines with the acids of the chyme, and thereby forms the excrementitious matter.
2169. That which mediates between the acid and what is alkaline is the fluid secreted by the pancreatic gland. The pancreatic gland is the ramification of the intestine along with the arterial system.
Tegumental Intestine.
2170. That in the jejunum and ileum or the small intestine proper, and in that alone, absorption and thus the tegumentary function, but nothing else, occurs, is well known. By this absorption the chyle becomes removed from the intestine, so that the excrement alone is left.
b.Sexual Intestine.
2171. The sexual is pre-eminently that which is exsecernent or excretive, since one sex strives to redintegrate itself upon the other, becomes ingestive for the other, but egestive for or in relation to itself. It is therefore an essential property of the sexual parts, that they secrete and excrete.
2172. Every galvanic system, which has been adjoined or appended to the sexual parts, is excretive. They are, taken in a rigid sense, the only system of excretion. The co-operative processes of the sex are those ofthe vegetative systems, but they take place in the reverse direction. The latter convey inwards, the former outwards. The kidneys are a reversed or evacuating lung, an excrement-forming liver; the urinary cyst is an exspirant, a trachea containing refuse matter; the urethra is a glottis reversed; their diseases are therefore similar. They thus expel products of the individual respiratory system.
2173. And in this is the sexual apparatus distinguished from them, namely, that it expels the products ofallsystems, the products of the whole organism, or the organism itself. In the semen the whole male body with all its parts transudes, or passes over in a fluid state, into the female parts; in a child, the female together with the male body, passes over—formed or fashioned into the world.
2174. The sexual intestine must therefore be expulsive also. It is that which conducts the intestinal juice and the refuse of the aliment out of the body.
2175. The evacuating or efferent intestine is the large intestine. It is consequently theSexual intestine.
2176. The large intestine is related to the abdominal or small intestine, exactly like the urinary cyst is to the kidney, and this to the vascular system. The small intestine passes therefore by perforation into the large, not the latter into the former. The small enters by perforating the large intestine, and therein evacuates its alimentary residue, as into a special-cyst, that has nothing to do with the intestinal system. The large intestine is theexcrement-cyst, just as that which has been called bladder is theurinarycyst.
2177. The large intestine no longer digests, but only receives what is left from the process of digestion and expels or casts it out.
2178. The large intestine begins with a cæcal extremity, or with an obtuse cyst, and opens into the anus, exactly like the original animal cyst, the polyp. The blind extremity is called cæcum. With this the small intestine communicates by perforating it at an acuteangle, and that indeed in a direction which runs towards the obtuse cystiform extremity; so that both intestines lie in mutual juxtaposition like a fork, whereof the pharynx and the rectum are the two prongs, while the cæcum is the handle.
2179. The two intestines are consequently by no means correlated. In the perfect animal there are two intestinal systems thoroughly distinct from each other; two intestines, which belong to two different animals, the sexual and encephalic animal, or the plant and the animal. The genesis of the large intestine and all its relations, which are principally seen in the cæcum and rectum, plead for this philosophical derivation of the two intestines.
2180. The rectum appertains wholly and entirely to the sexual system, and especially to the uterus. It is devoid of mesentery, and supplied by special vessels; it stands in most obvious sympathy with the uterus, with its diseases, and with menstruation. Even hemorrhoids are a sexual disease, a disease of thesexualintestine.
2181. The anus is thus the intestinal mouth of the sexual animal. In the lowest organized animals, the oviducts seminal and urinary ducts together run into it, as into a proper mouth. The anus is a true oral cavity in the fishes, reptiles, and even in the whale.
2182. The pharynx opens into the mouth, and so does the rectum into the anus; the trachea opens into the month, and so does the urethra into the anus; the salivary ducts open into the mouth, and so into the anus do the oviducts, with the spermatic canals in the lower animals. The rectum moreover lies behind the urinary cyst, like the gullet behind the trachea.
2183. The sphincter or occlusor muscles of the anus have been formed like the sphincter muscles of the pharynx. The anus is a mouth without a head, and therefore a mouth without lips, or an pharynx.
Cephalic Intestine.
2184. The union or combination of the intestine withthe animal systems, such as the nervous, muscular, and osseous, occurs in the head.
2185. In so far as it combines with bones and muscles, it becomes an organ of motion, and, when with the nerves, an organ of sensation. The animal or sarcal intestine is pharynx and mouth.
2186. The motor organ is an organ of prehension. The organs of prehension are endowed with independent motion, and therefore move towards the food. The first general organs of motion are the members of the body. In the higher animals the thoracic members are at once the prehensible organs. Instead of the aliment being obliged to flow, as unto the plant, in a state of suspension in water, the animal moves itself toward its food.
2187. The members are the first organs of prehension. But these are repeated in the head as jaws and teeth. The teeth are the second organs of prehension, but the first which belong to the cephalic intestine; they are calledorgans of seizureor prehension.
