IX Cl. Ptilota.A. PROTOZOA.VII Cl. Worms.Co. I.Tracheoptera.I Cl. Infusoria.O. 1.Weisswürmer.O. 1.Diptera.F. 1. MonadesF. 1. SaugwürmerF. 1. Schmeissen2. Rhizopoda2. Tæniæ2. Dasseln3. Rotifera.3. Ascarides.3. Gölsen.II Cl. Polypi.O. 2.Rothwürmer.O. 2.Hymenoptera.F. 1. Hydræ4. Earth-wormsF. nbsp; 1. Bees2. Alcyonia5. Nereides2. Wasps3. Actiniæ.6. Serpulæ.3. Terebrantia.III Cl. Acalephæ.O. 3.Sternwürmer.O. 3.Lepidoptera.F. 1. Physaliæ7. HolothuriæF. 1. Moths2. Beroeæ8. Echinidæ2. Spinner3. Acalephæ.9. Asteridæ.3. Wanner.B. CONCHOZOA.VIII Cl. Crustacea.Co. II.Dictyoptera.IV Cl. Mussels.Co. 1.Krebse.O. 4.Neuroptera.O. 1.Röhrenmuscheln.O. 1.Pfriemenkrebse.F. 1.Nagbolden.F. 1. PholadesF. 1. EntomostracaA. 1. Kieferläuse2. Tellinidæ2. Branchiopoda2. Termitidæ3. Cardiacea.3. Phyllopoda.3. Phryganeidæ.O. 2.Spaltmuscheln.O. 2.Scheerenkrebse.F. 2.Raubbolden.4. Mytilaceæ4. Squillæ4. Hemerobiidæ5. Arcaceæ5. Macroura5. Raphidiidæ6. Ostraceæ.6. Brachyura6. Libellulidæ.V Cl. Snails.Co. II.Asseln.O. 5.Orthoptera.O. 1.Androgyni.O. 3.Saugasseln.F. 1.Saltatoria.F. 1. TritoniæF. 1. LernœæA. 1. Achetidæ2. Patellæ2. Arguli2. Gryllidæ3. Pulmonea.3. Pyncnogonides.3 Locustidæ.O. 2.Diœcii.O. 4.NagasselnF. 2.Cursoria.4. Capulidæ4. Læmodipoda4. Mantides5. Turbinidæ5. Amphipoda5. Blattidæ6. Buccinidæ.6. Isopoda.6. Forficulidæ.VI Cl. Kracken.Co. III.Kobe.O. 6.Hemiptera.O. 1.Rumpfkracken.O. 1.Langkobe.F. 1.Leptoptera.F. 1. SalpæF. 1. PoduræA. 1. Aphidii2. Ascidiæ2. Juli2. Cicadæ3. Cirripedia.3. Scolopendræ.3. Fulgoridæ.O. 2.Kopfkracken.O. 2.Kurzkobe.F. 2.Pachyptera.4. Brachiopoda4. Acaridæ4. Water-bugs5. Pteropoda5. Scorpions5. Narrow bugs6. Cephalopoda.6. Spiders.6. Broad bugs.C. ANCYLIOZOA.IX.Cl. Ptilota.Co. III.Ceratoptera.VIICL. WormsCo. I.TracheopteraO. 1.PhytophagaVIIICl. CrustaceaII.Dictyoptera2.ZoophagaIX Cl. PtilotaorFlies.III.Ceratoptera.3.Moderkäfer.
Co. III.Ceratoptera.O. 3.Rypophaga.A. PROTOZOA.O. 1.Phytophaga.F. 7.Necrophaga.F. 7.Erdkäfer.I Cl. Infusoria.F. 1.RhyncophoraA. 1.Fungivora.A. 1.Phyllophaga.F. 1. MonadesA. 1. LangrüsslerScaphidiidæa. Melolonthidæ2. Rhizopoda2. KurzrüsslerErotylib. Anoplognathidæ3. Rotifera.3. Breitrüssler.Encidæ.c. Rutelidæ.II Cl. Polypi.F. 2.Blattkäfer.A. 2.Speckfresser.2.Anthobii.F. 1. HydræA. 1. Galerucidæ1. Dermestidæa. Lepitrichidæ2. Alcyonia2. Chrysomelidæ2. Nitidulidæb. Dichelidæ3. Actiniæ.3. Crioceridæ.3. Silphidæ.c. Glaphyridæ.III Cl. Acalephæ.F. 3.Holzkäfer.A. 1.Dung-feeders.3.Melitophaga.F. 1. Physaliæ7. Bostrychidæ1. Byrrhidæa. Cetoniæ2. Beroeæ8. Elateridæ2. Sphæridiidæb. Trichii3. Acalephæ.9. Cerambycidæ.3. Histeridæ.c. Goliathi.B. CONCHOZOA.O. 2.Zoophaga.IV Cl. Mussels.F. 4.Water-beetles.F. 8.Mulmkäfer.A. 2.Coprophaga.O. 1.Röhrenmuscheln.A. 1.Sumpkäfer.A. 1.Trachelidæ.a. AphodiiF. 1. Pholadesa. Heteroceridæa. Lagriæ2. Tellinidæb. Parnidæb. Pyrochroæ3. Cardiacea.c. Hydrophilidæ.c. Mordellæ.O. 2.Spaltmuscheln.A. 2.Flusskäfer.Serropalpidæ.b. Copridæ.4. Mytilaceæd. Girinidæd. Mycteridæ5. Arcaceæe. Haliplidæe. Œdemeræ6. Ostraceæ.f. Dytiscidæ.f. Melandryæ.V Cl. Snails.F. 5.Mordkäfer.A. 2.Stenelytra.Arenicolæ.O. 1.Androgyni.A. 1.RaubkäferF. 1. Tritoniæa. Pselaphidæa. Cistelidæa. Æglaliæ.2. Patellæb. Scydmænidæb. Helopidæ3. Pulmonea.c. Staphylinidæ.c. Cnodalidæ.O. 2.Diœcii.A. 2.Laufkäfer.Taxicornes.b. Trogidæ.4. Capulidæd. Carabidæd. Niliondæ5. Turbinidæe. Brachinidæe. Cossyhidæ6. Buccinidæ.f. Cicindelidæ.f. Diaperidæ.VI Cl. Kracken.F. 6.Schmarotzkäfer.A. 3.Tenebrionidæ.Geotrupidæ.O. 1.Rumpfkracken.A. 1.Leuchtkäfer.F. 1. Salpæa. Lampyridæa. Tenebrionesa. Geotrupes.2. Ascidiæb Melyridæb. Toxicidæ3. Cirripedia.c. Cleridæ.c. Opatridæ.O. 2.Kopfkracken.A. 2.Ziehkäfer.Melanosomata.b. Lethri.4. Brachiopodad. Notoxidæd. Blapsidæ5. Pteropodae. Horiidæe. Pimeladiidæ6. Cephalopoda.f. Cantharides.f. Sepidiæ.C. ANCYLIOZOA.O. 3.Moderkäfer.F. 9.Erdkäfer.A. 3.Lohfresser.VII CL. WormsF. 7. AaskäferA. 1. Phyllophagaa. LucanidæVIII Cl. Crustacea8. Mulmkäfer2. Coprophagab. PassalidæIX Cl. PtilotaorFlies.9. Erdkäfer.3. Lohfresser.c. Oryctidæ.
