Ordinary roads, road and railroad embankments, and sunken roads:
Plate27r.—Arrangement of an ordinary road defended on the side toward the enemy.
Plate27s.—Same defended from the rear.
Plate27t.—Road embankment, defended from the rear.
Plate27u.—Arrangement of a railroad embankment.
Plate27v.—Arrangement of a sunken road.
Hedges and woods:
Dig a trench behind the hedge and throw the earth against it; make openings in the hedge to facilitate view and fire. If the hedge is low, deepen the trench, but make the parapet lower than the hedge which masks it.
Plate27w.—Arrangement of a hedge.
Plate27x.—Arrangement of the edge of a wood.
Avoid destroying the natural appearance of the wood; do not cut the trees and brush on a certain depth, but cut off brancheswhere necessary to obtain a field of fire. Behind this strip cut the brush and small trees so as to make a path 3 to 4 yards wide. Construct a trench behind the mask of trees. The parapet can be raised up to 2 or even 3 feet. Construct abatis on the parts of the border of the wood, where it will not interfere with the fire.
Walls:
Plate27y.—Arrangement of a wall 2 feet 8 inches high.
Plate27z.—Arrangement of a wall 8 feet high.
Plate 28.—Arrangement of a wall more than 8 feet high without making loopholes.
Plate28a.—Arrangement of an iron fence built on a low wall.
FOOTNOTES:[1]This chapter reprinted fromInfantry Journal.
FOOTNOTES:
[1]This chapter reprinted fromInfantry Journal.
[1]This chapter reprinted fromInfantry Journal.
Chapter VI
REVETMENTS
Arevetmentis a covering or facing placed upon an earth slope to enable it to stand at an inclination greater than it would naturally assume. Some revetments also increase the tenacity of slopes and diminish the injury by fire. The upper parts of revetments that may be struck by projectiles which penetrate the cover of earth must not be made of materials of large units which will splinter when struck. The upper part of the revetments is technically known ascrowning.
Sandbags
Sandbags are made of coarse canvas or burlap. They are 33 inches long and 14 inches wide. They are filled loosely with earth or sand about ½ cubic foot to a bag. Having been placed in position they are pounded down with a shovel to a rectangular form when they will fill a space about 20 by 13 by 5 inches.
The sandbag revetment is constructed by laying alternate rows of headers and stretchers, breaking joints. The tied ends of the headers and seams of the stretchersare put into the parapet. Men working in pairs lay the bags and set them firmly in place with a spade or mallet.
The advantages are:
1. The portability of the empty bags. Only 62 pounds per one hundred bags.
2. They may be filled with any kind of soil.
3. They are rapidly filled and easily placed in position.
4. They are invaluable in making repairs.
5. They will not splinter.
The only disadvantage is that they are not durable. The cloth soon goes to decay and the filling material crumbles away.
Plate 29 shows the appearance of a sandbag revetment as seen from the front and from the end.
Plate 29.—Sandbag revetment.
A squad of six men with two shovels and one pick should fill 150 bags in an hour. One man uses the pick, two shovel the dirt into the bag, one holds the bag open and two men tie the bags. Having the filled bags ready to hand ten men will lay 75 square feet of revetment in an hour. Four men lay the bags and flatten them out while six carry them.
Brush
Brush is used in many forms for revetting. Almost any kind will serve the purpose. For weaving, it must be live and is most pliable when not in leaf. It should not be more than 1 inch in diameter at the butt. When cut it should be assorted in sizes for the different class of revetments. Poles 2½ inches in diameter are cut for the supports.
Fascines
Afascineis a cylindrical bundle of brushwood tightly bound. The usual length is 18 feet, the diameter 9 inches, and the weight normally about 140 pounds. Lengths of 6 and 9 feet, which are sometimes used, are most conveniently obtainedby sawing a standard fascine into two or three pieces.
Plate29a.—Fascine.
Fascines are made in a cradle which consists of five trestles, the outer ones being 16 feet apart. The trestle is made by driving two sticks about 6½ feet long and 3 inches in diameter in the ground and lashed at the intersection as shown in Plate 29a. In making the cradle, plant the two end trestles first. Stretch a line from one to the other over the intersection. Place the others 4 feet apart and lash them so that each intersection comes fairly to the line.
To build a fascine, straight pieces of brush, 1 or 2 inches at the butt, are laid on, the butts projecting at the end 1 foot beyond the trestle. Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches cut off, or partially cut through, so that they will lie close. The larger, straighter brush should be laid on the outside, butts alternating in direction, and smaller stuff in the center. The general object is to so dispose the brush as to make the fascine of uniform size, strength and stiffness from end to end.