2188. The organ of digestion is, however, one of a chemical character. It must be therefore repeated as such in the head. This is shown in thesalivary glands. The saliva is the animal gastric juice, and is therefore directly solvent in its properties. It ispoison.
2189. After and during the operation of the saliva, the aliments in the mouth are subjected to the action of the molar teeth and ground orchewed. These comminuting or crushing organs are only a repetition of the act of prehension, and consequently belong to the prehensile or biting organs.
2190. The mouth is the stomach repeated in the head.
2191. The union of the intestine with the nervous system is thetongue.
2192. The intestine, when repeated in the head's muscular system, is the organ of deglutition, as is seen in the pharynx and oesophagus.
2193. The prehensile and manducatory, venomous, gustatory, and deglutitory organs, are the forms into whichthe intestinal system divides, when it is repeated in the after-animal, or in the sphere of animal life. The gustatory organ is the nerve-intestine; the prehensile organ the bone-intestine; the organ of deglutition the muscular intestine; while the poison-organ is the proper cephalic intestine, or the stomach.
2. VASCULAR ORGANS.
2194. The vascular system regarded "en masse," or in a general sense, has to participate in the nutrition of the body; so far it takes the place of the cellular tissue, and cannot therefore be developed for itself into any specialorgans. If, however, certain vessels separate from the general system, and combine with other systems unto the performance of special offices or functions,organsthen originate, which, nevertheless, do not, in a rigid point of view, belong to these systems.
2195. There are therefore as many vascular organs as there are possible combinations; thus with the tegument, the lung, the intestine, the sexual parts, and with the systems of animal life.
a. CUTANEO-VASCULAR ORGANS—BRANCHIÆ.
2196. The development of the vessels unto a special organ in the integument areRespiratory organs; or, more properly speaking, the development of the integument to constitute a special organ in combination with the vessels, is a respiratory organ.
2197. In the commencement the branchiæ are only a vascular network upon, and therefore subordinate to, the integument. They pass, however, through all possible stages of development, until they have subjected and converted also the integument into a vascular system; a point which is attained in the formation of the lungs.
2198. The branchial membrane already commences in the earthworm to concentrate itself and dilate, so as to form what have been called the sacculi or pouches; in the leech it is folded inwards, so as to form lateral vesicles or cysts, that prognosticate the air-passages orstigmata of insects; in the Nereids the vessels project upon the back from above the integument as free branchial ramules, a formation, which is again found in the nudibranchiate Gasteropods.
2199. These branchial ramules form at first two rows extending along the whole dorsal region; by degrees, however, the posterior set disappear, and the cervical branchiæ only are left, as antetypes of the gills of fishes.
2200. In the Mollusca the branchial vessels unite to form laminæ upon the ventral sides, and are already surrounded by a kind of thoracic cavity, the mantle, as is exemplified in the tectibranchiate Gasteropods. Here again the branchiæ are either a simple vascular net enveloped in a fold of the mantle, or elongated into filaments disposed like the teeth of a comb, or into laminæ, &c.
2201. The lateral branchiæ of the Nereids usually emit filaments resembling feet, upon the root of which the true branchiæ are then placed. In the Crustacea these filaments harden into actual feet provided with joints. The feet are therefore nothing else than branchial filaments, which have lost their vegetative function.
2202. In many worms the same branchial filaments are converted into hairs or bristles, which are therefore none other than desiccated branchial filaments.
2203. Even the hairs of Mammalia and the feathers of Birds have been left as remnants of the original branchial formation.
2204. Where the branchiæ have assumed the laminated form, they are surrounded by a similarly formed covering or operculum. The shells of the Mollusca are, as regards their signification, none other than branchial opercula, or gill-covers; the same holds good also of the gasteropodal and crustacean shells, and at bottom of every calcareous and horny covering of the body.
2205. To the same category belong also the opercula of Fishes, and even their scales. Fundamentally, the whole epidermis is only a product of respiration or oxydation.
2206. The first saccular or cæcal inversion of the integument, as in the Leeches, Molluscs, and Snails, is at once a predominance of the tegumentary, obtained through the medium of the branchial formation, whereby the skin commences to become a self-substantial organ of respiration.
2207. In the Scorpions the branchiæ are introverted sacs or cysts, into which, however, instead of water, air already enters.
2208. This insaccation is converted in the Spiders into more distinct air-cysts, which finally ramify in the higher insects and become true tracheæ.
2209. Lastly, the respiratory system obtains the upper hand to such an extent, that, together with internal air-tubes, external branchial laminæ are also developed, as in the Molluscs; but in them the tracheæ obtain the preponderance over the blood-vessels, so that these laminæ dry up and become wings or fins.
2210. The wings of Insects are branchial laminæ, converted into air-organs.
2211. The wing-coverings or elytra are branchial opercula, and correspond to the shells of bivalve Mollusca.
2212. Every insect therefore must properly possess four wings and two wing-coverings, of which last, however, rudiments only appear to be left in the nocturnal Lepidoptera.