Second Province.
— FOURTH CIRCLE—SARCOZOA.
Pisces, Reptilia, Aves and Thricozoa.
3530. These animals necessarily pass through all 4 circles, and each class therefore divides into 4 orders, or into 5, if the senses be allowed to hold good as constituting a distinct order in themselves.
Two points of departure for classification here admit of being thought of, either wholly from below, or first of all from the commencement of the present circle. In order to be convinced of this, we need only make a slight attempt. The animal series is as follows:
A. Splanchnozoa.Circle I.Intestinal animalsProtozoa.Class1. Gastric animalsInfusoria.2. Intestinal "Polypi.3. Absorbent "Acalephæ.Circle II.Vascular animalsConchozoa.4. Venous animalsMussels.5. Arteriose "Snails.6. Cardiac "Kracken.Circle III.Respiratory animalsAncyliozoa.7. Reticular animalsWorms.8. Branchial "Crabs.9. Tracheal "Flies.B. Somatozoa.Circle IV.Sarcozoa.10. Osseous animalsFishes.11. Muscular "Reptiles.12. Nervose "Birds.Circle V.Aistheseozoa.13. Sense-animalsThricozoa.
3531. Now it is here conceivable, either that the families of Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, pass parallel to all the preceding classes from the Infusoria upwards, or that they first commence with the class of Fishes.
In regard to this question the Birds and Thricozoagive the most clear and decisive answer. If we adopt the last proposition, then the Birds must follow each other thus:
1. Fish-like BirdsPalmipedes.2. Reptilian BirdsGrallæ.3. Typical BirdsGallinæ.4. Thricozooid BirdsStruthionidæ.
According to this, the Aquatic Birds would occupy the lowest rank, just as they have actually done hitherto in all other systems. The three other families too do not admit of any other position. But what is to be done meanwhile with the large majority of other Birds? They would extend or pass beyond the Thricozoa, and have thus no anatomical system whatever for their basis. Besides, Humming-birds, Sparrows and Linnets would in this way rank higher than the Gallinaceous and Struthious Birds, which some indeed believe to be the case, but without any proof, so that it is scarcely necessary to abide by such an opinion.
The Thricozoa must stand thus:
1. IcthyoidCetacea.2. HerpetoidPachydermata.3. OrnithoidRuminantia.4. TypicalAll the remaining Thricozoa.
In the systems now in vogue the Thricozoa certainly follow in this manner, and no scruple whatever is made of placing the Mice, Ant-eaters, Shrews, and Bats above Elephants, Horses, and Deer. Yet apart from all this, the former must pass beyond the Thricozoa, and would thus likewise have no other organ as a foundation than perhaps the organs of sense, of which there are but five, while the families of Thricozoa not yet provided for are much more numerous, namely, besides those named, the Seals, Dogs, Bears, and Apes.
The above methods of arrangement must be consequently cast aside without limitation or reserve, although they may have held good for hundreds of years. But what does or will not hold good in an age that is devoid of principles?
It is thus evident that the smaller Birds stand below the Aquatics, just as the smaller Thricozoa do beneath the Whales, quite apart from organic structure, which in every respect is imperfect. They must correspond, consequently, to the Asarcous animals, wherewith also their great number agrees.
If this holds good of the two highest classes, so also must it hold good of the two lower, namely, Fishes and Reptiles, and we shall thus have:
I.Protozooid Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.II.Conchozooid Fishes,&c.III.Ancyliozooid "&c.IV.Icthyoid "&c.V.Herpetoid "&c.VI.Thricozooid "&c.VII.Ornithoid "&c.
3532. But this parallelism depends essentially upon the organs, and they are called, in the language of Physio-philosophy, more correctly:
I.Intestinal Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.II.Vascular Fishes,&c.III.Pulmonary "&c.IV.Osseous "&c.V.Muscular "&c.VI.Nervose "&c.VII.Sensorial "&c.
But as these names are unused, and give or convey only the anatomical idea, but no external image, the first appellations are to be preferred.
Tenth Class.
Osteozoa, Glossozoa—Pisces.
3533. No one of the upper classes is in such an extensive state of confusion as that of Fishes. Nor does this result simply from the great deviations in their structure from the normal type, these being rather useful than otherwise for the purposes of classification; but mainly from the utter want of any principle which might serve systematists as a guide. Thus at one time we find them having recourse to the nature of the osseoustissue, at another to the fins, now to the teeth or to the scales, ay, even to the fin-rays, and all this because the characteristic or typical organ has never been sought after, nor the presence of such an organ as indispensable been so much as known.
3534. The characteristic organ of Fishes is the Osseous system, which is consequently the principle also of their division.
The physical nature, form, position, and number of the osseous parts must therefore be principally considered, and hence, above all, the substance or texture of the bones; the limbs also, and the maxillæ with their teeth, as well as the teeth upon the palate, upon the tongue and the branchial arches.