When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine is compressed orchokedby thefascine choker(Plate 30), which consists of two bars, 4 feet long, joined 18 inches from the ends by a chain 4 feet long. The chain is marked at 14 inches each way from the middle by inserting a ring or special link. To use, two men standing on opposite sides pass the chain under the brush, place the short ends of the handles on top and pass the bars, short end first, across to each other. They then bear down on the long ends until the marks on the chain come together. Chokers may be improvised from sticks and rope or wire.
Plate 30.—Method of using the fascine choker.
Bindingwill be done with a double turnof wire or tarred rope. It should be done in twelve places 18 inches apart, the end binders 3 inches outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will require 66 feet of wire.
Improvised binders may be made from rods of live brush; hickory or hazel is the best. Place the butt under the foot and twist the rod to partially separate the fibers and make it flexible. A rod so prepared is called a withe. To use a withe, make a half-turn and twist at the smaller end. Pass the withe around the brush and the large end through the eye. Draw taut and double the large end back, taking two half-hitches over its own standing part.
Plate 31.—Fascine revetment.
Afascine revetmentis made by placingthe fascines as shown in Plate 31. The use of headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in loose soils only, but they greatly strengthen the revetment in any case. A fascine revetmentmust always be crownedwith sod or bags.
In all brush weaving the following terms have been adopted and are convenient to use:
Randing.—Weaving a single rod in and out between pickets.
Slewing.—Weaving two or more rods together in the same way.
Pairing.—Carrying two rods together, crossing each other in and out at each picket.
Wattling.—A general term applied to the woven part of brush construction.
Ahurdleis a basket work made of brushwood. If made in pieces the usual size is 2 feet 9 inches by 6 feet, though the width may be varied so that it will cover the desired height of slope.
A hurdle is made by describing on the ground an arc of a circle of 8-foot radius and on the arc driving ten pickets, 8 inches apart, covering 6 feet out to out. Brush is then woven in and out and well compacted.The concave side of a hurdle should be placed next the earth. It warps less than if made flat.
Plate 32.—Method of laying out hurdle.
Plate 33.—Hurdle.
Inweaving the hurdle, begin randing at the middle space at the bottom. Reaching the end, twist the rod as described for a withe but at one point only, bend it around the end picket and work back. Start a second rod before the first one is quite out, slewing the two for a short distance. Hammer the wattling down snug on the pickets with a block of wood and continue until the top is reached. It improves the hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods paired. A pairing may be introduced in the middle, if desired, to give the hurdle extra endurance if it is to be used as a pavement or floor. If the hurdle is not to be used at once, or if it is to be transported, it must besewed. The sewing is done with wire, twine or withes at each end and in the middle, with stitches about 6 inches long, as shown in Plate 33. About 40 feet of wire is required to sew one hurdle. No. 14 is about the right size, and a coil of 100 pounds will sew forty hurdles. Three men should make a hurdle in two hours, two wattling and the third preparing the rods.
Continuous Hurdle.—If conditions permit the revetment to be built in place, the hurdle is made continuous for considerable lengths. The pickets may be larger; they are driven further apart, 12 or 18 inches, and the brush may be heavier. The construction is more rapid. The pickets aredriven with a little more slant than is intended and must be anchored to the parapet. A line of poles, with wire attached at intervals of two or three pickets, will answer. The wires should be made fast to the pickets after the wattling is done. They will interfere with the weaving if fastened sooner. Two men should make 4 yards of continuous hurdling of ordinary height in one hour.
Brush Revetment.—Pickets may be set as above described and the brush laid inside them without weaving, being held in place by bringing the earth up with it. In this case the anchors must be fastened before the brush laying begins. The wires are not much in the way in this operation.
Gabion Making.—Agabionis a cylindrical basket with open ends, made of brush woven on pickets or stakes as described for hurdles. The usual size is 2 feet outside diameter and 2 feet 9 inches height of wattling. On account of the sharp curvature somewhat better brush is required for gabions than will do for hurdles. Thegabion formis made of wood, 21 inches diameter, with equidistant notches around the circumference, equal in number to thenumber of pickets to be used, usually eight to fourteen; less if the brush is large and stiff, more if small and pliable. The notches should be of such depth that the pickets will project 1 inch outside the circle. The pickets should be 1½ to 2 inches in diameter, 3 feet 6 inches long, sharpened, half at the small and half at the large end.
Plate 34.—Gabion.
Plate 35.
To Make a Gabion.—The form is placed on the ground. The pickets are driven vertically in the ground, large and small ends down, alternately. The form is then raised a foot and held by placing a lashing around outside the pickets, tightened with a rack stick. (See Plate 36.)
Plate 36.—Forming the gabion supports.
The wattling is randed or slewed from the form up. The form is then dropped down, the gabion inverted, and the wattling completed. If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing will make a better wattling than randing. If not for immediate use, the gabion must be sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity of wire being required.
The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed by cutting off the tops of the pickets, 1 inch from the web, the bottom 3 inches. The latter are sharpened after cutting and driving a pairing picket through the middle of its length and a little to one side of the axis. Three men should make a gabion in an hour.