2213. In the higher organized animals those gills only which are nearer the head are persistent, the posterior or lateral branchiæ being gradually arrested.
2214. These lateral branchiæ remain in Fishes as lateral mucous openings, which constitute the lateral line.
2215. The cervical branchiæ are limited to the number five, which has already begun to be established in the Crustacea; namely, at the origins or roots of the five anterior pairs of feet.
2216. The number five probably derives its origin from the vegetable kingdom, and that indeed from the genesis of the pinnate leaves, so that one kind of numerical law appears to prevail with respect to this organ inboth organic kingdoms. It is probably also an imitation of the five organs of sense.
2217. The vessels of the branchiæ of Fishes are accompanied by bony rings, which correspond to the feet of Crustacea.
2218. All Fishes have, with few exceptions, five branchial arches.
2219. When in Fishes the sarcous system begins to produce viscera, then the five branchial foramina pass inwards, and only a single respiratory aperture is left for them in the fleshy body; namely, the external branchial foramen.
2220. In the lower animals water or air passes in and out through the same respiratory aperture, but in Fishes these two courses are preserved distinct; for, except in the Lampreys, the water enters through the mouth, and passes out through the branchial aperture.
2221. Here the attempt is manifested in a still greater degree, to bring the process of respiration wholly under the control of what is animal, this being in the next place, and for the first time attained, when respiratory apertures only are left upon the head.
2222. The respiratory apertures of the head are the nostrils, which are suddenly manifested in Fishes, but are in them simply subservient to the sense of smell, and not as yet to the respiratory act.
2223. All the higher animals have, like fishes, branchial apertures in the neck, only they coalesce and become obliterated at an early period, or so soon as that respiratory process appears, when air passes through the nostrils. In the Salamanders and Frogs these branchial foramina are persistent for a longer time, frequently through the whole period of life; but in Birds and Mammalia they disappear, while they are in the embryo state.
2224. When the branchial apertures close, the vessels separate from the arches, and betake themselves to a glandular body lying in front of them. The thyroid gland is the remnant of the former branchial formation,and is therefore found only in Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia.
Lungs.
2225. In Fishes the internal organ of respiration is already indicated by a cæcal eversion of the pharynx, which is surrounded by the branchial arches. This membranous cæcal eversion is called the swimming-bladder, which in the higher animals becomes double on account of their symmetry, and is then called lung.
2226. In the Fish the aquatic and aerial process of respiration are present together, the former being external, the latter internal.
2227. The branchial arches having coalesced, are converted in the higher animals into tracheal rings, into the larynx and the posterior cornua of the hyoid bone, if these are present, as in the Reptiles. The larynx is therefore no special organ, but only a remnant of the branchial respiratory apparatus.
2228. The laryngeal vessels are, like the thyroid glands, branchial vessels, and in Fishes, therefore, the branchial vessels do not correspond to the pulmonary vessels, but to those of the trachea. The pulmonic vessels of Fishes are the blood-vessels of the swimming-cyst, which convey blood directly into the heart, whereby this organ obtains the signification of the left or arterial heart.
2229. When the branchial apertures have coalesced, the nose then opens into the mouth or into the trachea, and in this way the nostrils assume the complete character of aerial foramina.
2230. The nose is therefore originally an organ of smell, and then a part of the respiratory system. It is the animal lung.
2231. As the secretion of bone is a product of the more powerful process of oxydation, so do the bony rings multiply beneath the branchial arches or the larynx, and are called tracheal rings. In the feebly respiringReptiles the trachea is therefore still in a membranous condition, but in Birds and Mammalia, it is surrounded by many rings, or is a repetition of the larynx.
2232. In Birds even a kind of inferior larynx originates, which is provided with muscles and can produce tones.
2233. The ramification of the trachea into two bronchi or branches is constantly progressing, and at length these tubes divide into a great number of vesicles, which together form the lungs. The lung, which was in the commencement a simple saccular inversion of the integument, has now become a self-substantial organ, to which the respiratory vessels have been subordinated. The lung also divides upon each side into five lobes.
b. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE INTESTINE.
Liver.
2234. The self-substantial development of the vascular, and its separation from the general, system, is most perfectly attained in theLiver.
2235. In the liver, as being the vascular system, which combines with the intestinal canal, the venous system has become independent. The portal vein arises from the intestinal canal, collects into one trunk, and again ramifies in order to unite with the biliary ducts, which are only a ramified saccular eversion of the intestine. This conjunction is represented by the liver.
2236. The liver as being a venous organ stands therefore in opposition to the lung, and produces, instead of oxydes, a basic body, or thebile. The liver, as being the venous system which has become free, is to be regarded as the highest development or blossom of the vascular system.
2237. It is for the vegetative body, what the brain is for the animal; and hence, therefore, the similarity of structure and the sympathy between both organs.
Spleen.