With regard to the component substance or texture of the bones we encounter a great difficulty. The Cartilaginous Fishes appear to belong to each other, and are also usually arranged together. Yet amongst them we find those species, such as the Lampreys, which obviously occupy the lowest grade of all Fishes, while the Sharks and Rays remind us of the Reptilia and Thricozoa, as well by their external structure as the development of their sexual parts, since they possess perfect testes, and ovaria separate or distinct from the oviducts, while they no longer deposit roe, but large ova inclosed in leathery shells, like the higher Reptilia. Now, if we separate these Fishes from the Lampreys, with whom in the scaleless tegument, the branchial foramina, and even the external form they have many points of resemblance, nothing else remains to be done than assign them the uppermost place, and so parallelize them with the Thricozoa. But one is next constrained to unite into one family the Pikes and Herrings, which perhaps admits of being done.
There belong namely to the upper Fishes without doubt the Abdominales, which are divisible into five families: the Carps, Pikes, Shads, Salmons, and Herrings. Now, if the Sheat-fishes be placed inferiorly on account of their scaleless body and amorphous maxillæ, four familieswill still be left, which should correspond to the Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, so that no place is left remaining for the Sharks. Now, however, the Salmons correspond decidedly to the Reptilia; and the Flying Fishes, which are ranged below the Pikes, probably to the Birds. If we unite them with the Herrings, then the Sharks may occupy the place of the Thricozoa.
This being preassumed, we can now attempt the classification. The substance or texture of the bones is of such importance, that notwithstanding the separation of the Sharks and their congeners, the other Cartilaginous Fishes must be left along with them, and range upon the lowest stage, so that they thus correspond to the Intestinal animals.
The next great distinction in the osseous system is the regular and irregular form which it imparts to the body, so that the Regular-shaped can be separated in a tolerably "tranchant" manner from the Irregular Fishes.
The regular form of a Fish is obviously the ellipse, as we find to be the case in our fresh-water Fishes, namely, the Perches, Salmons and Carps. They are collectively covered with large scales, which is therefore also a sign of their regularity.
The Irregular Fishes are cylindrical, fusi-clavi-spheri-and tubuliform, usually destitute of scales or covered with plates, scutes, and spines. Thus, since the Cartilaginous Fishes are collectively irregular in form, the Irregular Osseous Fishes must be allowed to follow them.
The greatest variety of the osseous system is shown in the limbs, especially the posterior pair, which in the other classes also are generally imperfect and make their appearance the last. In Fishes they are not divided into digits, but only into rays, which probably correspond only to the digital ungues or to feathers. An animal which has fin-rays is assuredly a Fish, for fin-rays do not occur in any Reptile.
The posterior fins change even their situation. Those Fishes in whom they are placed near to the anus, are obviously the more perfect, as the Abdominales.
In others they advance to the rear of the thoracic fins, and are even attached to what has been called the "girdle" or humerus—Thoracici.
In others they even get in front of the thoracic fins on the throat—Jugulares.
Lastly, they are actually wanting—Apodales.
In the Lampreys there are neither thoracic nor ventral fins.
The skeleton of Fishes is not simply divided to a greater extent than in other animals, but has actually a greater number of bones, such as the rays in the perpendicular fins, which are wanting in all animals, even in the Reptilia. An animal with dorsal rays must surely be placed among the Fishes, and consequently the Lepidosiren also.
The misshapen Fishes will therefore occupy the lower stages, the regular the upper, not directly by reason of their form alone; but because the other organs are also more imperfectly developed, the bones being cartilaginous, the tegument asquamous, mucous, or covered with spines, scutes, and plates; the fins wanting or abortive, or displaced from their proper situation; the head disproportionate in size to the body, the mouth wide or narrow, the eyes placed superiorly or upon the forehead.
A lower character is afforded also by very long dorsal fins, such namely as extend from the head to the tail. In the Abdominales, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays, the perpendicular fins are small; in the Thoracici, Jugulares, and Apodes they are, on the contrary, mostly very long.
Moreover, a lower character is a very long coccygeal or caudal fin, which denotes that the anus lies far forwards, and therefore that the tail has a great preponderance over the trunk. In the Abdominales and the Sharks the tail is short; in the Rays thin and terminated abruptly, as in Reptiles and Thricozoa. Thus the higher the animals ascend the more does the tail diminish in length.
Regard being had to all these relations, the Irregular Fishes must be viewed as those which correspond to the lower classes of animals, and the Cartilaginous Fisheswill indeed make the commencement; to these are annexed the Irregular Osseous Fishes, and nearest to them indeed those with arrested ventral fins, whether wanting or placed on the throat; then come the Regular Fishes, and of these first of all the Thoracici, and next the Abdominales. In this manner we obtain four divisions.
A. Body irregular.I. Pisces Cartilaginei.II. Stummelflosser—Apodales and Jugulares.B. Body regular.III. Thoracici—Tunnies, Breams, and Perch.IV. Abdominales—Carps, Pikes, Salmons and Herrings, Sharks.
Now, these divisions, having been discovered by a simple analysis or testing of facts, are to be arranged according to philosophical principles, and further subdivided, whereby the ground and legality of their existence will be recognized.
A. IRREGULAR FISHES.
3535. Body deviating from the elliptical form, devoid of scales, or covered with spines, scutes, and plates; head and tail disproportionate; fins mostly arrested.
They correspond to the unarticulate Proto-and Conchozoa; their irregular-shaped mucous or mailed body agreeing perfectly with these animals.
Order 1. Intestinal, Protozooid Fishes.
3536. Mouth round and without maxillæ, or disproportionately narrow and wide.
There can be no doubt that the Lampreys are the lowest Fishes, since they remind us in every respect of the Worms by their naked, mucous, and lineiform body, with indistinct head, almost devoid of bones and true teeth, having a circular mouth, obliterated nostrils, puny eyes, and finally branchial cysts, which occupy a higher rank only from their opening into the pharynx. They pass therefore parallel to the Infusoria, or rather to the commencements of the second animal series, namely, the Etozoa Ancyliozoa.
Now, although much dispute prevails concerning the division of Fishes which should be associated with the Lampreys, yet it appears to me that no others but the narrow-mouthed Fistularidæ and Pipe-fishes can follow, since they resemble them not only in their cartilaginous bones, but in the structure also of their branchiæ. They will thus truly occupy the place of the second family. Whether the narrow-mouthed Globe-fishes are likewise to be united with them or to be set up as a third family, may seem to be matter of doubt. I adopt the first course, and arrange at present the wide-mouthed or Frog-fishes and Shads in the third family.