Gabions may be made without the forms, but the work is slower and not so good. The circle is struck on the ground and the pickets driven at the proper points. The weaving is done from the ground up. The entire time of one man is required to keep the pickets in their proper positions.
If brush is scarce, gabions may be made with 6 inches of wattling at each end, the middle being left open. In filling, the open parts may be lined with straw, grass, brush, or grain sacks to keep the earth from running out.
Gabion Revetment.—The use of gabions in revetment is illustrated in Plate 37. If more than two tiers are used, the separating fascines should be anchored back. Gabion revetment should be crowned with sod or sandbag.
Plate 37.—Methods of use of gabion.
The advantages of gabion revetment are very great. It can be put in place without extra labor, faster and with less exposure than any other. It is self-supporting and gives cover from view and partial cover from fire quicker than any other form. Several forms of gabions made of material other than brush have been used. Some of them are sheet iron, empty barrels and hoops. The disadvantages of iron are that it splinters badly, is heavy, and has not given satisfaction. If any special materials are supplied, the methods of using them will, in view of the foregoing explanation, be obvious.
Timber or Pole Revetment.—Poles toolarge for use in any other way may be cut to length and stood on end to form a revetment. The lower end should be in a small trench and have a waling piece in front of them. There must also be a waling piece or cap at or near the top, anchored back. Plate 38 shows this form.
Miscellaneous Revetments.—Any receptacles for earth which will make a staple, compact pile, such as boxes, baskets, cans, etc., may be used for a revetment. Canvas or burlap stretched behind pickets is being used to a great extent on the battle fronts of Europe. If the soil will make adobe, an excellent revetment may be made of them, but it will not stand wet weather.
Plate 38.—Timber revetment.
Chapter VII
WORKING PARTIES
The infantryman will always be called upon to construct the trench which he is to occupy. Each company is provided with portable tools, which the men carry, and each infantry regiment is provided with tools for the purpose. The digging tools consist of picks and shovels.
When it has been decided to locate fire trenches along a certain line officers will lay out the cutting lines and mark them with tape or otherwise. A company will be assigned for the construction of a definite section of the trench.
Let us work out the procedure, assuming that the work may go on unmolested by the enemy. Such, however, is not usually the case. The enemy will do anything in his power to prevent construction work. If, however, we are familiar with the details of the work and know how to go about it in an orderly and systematic manner under conditions of noninterference by the enemy, we will be able to carry out these details of organization and procedure under more or less trying conditions when the time comes.
Officers have established the trace of the trench and marked the cutting lines. It is the ordinary traversed type, 18 feet bays with traverses 5 feet wide and 5 feet deep, as shown in Plate 14.
The company is composed of, say, twelve squads organized into three platoons of four squads each. Six bays of the trench have been assigned to the organization for construction. This gives a task to each platoon of two bays, including one complete traverse and a half traverse on each flank.
Tools have been issued to the first and third squads of each platoon, the front rank men carrying picks and the rear rank men shovels.
The company is marched in column of squads to the site of the trench, approaching it from the rear, and halted with the head of the column fifteen paces in rear of and opposite the right of the section assigned; that is, in rear of the first bay of the section. The second platoon is then conducted by the platoon commander and halted with its head opposite the third bay. The third platoon is in like manner conducted to the rear of the fifth bay. Each platoon commander then has the two rearsquads of his platoon, conducted to a point behind the bay on his left,i.e., the second, fourth and sixth respectively. This allows two squads for the work in each bay, the leading squad furnishing the first relief and the rear squad the second.
The leading squad of each column is then marched to a point two paces in rear of the rear cutting line of the trench, where they take off their packs and lay their rifles on them. The corporal and his rear rank man fall out. The corporal assigns tasks, number ones to the first 2-yard section, number twos to the second and number threes the third.
The tasks are shown in Plate 39. The corporal superintends the work. Number 4 rear rank marks out the cutting lines with his shovel around the traverses and starts work on them.
Experience has shown that the best method of dividing up the work is to group the men in pairs, one man with a pick and one with a shovel and to prescribe that they relieve each other.
PLATE 39.ORGANIZATION OF A WORKING PARTY
The leading squads assigned to each bay work at top speed for 30 minutes. At the end of the twenty-eighth minute the corporal of the rear squad brings his men up and deploys them. At a signal from the platoon commander the men of the first and third squads drop their tools, get out of the trench, and proceed to the rear, where they rest. The men of the second and fourth squads jump into the trench and take up the task. At the end of another 30 minutes this procedure is again carried out.
This scheme of assigning tasks and procedure was given an exhaustive test in 1915 in the course of testing out various types of intrenching tools. It worked to perfection.