2238. As opposed to the liver, the arterial system also develops itself upon the intestine as a respiratory or branchial organ. These intestinal branchiæ are found in several of the lower organized animals, especially in the Holothuriæ and Aphroditæ.
2239. In the higher animals they are aggregated into a special organ, through which the gastric juice obtains oxygen; this is the spleen. The spleen is the branchia of the stomach; it has therefore no excretory duct and requires none.
2240. Lastly, the salivary glands also in the mouth as well as in the duodenum, the abdomino-salivary glands, and even the odoriferous glands on the rectum, such as the castor-and civet-pouches, are complications of vessels with intestinal ramifications.
C. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.
Kidneys.
2241. The vascular organ of the sexual system is the kidneys.
2242. As the urine is chiefly characterized by the urea and thus by a basic principle; it thus corresponds to the bile, and consequently the kidneys directly to the liver or the lung reversed.
2243. But there is also a sexual branchia in those inferior animals which breathe through the anus, such as many aquatic larvæ.
2244. The remnant of this in the higher animals appears to be the allantois, and in the body itself probably what have been called the primordial kidneys.
2245. The combination of the vascular system with the animal systems is the sense of touch.
3. RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
2246. The respiratory organ is a development of the integument.
2247. The perfect organ of respiration is an air-organ orlung; combined with the tegumentary system, it is a water-organ orbranchia.
2248. There aredermo-branchiæor thebranchiæproper, as in the Worms, Molluscs, Snails, and Crabs.
2249. Intestinal branchiæ in the Holothuriæ, constituting in the higher animals aspleen.
2250. The sexual branchiæ are probably the primordial kidneys.
2251. The branchiæ when united with the osseous system are the branchial arches of Fishes, which subsequently separate into larynx and thyroid gland.
2252. The self-substantial development of the integument into the respiratory organ is a lung.
2253. When united with the vascular system or the vegetative systems generally, the integument forms the tracheal system of Insects.
2254. The tracheæ are spiral vessels as in plants.
2255. The respiratory organ, united with the motor system, is the lung proper, which is situated within the thorax, and covered by ribs.
2256. The proper lung divides also, like the intestine, into two parts, into the cystiform, pharyngeal expansion of the larynx, and into the pulmonic substance, which is equivalent to the stomach, and wherein the analysis of the air takes place.
2257. The trachea, and especially the larynx, is moreover an entire thorax, a ribbed skeleton upon a small and membranous scale. In the larynx, the animal thoracic structure, consisting of ribs and muscles, resides prognosticated. The larynx has originated from the coalescence of branchial arches. The ribs are a repetition of the branchial arches.
2258. The diaphragm is a formation, which admits, by no reasoning from its anatomy, but only genetically, of being explained. Originally, the whole body was only an abdomen, upon the external surface of which the branchiæ were appended. A remarkable instance of this is at once afforded by the Snails, and also the Fishes.As the gills were converted into lungs, a special body or the thorax originated for them, which encroached upon the abdomen. Now, the abdominal wall left between these two cavities, was just the diaphragm.
2259. The diaphragm is not a transverse wall or septum. The idea of such a cross-rail gainsays all sound physiology. It has been the abdominal wall.
2260. The union of the lungs with the nervous system is the nose.
2261. The nose is the cephalic thorax; but it has also the thoracic contents, or the very lung repeated in itself.
2262. The multicavernous ethmoid bone is the lung in the nose, the two nostrils being the stigmata or foremost openings of the trachea. The nasal muscles are homologous to the cartilages of the trachea, and especially to those of the larynx.
2263. The velum palati is the diaphragm between nose and mouth, or between the cephalic thorax and the cephalic abdomen.
Coverings.
2264. The animal coverings are desiccated respiratory organs appertaining to the integument.
Capillary Vessels.
2265. The principal function of the vessel is that of secretion, whereby nutrition is imparted. This secretion must take place in the whole body, in so far as it is opposed to the lung. The vessels then pass over into the finest canals, and are calledcapillary vessels.
2266. The capillary system of vessels is an organ in antagonism to the lung; what enters the latter organ, passes out through the former.
2267. The capillary system of vessels is the property of the tegumentary system. It may almost be said that wherever there is integument, there capillary vessels are present. The most perfect evolution of capillaries is theintegument. It is the proper exsecernent, in opposition to the intestine, which is the absorbent organ.
2268. Evaporation is the essential tegumentary process.
2269. The product of the evaporation is mucus.
2270. In the evaporation, however, the mucus becomes analyzed by the influence of the air and light.
Epidermis.
2271. The external mucus exuding from the skin becomes oxydized, the inferior on the contrary reduced; the oxydized becomes vitreous and transparent. It is theEpidermis.
2272. With the maximum of oxydation the epidermis passes over into a vitreous transparent horn, e. g.scales.
2273. The scales, which invest the toes and digits are called claws, and finally become nails. The finger-nail is nothing but a scale, which in this situation has become particularly large and strong.