Fam. 1. Infusorial Fishes, Lampreys.
Body vermiform, naked, and slimy, without membral fins. Ex. Branchiostoma or Amphioxys, Myxine, Petromyzon.
In these Fishes the mouth is quite in front and round, being without maxillæ and adapted for the purposes of suction; only one nostril, but mostly several branchial foramina, which lead to cysts provided with reticular branchiæ, but without opercula.
The Branchiostomata are the smallest Fishes, not much above 1" in length, almost devoid of head, yet with traces of eyes and a nostril. The Myxinæ crawl even into the rectum of other Fishes, and live therein like Entozoa. The river or lesser Lampreys stick in the mud; the Lampreys cling fast by suction to stones, and do not draw the water in through the mouth, but through the branchial foramina themselves, like the lower animals.
Fam. 2. Polypary Fishes, Narrow-mouthed.
Body cartilaginous, mouth having maxillæ, but unusually narrow, only one branchial foramen with immoveable operculum—Fistularidæ, Pipe-fishes and Globe-fishes.
In this family we still meet with species entirely naked, but covered also with plates, scutes, nails, and spines. The corymbiform or tufted branchiæ of theSyngnathi or the Lophobranchii still remind us strongly of the cystiform reticular branchiæ of the first family.
Fam. 3. Acalephoid Fishes, Wide-mouthed.
Body naked or covered with plates; mouth in front and mostly unusually wide.
I here arrange in doubt the Frog-fishes and the Shads, although the last are Abdominales. But they deviate from the Carps and Pikes by their asymmetrical, naked or mailed body, the large transverse mouth, the eyes staring upwards, and the arrested branchial opercula.
Order 2. Vascular, Conchozooid Fishes—Stummelflosser.
3537. Asymmetrical Osseous Fishes, Apodales, and Jugulares.
Among the true Osseous Fishes the Eels must undoubtedly range the lowest on account of their vermiform and asquamous body, and the want of ventral fins. To them are allied the Jugulares, namely, the Blennii and Gadidæ, as well as the Plaice; lastly, the asymmetrical Thoracici without scales, being quite naked or covered with scutes, as the Gobii and Triglæ.
Fam. 4. Mussel-Fishes, Eels.
Body naked and serpentiform, without ventral fins.
The Eels, from their naked, cylindrical or riband-shaped body, the long dorsal and coccygeal fin, the small branchial foramina occasionally confluent beneath the neck, and by their dwelling in the mud, rank among the imperfect Fishes. The one set have soft, the other hard, fin-rays, and on that account they have not simply been separated, but even far removed from each other. This difference alone is not so great as to justify their being arranged, when the structure of the body agrees in other respects, into distinct orders. The influence of the dorsal spines upon the life and natatory or waving movement of Fishes is so slight, and its value generally, in comparison with other parts, to be taken so little into account, that a natural arrangement can never result from these appendages, which do not deserve to be called organs, and viewed as principal characters.
Fam. 5. Snail-Fishes, Haddocks.
Jugulares without distinct scales and spines on the branchial operculum, and hard fin-rays.
These Fishes are allied to the Eels by the aborted ventral fins, the tolerably cylindrical, naked, or small-scaled body and soft dorsal fins. The viviparous Blennius bears with us its name of Aalmutter not in vain, for it resembles a shortened, slimy Eel. The Gadidæ are indeed less slimy and have in part scales, but, by reason of their lengthened form and their fins, cannot be removed far from the Eels; the same holds good of the Plaice.
Fam. 6. Kracken-Fishes, Grundeln.
Asymmetrical Jugulares and Thoracici, with naked and mailed body, in addition to hard fin-rays.
Here belong the Gobiidæ and Triglidæ, the first whereof are usually naked, the second mailed, with roughnesses upon the head and spines on the opercula; in all the eyes placed high up.
B. REGULAR FISHES.
3538. Body elliptical, mostly covered with scales, Thoracici and Abdominales; eyes placed sideways.
Order 3. Pulmonary, Ancyliozooid Fishes.
3539. Regular Thoracici.
The position of the abdominal fins immediately behind the thoracic is obviously a step further in the perfection of structure, and these Fishes must be therefore placed above the preceding kinds, in whom, apart from the asymmetrical form of body, the position of the fins is mostly upon the neck or advanced very close to it. The anus is still situated far forwards, and the tail is therefore mostly larger than the trunk. The dorsal fins are still very predominant. Among them we still meet with naked or microlepidal species, which in their abnormal form also remind us of the irregular Fishes, as the Tunnies and Haberdines or Stock-fish. They are therefore to be regarded as the lowest.
As is the case here in Fishes, so also in the Ancyliozoathe truly regular or bilateral body originates in them for the first time, or at least constitutes a persistent character.
Fam. 7. Worm-Fishes, Tunnies.
Tolerably naked or microlepidal, cylindriform or very much compressed, with small head and mouth; the teeth very feeble, only like a brush; the branchial opercula without spines. Here belong the proper Tunnies and Haberdines: all of them marine Fishes.
Fam. 8. Crustacean Fishes, Brassen.
Body perfectly regular, covered with great scales; mouth small with strong teeth; branchial opercula unarmed. Here belong the Labridæ or Lipped Fishes, Seabream and Osphromanus.
Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Fishes, Perch.
Body quite regular with large scales, mouth of moderate size with scythe-shaped teeth, branchial opercula armed. Here belong the Scianoidæ and Percoidæ. Dwell in the sea and rivers.
Order 4. Sarcose Fishes.
3540. Abdominales, dorsal fins small, with soft ramified rays, mostly placed far behind. Plainly regular Fishes with large scales. The head is regular, with the eyes upon its sides; the set of teeth varied; the trunk large, tail small, as are also the dorsal fins, which proceed more and more backwards to the sacrum or even the tail, a fact indicating their gradual disappearance, and therefore a sign also of greater perfection. Added to this, they are generally distributed over the whole earth in rivers and seas. Finally, it is they that yield the most nutriment to Man, which is also a constant sign of greater perfection; as is evidenced in the vegetable kingdom by the Fruit-trees or plants; in the animal kingdom by the Oysters, Snails, Sepiæ, Holothuriæ, Geese, Fowls, Cattle, &c.
Fam. 10. Typical Fishes, Carps.