2274. That which is reduced beneath the vitrified epidermis determines the colour of the skin. With a demi-oxydation it is uncoloured, appears white. Where the integument is thin, the red colour of the blood appears through it; such integument is therefore white upon the whole, but red in individual places.
2275. With the most complete reduction effected by the highest operation of light, its substratum or under-layer becomes black. The mucus passes over into reduced carbon. Beneath the vitreous epidermis there is thus a metallicpigmentary membrane.
Hairs.
2276. Capillary vessels, which simply convey mucus, but are elongated singly above and from out the cutis, areHairs. The idea of the hair is acapillary vessel, the contents of which are no longer blood, but reduced mucus. It is an indifferent capillary vessel. The hair is hollow and contains an oil, which determines the colour.
2277. In the hairs the nutritive system is prolonged above the body.
2278. The hairs and scales are the general terrestrial system of the body determined by the air.
2279. Thus the earth has sprung up into a plant. Scales and hairs are like true vegetable leaves, which still continue their process in the animal; they can no longer it is true make their respiratory process hold good for the animal process itself, but are at present content with only oxydizing the material of evaporation. It is properly the integument only, not the entire body, which respires through hairs and scales.
2280. The hairs are dried branchial filaments, and therefore continue to occupy in Man, those situations only where in the lower animals branchiæ or tentacula are placed. Around e. g. the mouth, upon the head, under the arms or in the axillæ, and around the sexual apertures.
2281. The feathers are dried ramified branchiæ, pinnate leaves.
2282. The hairs participate in the electric process of the whole body.
2283. What determines the colour in the plant, determines it also in the animal; only in the plant the colour is more coarsely precipitated, and nothing therefore glimmers from the interior of the body, but all is green. In an animal, however, the colouring matter is transparent, and the interior is thus rendered visible.
2284. With the external coverings, such as scales, and lastly with the hairs, all organs of the trunk, in so far as they are derived from what is vegetable, are exhausted. The vegetable animal, as trunk, is completed, and we must now therefore turn to the sexual organs.
4. SEXUAL ORGANS.
2285. The sexual organs are developments of the integument upon a higher grade, and combinations of the same with the animal systems, like as the blossom is a repetition of all vegetative systems.
2286. They range in the middle between the vegetative and the encephalic animal, and are therefore a totality for themselves, or a sexual animal.
2287. There are vegetative and animal sexual parts.
I.Vegetative Sexual Organs.
2288. Are special developments of the intestine, vessels and branchiæ.
a. SEXUAL ORGANS PROPER.
2289. The proper sexual parts are a repetition of the digestive system on its transition to what is animal, or to the organs of sense.
1.Female Organs.
2290. The female parts are a floral capsule, consisting of an ovary or sac, stigma and ova. All higher development takes place, however, through separation of the complicated organs and processes.
2291. The three parts therefore of the gestative sac or matrix separate, each part becoming self-substantially perfected. The orifice elongates into a cervix or neck, which is gradually rendered more distinct from the matrix, and in its highest and self-substantial completion is called oviduct.
2292. The matrix elongates also at its cæcal extremity or fundus, as well as at its open end. The germinal bodies also become self-substantial, separate gradually from the fundus of the matrix, and are then independent ovaria.
2293. As in the highest animal formation they also assume the animal symmetry, while at first they were only single, or manifold, as in the plicated capsules of Star-fishes, and therefore remained stationary at the number two; so is the ovisac prolonged into two long cornua, or trumpet-like tubes, which at the commencement, indeed, still include the ova, as in Insects and Fishes, but are subsequently left entirely free.
2.Male Parts.
2294. The leaf-formation is elevated to the corolla or the male parts in the plant. They are, however, only the repetition of the plant upon a higher stage. Hence in the animal also the male parts will be upon a higher grade of position to the female.
2295. As the stamina surround the ovarian capsule in the plant, so do animal stamina stand around the orifice of the oviduct; aspenes.
2296. In the lowest ovisacs the penes are circularly disposed around the orifice; as is exemplified by the tentacles of a Polyp; by degrees, however, they are resolved, for the sake of symmetry, into two, and then project upon the sides of the orifice, as in the Serpents and Lizards. In the higher animals the two penes coalesce intoone.
2297. This penis situated at the orifice of the oviduct is the clitoris. The vagina is separated from the clitoris; but in the male organs they both combine or blend with each other, and the vagina becomes the seminal canal or that of the penis.
2298. As the orifice begins to assume a male character, and the external parts to be more forcibly developed in the direction outwards, so, on the other hand, do the internal parts recede the more, and remain simply as ovaria or ovisacs, in which the ova, instead of being formed as such, dissolve into pollen, mucus, or male semen. These ovaria, which now secrete semen instead of vitelline vesicles, are called testes.
2299. The testes originate, while the mucous ova are being reduced to primary mucus, or to infusoria.
2300. What is male originates through an organic process of decomposition or putrefaction of the ova. The semen is an organic product of decomposition.
2301. The semen must contain infusoria. A semen which does not contain infusoria, is ovum-like, or feminine. Except at the time of heat or rut, and thus whenthe animals have a female character, the semen possesses no infusoria, and is in that case simply albumen.
2302. Semen, which is devoid of infusoria, is incapable of impregnation. How can one wretched female ovum impregnate or fructify another?
2303. As the trumpet-like tubes or oviducts belong to the ovaria, so are they developed with the testes, and now convey semen instead of ova. The female tubes become the vasa deferentia orspermatic ducts, the uterine cornua, the vesiculæ seminales.
2304. Between the vesiculæ seminales and the vagina or the penis the uterus shrivels up into the prostate gland, into which the vasa deferentia open, like the oviducts do into the uterus.
2305. As the matrix is the proper female organ, so will the spermatic ducts seek to combine with the penis, or at least open self-substantially upon the os uteri. The testes open either through the spermatic ducts into the vagina, as in Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds, or into the penis, as in the Gasteropods, Insects, and Mammalia.
2306. Male and female parts are therefore perfectly homologous, the former having a greater development of the external division, the latter of the internal.
2307. The female parts have undertaken the business of vegetation, or that of the viscera, the male that of the animal excitation.
2308. Since the male parts are no new formation, but the female parts themselves, only characterized by internal arrest, and external increase of development, so do male and female parts appear incapable of occurring together in any animal. Perfect hermaphrodites would, accordingly, be impossible; for where testes are, no ovaria could be, because the testes are themselves the ovaria, or the latter only changed.
2309. Hence androgynism would be possible only by one ovarium remaining as such, and the other being converted into a testis.
2310. This development appears only possible when the two halves of the body are unequal. Asymmetricalanimals only can be androgynous. In the snails one of the two molluscan shell-valves has been more largely developed than the other, and therefore one half also of the body is greater than the other. On this account many hermaphrodites are found among these animals.
2311. Thus, there ought to be no androgynous animals with at the same time two ovaria and two testes. Nevertheless, this very peculiarity occurs in many of the lower organized animals, e. g. the worms.
2312. Accordingly, the principle of androgynism is in general to be found in the want of symmetry. Symmetrical animals are as a rule diœcious. No hermaphrodite is found among the Insects, Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia.
2313. If such occur, they are formations that have remained persistent at the lower stage of development, or upon the transition of the embryo through the Snail-type of organization; they are thus monstrosities, or malformations.
2314. These malformations also, when occurring in the higher animals, can never possess more than one testicle and one ovarium. The uterus then ranks midway between its condition as such, and that of a prostate gland; the spermatic tube or urethra opens after a female fashion below the root of the penis.
Impregnation.
2315. Since the male sex is related to the female, as corolla to capsule, as leaf to stalk, as air to water, and as light to matter; so is it related also as integument to intestine, as lung to lymphatic vessel, as artery to vein, as nerve to flesh or muscle, as Animal to Vegetative.
2316. Copulation is therefore anirradiation.
2317. Already, in the course of the heavenly bodies, has the highest act of the animal, that of copulation, been preindicated or portrayed. The creation of the universe or world is itself nothing but an act of impregnation. The sex is prognosticated from the beginning,and pursues its course like a holy and conservative bond throughout the whole of nature. He therefore who so much as questions the sex in the organic world, comprehends not the riddle or problem of the universe.
2318. If the female parts have effected a complete transition into the male, so are the sexes necessarily separate and distinct.
2319. Since the male parts are the female that have been more highly developed, so there resides in the latter the constant conatus or effort to convert themselves into the male.
2320. This metamorphosis, or conversion, is, however, no longer possible in the female parts, when already finished or fully formed, but is only attainable in a new attempt being made upon their part, to transform the fluid mass into ova.
2321. Gestation or pregnancy is none other than the propensity of the Female to convert itself into the Male.
2322. The fœtus is the male in a female, or the fœtus is the male sexual parts in the female.
2323. In idea, every fœtus should be male. But, if mascularity be attained with the first production, then the second necessarily subsides into the female. In this manner there of necessity originates an equiponderance in the number of both sexes.
2324. Moreover, if the sexual parts be regarded according to their proper signification in the animal, they are the upper intestinal system, as it has been developed in the mouth, and that indeed in such a manner, that the female parts are the vegetative form or the oral cavity, the male, the animal form, or the tongue with the salivary glands; the former represent the process of deglutition, the latter that of taste.
2325. Into the uterus or into the prostate gland the excretory ducts of the sexual glands, or the spermatic canals and oviducts, pursue a convergent course, like the salivary ducts do into the oral cavity.
2326. The testes, as also the ovaria, are forebodent of thesalivary glands. The semen and oviducts are salivary ducts; they open by twos and symmetrically. Semen and ova are secreted like saliva. Semen and ova have also a salivary function, though of this the former is endowed with more than the latter.