Body of the Carps covered with large scales, mostly but one dorsal fin placed pretty far back, mouth nearly edentate, supra-maxillary bones arrested, large teeth onthe posterior branchial arches, or what have been called pharyngeal bones. They are for the greatest part fresh-water Fishes, and those which are most used as articles of food.
Fam. 11. Reptilian Fishes, Salmons.
Mouth with strong teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; behind the radial dorsal fin there is still a fatty fin and no large scales. Here belongs the Lizard-like fish (Saurus), so called on account of its resemblance to the Lizards. Live in sea and fresh-water.
Fam. 12. Ornithic Fishes, Herrings and Pikes.
The Herrings have teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; only one dorsal fin; mostly large scales.
Body of the Pike slightly scaled, furnished mostly with a small dorsal fin situated very far back, mouth full of teeth, but none of these in the rudimental intermaxillary bone. Dwellers in the sea and in fresh water.
Among the Pikes is placed the Exocœtus or Flying fish.
Order 5. Sensorial Fishes.
3541. Bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the snout.
Fam. 13. Thricozooid Fishes, Sharks.
Abdominales; bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the projecting snout; mostly several pairs of separate branchial apertures.
Here belong the Chimæræ, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays. The last ought to be held as higher in rank, partly on account of their slender tail, partly because the huge Rays, which are called Cephalopterus, have the anterior thoracic rays free and so moveable that they can seize their prey with them as with hands. All lay, with the exception of the Sturgeons, large and leathery ova, and in this approximate pretty closely to the Reptilia.
It has been already remarked, that the large Cartilaginei would not pass correctly into the others, and obviously seem to claim the highest post. At some later period the principle may probably be discovered whereupon their union with the higher Osseous fishes depends. Both are at all events Abdominales.
Eleventh Class.
Myozoa, Rhinozoa—Reptilia.
3542. Body entirely naked or covered with scales, with distinctly separate and red-coloured muscles; two nostrils permeable throughout.
As the Muscular system is here the characteristic organ, it must be regarded principally in the division of the present class; the limbs also exhibit nowhere so great a variety as in this class, since they are in some cases wanting, while in others two only, in some four, are present. In place of fin-rays true toes have, however, made their appearance, these again indicating the greatest variety in the number of the joints; but meanwhile there are in no instance more than five toes.
The osseous system is constructed after the pattern of that of the Thricozoa, and is never furnished with dorsal rays as in Fishes.
The dental formula begins also to be regular. The teeth stand usually in the superior intermaxillary bone, and are sometimes pointed, at others obtuse; in the Ichthyosauri and Crocodiles they are even inserted by gomphosis, as in the Thricozoa. In many Serpents additional kinds of teeth occur, namely, the curved poison-teeth or fangs, which have an involuted groove traversing their concavity. In most Reptiles teeth also occur upon the palatal, but there are no longer any upon the lingual bone. In the Chelonia or Tortoises the teeth are entirely wanting, and they are also scarcely indicated in the Asquamous Salamanders and Frogs.
The os quadratum is found as in Birds; in Serpents, however, the mastoid bone has been freed, and hence the capability possessed by these creatures of expanding the mouth.
Viewed in accordance with the perfection of the limbs, the Salamanders and Frogs ought to be regarded as the highest in rank; but their scaleless tegument, their development out of spawn in the water, as well as branchiæ brings them near to the Fishes. In other respects their position is determined by the dental formula, which, as I have already shown, belongs to the limbs and thus to the motor system.
The position of the nostrils is now, throughout the class, in front of and upon the snout, being no longer situated almost on the forehead or vertex, as in Fishes. Their relation to the scales is likewise of importance for the purposes of division.
The naked Salamanders and Frogs will occupy the lowest place. By their form, absence of teeth, and mode of life, the Chelonia are allied to them.
Then follow the Serpents and Lizards with a perfect set of teeth. The Serpents are distinguished from the Lizards by their want of feet and the long bifid tongue inclosed within a sheath.
Among the Lizards apodal species occur, as the Blind-worms; but they have under the skin some pedal bones, and are, in addition to this, sufficiently distinguished from the Serpents by the short and sheathless tongue.
Among the Lizards with perfect feet there are some with small visual organs, like as in the Serpents; others with unusually large eyes, e. g. the Chameleon, Gecko, Ichthyosauri, and Crocodiles. All other Lizards, the Serpents, Chelonia, Salamanders and Frogs, have small eyes and consequently follow each other.
The Crocodile has teeth articulated by gomphosis, and consequently resembles the Thricozoa.
I divide the present class therefore into the following groups.
A. DERMAL REPTILES—SMALL-EYED.
Order 1. Protozooid Reptilia-Kröten.
3543. Body slimy and scaleless, or maxillæ devoid of teeth.
Fam. 1.Infusorial Reptiles, Petromyzoid—Caudate Batrachia, Salamanders.
Body naked and furnished with a tail.
These cylindrical animals bear the greatest resemblance to the Lampreys, or are Petromyzoid, being provided with setaceous and scarcely discernible teeth, frequently only one pair of feet; they are developed also out of spawn in the water, and many retain the branchiæ during the whole of life.
Fam. 2.Polypary Reptilia, Kugelfischartige—Stutzkröten,Frogs.
Body thick and naked and without a tail, but with four feet.
The Frogs and Toads proper are likewise developed out of spawn, but soon lose their branchiæ. In their form and even the structure of their mouth they are Kugelfischartige, i. e. remind us strikingly of the Globe-fishes, among the Engmäulern or Plectognathi.
Fam. 3.Acalephan Reptilia, Welsartige—Chelonia.
Body thick and coated with scales, maxillæ quite edentulous.
The Chelonia appear certainly to occupy a pretty high rank; they lay large ova covered with a calcareous shell, but frequently live or dwell in the water, and have, in their mode of living as well as form, a striking resemblance to the naked Batrachia. Through their want of teeth they range among all the succeeding families.
Order 2. Conchozooid Reptilia—Ophidia.
3544. Body cylindriform and scaly, teeth acuminate, tongue longitudinally bifid and inclosed within a sheath; no feet and eyelids.
The Serpents stand without doubt below the Lizards; yet it is difficult to arrange them properly into families. The poison-teeth appear to indicate a lower character, because the cranium is thereby removed or recedes from the usual type of structure, while the superior maxilla becomes very much arrested. But as there are moveable and immoveable poison-teeth, and the latter graduallypass over into the ordinary kinds of teeth, while externally also, no character has been found to distinguish the venomous from the non-venomous Serpents, it is best at present to discontinue this separation.
Then the Serpents can be brought according to the structure of their scales into 3 families. They are either of equal and small size, around the whole body; or there are plates upon the belly and tail; or finally, the plates under the latter are divided into two tablets.
Fam. 4.Mussel-Reptiles, Eel-like—Schuppenschlangen.
All the scales around the body small and of equal size; upon the belly only being somewhat larger. Here belong the venomous Hydridæ or Sea-snakes, and huge Boas or Pythons. If once the venomous Serpents could be distinguished as a distinct family, they will indeed be placed higher, and the non-venomous be separated from them. Then probably the Boas may be raised, together with their allies, as the highest family.
Fam. 5.Snail-Reptiles, Haddock-like—Tafelschlangen.
Plates under the belly, those beneath the tail being halved or divided into two.
Here belong our Colubri, but also the venomous Adders.
Fam. 6.Kracken-Reptilia, Grundelartige—Schienenschlangen.
Entire plates upon belly and tail, as in the Rattle-snakes.
Order 3. Ancyliozooid Reptilia—Lizards.
3545. Scales, the usual kind of teeth and tongue; inferior maxillæ anchylosed in front, mastoid bone not freed, mostly feet and eyelids.
They divide likewise into three families.
Fam. 7.Worm-Reptiles, Tunny-like—Schleichen.
Body round and serpentiform, with small scales, feet rudimental, or even wanting.
Here belong the Cæciliæ, Blind-worms, and Scinci. I have united these animals, which elsewhere have stood dispersed among the Serpents and Lizards as well asthe Salamanders, and placed them as a distinct family between the two former. By reason of their rudimental feet they keep simply upon the earth and bore themselves passages therein. Their motion is serpent-like, because they lie upon the belly and cannot assist themselves with the feet.
Fam. 8.Crustacean Reptiles, Bream-like—Schuppenechsen.
Four perfect feet, body covered all round with small granular scales, tongue short and hardly slit.
Here belong the Flying Lizards, the Iguanæ and Basilisks. They usually climb about on trees and seek for beetles and berries.
Fam. 9.Ptilotoid Reptilia, Perch-like—Schienenechsen.
Four perfect feet, but plates upon the belly and tail, tongue thin and bifid. Here belong the common Lizards and the "Sauvegards" or Monitors. Their body is usually depressed. They cannot climb, but run about briskly upon the ground and eat beetles, and even the higher animals. Many are a fathom in length.
B. SARCOSE REPTILIA—LARGE-EYED.
3546. These animals have tubercles, spines and plates, with four perfect feet, as in the higher Lizards, but the toes are of pretty equal length; there are no palatal teeth, and the tongue is not fissured. They are of varied size, lead a sluggish and mostly nocturnal mode of life, and have a slow pace, occurring too only in warm climates.
Order 4. Sarcose Reptiles.
3547. Feet abnormal, being fin-and wing-shaped, adapted for climbing or clinging. They correspond quite closely to the three next animal classes.
Fam. 10.Ichthyoid Reptilia, Herring-like—Ichthyosauri.
All four feet converted into fins.
Here belong clearly the monstrous extinct animals, which formerly lived in the sea. They had gomphoticteeth almost like the Crocodile.—Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus.
Fam. 11.Typical Reptiles, Salmon-like—Geckos.
Climbing feet, or retractile claws as in the Cats, and perpendicular laminæ or plates under the soles, by means of which they cling to walls. They usually dwell in houses and catch beetles—Chamæleo, Gecko.
Fam. 12.Ornithoid Reptilia, Pike-like—Dragons.
Body short and bird-like, with very long neck and a long digit, unto which an alary membrane has probably been attached.
Here belong plainly the fossilized species of a single genus known by the name of Pterodactylus. They have been hitherto discovered in different parts of Europe, and probably flew about, like the Bats, by night.
Order 5. Sensorial Reptiles.
3548. Teeth wedged into the jaws, toes regular.
Fam. 13.Thricozooid Reptilia, Shark-like—Crocodiles.
Feet and toes of equal length, with swimming webs between them.
The Crocodiles must be without doubt regarded as the most perfect Reptilia, on account of their notched teeth and regular feet. In many respects they remind us, like the Sharks do among Fishes, of the Thricozoa.
Twelfth Class.
Neurozoa, Otozoa—Aves.
3549. In these animals it is again shown in a striking manner, that the characteristic organ is the principle of classification. Without recourse being had to the varied structure of the head, especially of the beak, the division of Birds would not be possible, although the feet frequently yield good characters.
3550. The development of the young makes an essential distinction upon a large scale, since one great body of Birds must be fed as nestlings, whilst the other, when scarcely emerged from the egg, runs about and seeksits own nourishment. Although in the lower animals the young do not require the assistance of the parents, and, on the other hand, those of the Thricozoa are suckled for a longer time by the mother; yet still those Birds which can, upon issuing from the egg, at once nourish themselves, such as the Fowls, Geese, &c., are probably the most perfect, for they pass parallel to the upper classes of animals, and for the Ostrich to be a Thricozoon, there is indeed as little wanting as to the Crocodile.
3551. There is no doubt whatever that the Natatores in every respect, both in the structure of the feet and head as also in their mode of living and feeding, repeat the Fishes. This opinion the empirical zoologists have already adopted from the Physio-philosophy.
The same may be said of the Grallæ or Wading Birds in reference to the Reptiles. Their feet, neck, and beak are serpentiform, and associated with a frog-like body. Their mode of living and feeding is likewise amphibious. But these birds pass over so directly into the Fowls, that the latter could not be arranged elsewhere, apart even from their displaying by their domestication to Man the higher grade of understanding, which is manifested for the first time in the class of Birds.
The Bustards and Ostriches are, finally, the highest stage of Birds, and form the closest alliance with the Thricozoa.
3552. This point being once settled, it is self-evident that the Birds, which do not stand in need of being fed, occupy the uppermost place, and consequently the nestling or parent-fed Birds the lowest, i. e. the former correspond to the Sarcozoa, the latter to the Dermatozoa.