2327. The ova correspond, as being an object of the semen, to the object of the saliva, which is the food or aliment. The saliva imparts to the bole or mouthful of food its first animal signification; it renders it for the first time capable of passing over into animal organs; it impregnates the morsel. The semen renders the ovum capable of effecting the transition into an animal; it spits upon the ovum.
2328. Impregnation is a process of smearing with saliva, conception a process of deglutition.
2329. Pregnancy is a process of digestion and formation of blood.
2330. If the internal sexual parts denote the internal visceral parts of the mouth, so must the external parts of the one correspond to the external of the other. The labia pudendi correspond to the lips, and the clitoris to the tongue, which is more perfectly represented in the penis. Both tongue and penis consist of two halves; in cases where the former is fissured or divided, the latter is so also, as in the Serpents and Lizards. In many animals, as the dogs and other Mammalia, there is likewise a bone in the penis, which corresponds to the os hyoides or linguale. The salivary ducts have combined with the penis; or, taken in a more strict sense, it may be said, that in the penis the tongue has coalesced with the oral cavity, so that both form a canal,—that of the penis, into which the salivary ducts (vesiculæ seminales) open.
2331. The sexual passion or venereal desire is a gustatory process of the sexual animal, the copulation being at one and the same time a matter both of taste and deglutition.
3.Germ or Embryo.
2332. In the embryo the whole animal already resides in miniature, as does the plant in its seed.
2333. The embryonic intestine is the vitellus or yelk.
2334. The embryonic integument is the amnion.
2335. The embryonic vascular system is the chorion.
2336. The embryonic sexual system is the allantois. The above propositions can only be perfectly developed in the physiology.
b. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.
2337. The hæmatopoietic or blood-preparing vascular system is the lung; the blood-destroying, exsecernent vascular system is the kidneys. The kidneys are the lung reversed. The liver decomposes the venous, the kidneys the arteriose blood.
2338. Thekidneysare the individualized vascular system of the sex, as the liver is that for digestion. They accord with the liver in their glandular structure, in the renal pelvis, which is like the gall-cyst, in the ureters that resemble the biliary ducts, and lastly, in the general signification of the urine as a product, wherein the whole organism, the whole blood-system has been excreted, like the bile, in which the venous blood undergoes the same process.
2339. Every disturbance of the digestive function acts in a striking and very direct manner upon the urine. The jaundice is apparent in urine; and what else is diabetes than a malady analogous to diseases of the liver? In urine we recognize what the bile has done with the food; the urine is the fluid nutritive system, and consequently the fluid organism "in toto;" the sexual blood, or sexual bile.
2340. The urine is the purest mirror or reflex of the bodily condition, and hence ourology or the doctrine of urine is of the most universal importance in semeiotics or symptomatic pathology: the ureters correspond to the tracheal branches or bronchi; thus, the urinary cyst to the trachea; the urethra to the larynx.
2341. In many animals the ureters open directly into the cloaca, as in many Fishes, Reptiles.
2342. By degrees the cloaca is retracted towards the ureters, and then originates a cloaca, which is both urethra and urinary cyst, as in Birds.
2343. In the higher animals, where a perfect ourocyst or urinary cyst has been evolved, the urethra opens into the anterior wall of the vagina, in front of which the urinary cyst then lies, in a similar manner to the trachea in front of the pharynx.
2344. In many Fishes the urinary cyst is absent, their pulmonic sac being also but feebly developed and only remaining as an asymmetrical swimming-cyst—the ureters too open directly into the cloaca, just as the swimming-cyst opens into the pharynx. The pharynx of Fishes, as being surrounded by the branchial arches, is at once pharynx and larynx, like as in many animals cloaca and urinary cyst are of one and the same kind.
2345. In many Reptiles (such as the Tortoises and Frogs) the urinary cyst gives off two cæca or blind sacs, as is the case in the larynx of many apes.
2346. In the Bird the two cul-de-sacs of the urinary cyst are much more developed and have assumed the form of two cæcal intestines, so that they have been actually viewed as such, and their number two been assigned as characteristic of the bird, the other animals meanwhile having only one. The cæca intestinalia of Birds are the lateral and upper extremities of the urinary cyst. The true cæcum of the bird is the vitelline canal or duct, just as in the fishes and all higher organized animals; this being distinctly retained in the aquatic birds.
2347. In the Bird the rectum properly opens into the urinary cyst between the two blind sacs or cæca, and that indeed with a regular vulva, which is a sphincter muscle.
2348. The cloaca of the Bird is an urinary cyst, into which the anus opens.
2349. The orifice of the cloaca is properly that of the urethra; ova and fæces are moistened with urine. In a bird both these egesta are combined.
2350. Like the urethra, so is the trachea membranous in Fishes, and in most Reptiles also.
2351. Urinary cyst and urethra stand in sympathetic relation with the trachea and larynx, and have also similar diseases, such as catarrh, inflammation, &c.
2352. The proper proof, however, of the urinary cyst belonging to the respiratory system resides in its genesis. It proceeds from the allantois, which in Birds is a decided organ of respiration, a branchia.