A. SPLANCHNIC BIRDS.—NESTHÖCKER.
3553. Remain, after exclusion from the egg, in the nest and are fed; neck and feet short, toes four in number and ununited, beak pointed.
By their short neck, which rarely appears longer than the head, these Birds approximate the Reptiles andFishes, in whom also the head has scarcely separated itself from the thorax.
The uniformity of the feet and toes is likewise an inferior character, as it is found in the Dermal Reptiles and Fishes; while in the Sarcose Reptilia and Fishes the feet and fins make their appearance in the greatest variety, both as regards the form and length of the feet themselves, as the structure of the toes; and such is the case too in the higher organized Birds.
The same holds good also of the form of the head, and especially of the maxillæ and teeth, which are very uniform in the lower Fishes and Reptiles, but occur under very varied conditions in the upper kinds, exactly as in the Natatores and Grallæ, in the Gallinæ and Struthionidæ,
Order 1. Protozooid Birds—Tenuirostres.
3554. Bill awl-shaped.
These Birds present a resemblance to each other, not simply in their mode of feeding, since they are collectively insectivorous, but also in the slenderness of their form, and in the dazzling, varied, sharply defined, and very striking colours of their plumage, as well as in their habits, for they employ their feet and tail usually for the purposes of support, and so climb about the upright stems and branches of trees.
Among them also occur the smallest sized Birds, a fact which, compared with a similar one in the Thricozoa, indicates likewise their lower grade or rank.
Fam. 1.Infusorial Birds,Tree-runners or Creepers.
Bill awl-shaped, three toes in front—Humming-birds, Tree-creepers.
The small size of the Humming-birds seems to render them the lowest in rank of the class, and by this means the system obtains a point of departure, unto which similar forms may be annexed. Their manner of feeding is rather a process of lapping, than an actual snapping with the bill; their food also, which consists of small Beetles and their larvæ, requires scarcely any operationof the bill, so that here the cibarial instruments obviously rank upon the lowest stage, and remind us of the proboscis in Flies, Butterflies, and Bugs.
Fam. 2.Polypary Birds,Woodpeckers.
Bill straight and chisel-shaped, two of the toes directed forwards and two backwards.
The Woodpeckers stand obviously a step higher, because their bill is specially active in seeking out larvæ, and their body is held securely by the toes and stiff tail.
Fam. 3.Acalephan Birds,Cuckoos.
Bill rounded, slightly arched and obtuse; feet scansorial.
These Birds are less animated or lively than the preceding ones, keep themselves more concealed, and live mostly upon caterpillars in warmer countries. Some of them lay their eggs in the nests of other Birds.
Order 2. Conchozooid Birds—Conirostres.
3555. Bill short, thick, and straight, without a notch, three toes directed forwards.
These Birds usually perch upon branches, without, however, being able to walk upon them, since they usually hop, and must therefore make an auxiliary use of their wings. They are all of them granivorous, and in a condition both to crush the seeds with their strong bill, as well as pound them with their fleshy stomach or gizzard.
Their instruments of manducation and digestion are therefore perfect, added to which they are so allied to the subsequent order of Rapaces, that they could not be arranged lower; probably they ought even to rank higher.
Fam. 4.Mussel-Birds,Sparrows.
Bill short and coniform, without bristles; eat simply grains.
Fam. 5.Snail-Birds,Crows.
Bill long and coniform; eat grains, beetles and flesh, and pass gradually over into the Rapaces.
Fam. 6.Kracken-Vögel,Parrots.
Bill very thick and curved. The food consists ofgrains and fruits. Their spiritual energies or capacities are also more strongly developed.
Order 3. Ancyliozooid Birds—Dentirostres.
3556. Bill with a notch; food consists of worms and flesh.
Fam. 7.Worm-Birds,Cantores or Songsters.
Bill tolerably long and straight; eat worms and berries.
Fam. 8.Crustacean Birds,Fly-catchers.
Bill straight, with sharp edges superiorly, point de-curved or bent downwards. Their aliment consists of insects, which they mostly snap at during flight—Fly-catchers, Shrikes, Swallows.
Fam. 9.Ptilotoid Birds—Rapaces.
Bill unciform; seize upon the Sarcozoa with their claws.
B. SARCOSE BIRDS—NESTFLÜCHTER.
3557. Run about soon after being hatched, and nourish themselves. Bill and feet very varied, the former being mostly obtuse.
These Birds do not fly much nor hop, but walk, run, or swim. In them are found all the diversities of bill and feet; the latter are mostly placed far back, so that the body is usually directed upwards.
Their food also is very varied, consisting of seeds, grass, fruits, worms, and flesh.
Order 4. Sarcose Birds.
3558. Neck long, i. e. much longer than the head and bill, frequently longer than the body.
Fam. 10.Fish-Birds,Natatores.
Natatory feet short.
Mostly large Birds, which live upon fishes, worms, and many of them even upon herbs. Their bills are so varied, that they could represent several families, a fact which likewise speaks in favour of their higher position. It may be regarded as an instructive hint, that animalsoccupy a higher rank, if in them a richness or variety of forms is to be perceived. This is the case throughout the Thricozoa. The Natatores, through the structure and posterad insertion of their feet, through their closely-set plumage, which frequently presents short and scale-like feathers, by their swimming and diving, and lastly, through their fish-catching, approximate as closely to the structure and mode of living of Fishes as it is possible for a Bird to do, while still retaining the characters of its class. Many row even with the wings, and consequently use them as veritable fins.
Fam. 11.Reptilian Birds,Grallæ or Waders.
Legs, neck, and bill very long.
These Birds are a lively image of, or a composition from, the Reptilia, having a Frog's body with its long feet, and a Serpent's neck with a Tortoise's head.
They wade about in marshes to catch worms and fish; have also bills of very varied structure, yet generally very long and slender, being in some cases naked, in others covered with a skin.
Fam. 12.Typical Birds,Gallinæ.
Bill and legs shorter, the former being arched, the latter armed with strong toes for scraping.
Feed usually upon grains and worms, and live in dry situations. The Marsh-hens pass at once into the true Fowls, and these are attached, like as is no other family, through their capacity for domestication, to Man.
Order 5. Sensorial Birds.
3559. Run only, cannot fly.
Fam. 13.Thricozooid Birds,Bustards.