2353. Out of this urinary cyst issue in the embryo what have been called primordial kidneys, which shrink or dwindle down at a later period, but have entirely the structure of branchiæ.
2354. Here then is a sexuo-respiratory process, which corresponds to the anal respiration, upon a higher stage, of many worms and aquatic larvæ, e. g. Holothuriæ and Libellulæ. This anal respiration is in its signification a sexual respiration.
2355. Even in the acephalous bivalve Mollusca and Snails the respiratory openings are almost always situated in the proximity of the anus; their respiration is still a sexual respiration.
2356. For the first time in Insects it becomes a respiration of the trunk; and for the first time in the higher animals a truly animal, namely, a cephalic respiration.
2357. The urinary system is a double system; it conjoins in itself the two highest galvanic processes, that of secretion and excretion.
2358. Secretion is an hepatic character, excretion a pulmonic character. Secretion belongs to nutrition, excretion to respiration. Excretion is an exspiration, secretion an influx or infusion. Secretion is related to excretion as water is to air, as liver to lung, as basis to oxygen.
2359. Secretion takes place, e. g. of bile and saliva, in so far as the processes of the body, especially those of the digestion, are promoted. Excretion is only effected in so far as that the organs, into which what is secreted enters, may obtain a tracheal signification, i. e. evaporation. Allexcretory orifices are in a certain sense larynges or tracheal orifices. Thus, this relation between secretion and excretion would have been discovered without recourse to conjecture being had upon our part.
2360. The urine is "par excellence" a double product of this kind. It is secreted in the kidneys for simply one object, like the bile. It is excreted, because it belongs to the sexual system, which is essentially exsecernent.
2361. The object or purpose of the urine has not been subverted in all animals. In Birds, where the urinary cyst and intestine are confluent, the urine enters like the bile into the intestine, at least at a spot where there is intestinal matter, which it renders fluid.
2362. In Insects and Snails it appears to invest as a mucus the ova, and serve for their attachment. The same appears to hold good of the spider's web. What has been called purple juice and ink (in the Cephalopods) ranks probably in the signification of urine.
c. SEXUAL INTESTINE.
2363. The sexual intestine is the colon or large intestine, which, in this respect, belongs to the sexual system, as has been indicated at § 2171.
II.Animal Sexual Organs.
2364. The bones of the sex are the feet with their appurtenances, such as the pelvis with the lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebræ. The muscles, as well as the nerves, are self-understood. But of these we will speak in the sequel.
B.ANIMAL ORGANS.
2365. All organs, which are purely animal, are penetrated or traversed by the nervous system, just as the lower systems are by the tegumentary formation. No higher organ is the wholly pure evolution ofonesystem, but the systems ever combine with each other; and this combination, when individually represented, constitutes the organ.
2366. Organ is distinguished from system in not pursuing its course through the whole body, nor consisting simply of one and the same mass, but by its occupying a definite part of the body and being composed of several systems.
2367. Every organ has therefore a special and specific function also.
2368. The systems of animal life divide only into two kinds of organs, into those of sensation and those of motion, into the solar and planetary, or central and peripheric.
a. MOTOR ORGANS.
2369. Bone and muscle are not societies, but only poles of one system. There is therefore no mere bony organ, and no mere muscular organ. Meanwhile we will here regard them in particular or "per se."
1.Osseous Organs.
2370. The first bones were branchial arches or tracheal rings. When the lungs were developed from the branchiæ, the branchial arches were repeated as ribs or pulmonary arches. Lastly, should bones be formed, which are to be wholly in the service of the animal or the nervous system, so also must they be wholly liberated from the vegetative organs, and become self-substantial, i. e. have nothing else to do, but move. Free motor organs can be none other than ribs that have become free.
2371. These free ribs must inclose the respiratory organ or the integument, which has become an organ of animal life; they are the members orlimbs. If we think of ribs, whose office is no longer to inclose lungs, which must no longer be subservient to the uninterrupted vital motion of respiration, and which are no longer united by pleura into a closed cyst or sac—will not such simply retain the self-substantial voluntary motion in themselves? will they not abandon the inferior cystic form, and represent the same, though but ideally and voluntarily? will not such a thorax open in front, like theintestine has opened at its nobler extremity?—will not such ribs be members, arms, digits? The members or limbs are themembers of the trunk, or ribs that have opened in front; they are the thorax that has opened in front; and hence are nothing new, but only something emancipated or set free. Such ribs can be none other than motor organs; for they were previously nothing else. Then, however, they performed motion in the service of the viscera; at present, where they are absolved from this service, they execute it only in accordance to the will of the head, simply according to its will, for they areverily nothing more than motor ribs. Where, however, or in what region of the body will the ribs attain unto such freedom? Without doubt, in the neighbourhood of the head, and thus at the very spot where the lungs derive one of their extremities. The limbs are thereforecervical ribs.