Fowls with long legs and mostly diminished toes—Bustard, Cassowary, and Ostrich.
These Birds have mostly such shortened wings, that they cannot elevate themselves from the earth. In the Cassowary we find, in place of the primary feathers upon the wings, five barbless quills like so many claws. The Ostrich has a pelvis closed in front like the Mammalia. It has not incorrectly been compared with the Camel,since the Ruminant animals in general have many resemblances in common with Birds, especially in the development of the horny substance, which obviously agrees with the feathers.
Thirteenth Class.
Aistheseozoa, Opthalmozoa—Thricozoa.
3560. All the senses perfect, five digits; the face covered with skin and flesh, the body with hairs; mammæ present.
3561. The Thricozoa combine in themselves all the animal classes, and indeed, so far as the development by grades makes no distinction, in equal proportion.
The differences are in no class therefore so numerous and so strongly pronounced as in this; and yet one is in more doubt almost concerning the rank of the families than in the former classes. It turns out, therefore, that they are not treated according to sound or solid principles, but that these, after the manner in which Natural History is still prosecuted, are despised.
Upon viewing superficially the groups of Thricozoa, it is certainly difficult to determine, which are the lowest families, although the uppermost ones are very well known; so that here matters are the reverse of what they were in Plants. In the case of Birds the empirical inquirer into nature knows neither which are the upper, nor which the lower groups; while in the Reptiles and Fishes he fares still worse.
It is pretty generally conceded that theWhalesare the lowest in point of rank, because their posterior feet are wanting, and in this they certainly do depart the most from the usual or normal form of the Thricozoa; yet still it is just these animals which form the proper starting-point for the present class. Even the empirical naturalists here begin to employ physio-philosophical language, and designate these animals by the title of Fish-like Thricozoa. But, if they repeat the Fishes, then there must be Thricozoa, which stand or rank below them, andpass parallel to the Dermatozoa. Which these latter are, is not indeed to be declared until the other groups have been separated and brought into their proper station or place.
If once there are Ichthyoidal there must also be Herpetoidal or Reptile-like Thricozoa. Now, if the Whales correspond to the former, then the serial arrangement of the latter kinds is readily enough decided. To the Whales no other animals admit of being annexed but theSwine-likegenera, such as the Hippopotamus, Pig, and Elephant, which, through their muscular mass, almost naked skin, and residence in marshy situations, agree very closely with the Reptilia.
In the next place come theRuminantia, to take their site opposite the class of Birds, with whom they correspond in their susceptibility to domestication, large ears, fine sense of hearing, and timid disposition. The horns must be regarded as the obscure metatype (nachregung) of the feathers. These three families may be aptly termedUngulataor Hoofed-animals.
Were matters to fare simply thus, then the center-building of this class would stand firm, and it would consequently not be difficult to say which animals stood below and which above it. For to the Apes are allied the Bears, to these the Dogs, Cats, and Martens, and to the latter again the Seals; all would rank above the Ungulata or Hoofed animals, and represent the proper or typical class of Thricozoa.
But the Thricozoa are Æsthetic or Sense-animals, and consequently the upper families must pass parallel to the organs of sense, if the lower correspond to the anatomical systems.
Now, if the eye has attained its maximum development in Man, the same must be said of the ear in the Apes, of the nose in the Bears, of the tongue in the Carnivora, and of the skin in the Seals.
Having so disposed of these, the only remaining Thricozoa are the Bats, Shrews, Moles, Marsupials, Sloths, and Rodentia.
In common parlance we compare the Bats with theBirds on account of their wings, unto which may be further added the large size of their ears. Their close relation, however, with the Shrews and Rodents assigns them a lower rank. They must be placed parallel with the Ptilota or Flies. The dental formula of the Bats resembles too so strikingly that of the Shrews that a rusty-grown prejudice can alone place the former in the neighbourhood of the Apes. They have obtained this post, without doubt, simply because they have but two mammæ, and these placed upon the chest.
The Moles cannot be removed from the Shrews.
The choice of position now remains between the Marsupials and Rodents. And to determine this point cannot prove difficult, for every one will place the former above the latter on account of their size, more perfect dental formula, and the hands, upon whose model the hind-feet have been in many species formed. To the Marsupials are annexed the Sloths, because several of them still possess marsupial or pouch-bones.
Viewed in this and in every other respect, the Rodentia stand or rank the lowest; and since the members of this family are much more numerous than those of any other, we may conclude that they fill up several families of the asarcose animals.
3562. The series would accordingly be as follows; first of all Rodents, then Sloths and Marsupials; with Moles, Shrews, and Bats, all as the repetition of the Dermatozoa. They are all Myoidal or Mouse-like in character. Next come the Whales, Pigs, and Ruminants as the repetitions of the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds.
The Carnivora with the Bears, Apes, and Man, as being the proper representatives of the senses, conclude or wind up the list. They alone have a regular dental formula. We have thus—
I. Splanchno-Thricozoa; Mice, Edentata, Marsupialia, Shrews and Bats.II. Sarco-Thricozoa; Whales, Pachyderms, Ruminants.III. Æsthesio-Thricozoa; Carnivora, Seals, Bears, Apes and Man.
3563. It is here shown, just as distinctly as in the series of the classes, that no simple scale exists in the history of development, and consequently in the arrangement of animals. The Mouse-like species stand off from the rest, and then follow the entirely different Ungulata with the Pigs and Ruminants, which once again diverge in like manner, and make room for the development of the Seals, which then proceed through the Dogs, &c., in a less interrupted series up to Man.
He who marvels at this, let him take and set the table of the class-series before his eyes, and he must give utterance with us to the following words; namely, that the lower animals diverge or turn aside, and the entirely different Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds follow, which, once again diverging, make room for the development of the Thricozoa, or, in other words, the "Compendium Animalium." A perfect parallelism is thus found to exist between the classes of animals generally and the families of Thricozoa; but no linear or continuously progressive connexion is discoverable between one set and the other, but an appearance by fits or starts of new forms, just as the systems and organs also are not gradually evolved metamorphoses of one system, but sudden productions "en avant" with new tissues, forms, and functions. The animal system is a multifariously-constructed temple, with its nave, choir, chapels, and towers, while these again are present with the whole diversity of forms, which belongs to them in their several characters or bearings.