The bays are first completed, after which the traverses begun by No. 4 rear rank are finished up. Great care should be taken to make the dimensions of the trench as accurate as possible. The squad leader is held responsible for this. He should provide himself with two sticks. On one the following lengths are laid off: 1 foot, width of berms, and height of parapet; 1 foot 4 inches, width of firing banquet, height of firing banquet above bottom of trench, and width of bottom of trench. The other stick has the following lengths measured on it:4 feet, depth of trench from ground surface to the top of firing banquet; 5 feet 4 inches, depth of trench from ground surface to bottom of trench. (See Plate 15 for dimensions of standing trench.)
When the circumstances are such that the work of trench construction is interfered with by the enemy, a modification of the system outlined here will have to be made, but the details should be adhered to as closely as possible.
When night work is necessary the trace should be staked out before complete darkness sets in. If the trace can only be made after dark, visible reference points needed with white paper, white tape or screened flashlights may be utilized. Stick to the details of the deployment, the laying out of tasks and the procedure as indicated for day work as closely as possible. Avoid making any more noise than is absolutely necessary; allow no smoking and require such conversation as is necessary to be made in whispers. Protect the workers by a system of patrols to the front.
Non-commissioned officers are held responsible for a systematic and orderlyexecution of the work being performed by their units. The captain cannot be everywhere along the line. He has to depend upon the platoon and squad leaders in the work. That is why you should study it and know about it so as to be able to make good when the time comes.
Chapter VIII
GRENADE WARFARE
The use of hand grenades as an implement of warfare dates back many centuries. History records their use as far back as 1536. Up to the close of the eighteenth century soldiers were trained in the throwing of hand grenades, and for this reason were called "grenadiers." At first there were a few in each regiment, later entire companies were formed, and finally each infantry unit that corresponds to our battalion of today had its own grenadier unit.
Then there was a period of time when more open formations were adopted, when there was less opportunity for the employment of grenades and their use was practically eliminated from the battlefield and confined to sieges, where they have been used more or less since the dawn of military history.
With the advent of the Russo-Japanese War came the extensive use of trenches on the battlefield, and with the trenches came the hand grenades which were used in large quantities by both sides. This was especially the case when the fighting lines cameto close quarters and in the assaults against the forts at Port Arthur.
When the European war resolved itself into trench warfare, such as it is today, the use of hand-thrown projectiles assumed an importance heretofore never attained, and today we find ourselves employing hand grenades in every phase of the conflict.
Employment of Grenadiers
Grenadiers are employed on both the offensive and defensive. They accompany the attacking lines in the advance on the enemy's position, they clear the fire trenches and communication trenches after parts of the enemy's lines have been taken, and on the defense they assist the riflemen in repelling attack and engage the enemy whenever he has obtained a lodgment in the trenches.
Organization
While every infantryman receives a certain amount of instruction in grenade throwing, there should be a grenadier squad in each platoon specially instructed and trained in this most effective auxiliary method of trench warfare. Not all men possess the temperament and qualificationsnecessary to make efficient grenadiers. Hence the personnel of the grenadier squad should be carefully selected. Strong physique, personal courage and steadiness in emergencies are the qualifications that count. Men fond of outdoor sports, other things being equal, will be found the best.
PLATE 40.
The grenadier squad is organized as follows:
Front Rank.
No. 1. First bayonet man.No. 2. Second bayonet man.No. 3. Grenade thrower.No. 4. Squad leader, observer and director.
Rear Rank.
No. 1. First carrier.No. 2. Second carrier.No. 3. Barricader.No. 4. Barricader.
Duties
The duties of the several members of the squad vary under different circumstances of their tactical employment which will be fully explained below. In general they are as follows:
Bayonet Men.—The bayonet men move inadvance of the grenade throwers. When the grenade thrower has thrown his grenades into the objective trench the bayonet men must be ready to take instant advantage of the temporary demoralization of the enemy caused by the explosions and clear the way for a repetition of the operation.
Grenade Thrower.—The grenade thrower must be ready and able to throw a grenade at once whenever the bayonet men or squad leader may direct.
Squad Leader.—The squad leader directs the operations of the squad. He goes wherever his presence is necessary. He keeps a close watch to the flanks. He replaces casualties and attends to the forwarding of grenades to the thrower. He acts as a grenade thrower whenever he can assist the operations in that capacity.
Carriers.—The carriers carry as many grenades as possible, and when their supply is exhausted they go to the reserve depots and replenish. They are responsible for a continuous supply of grenades to the throwers.
Barricaders.—The barricaders are charged with the construction of barricades. They carry sandbags and tools for fillingthem. In addition they carry as many grenades as possible. They hold themselves in readiness to go forward and construct a barricade or cover at any point designated by the squad leader.
PLATE 41Combat in a Communicating Trench
General.—All the men of the squad must be trained and prepared to take over the duties of any other member. Before undertaking any operation each man of the squad should thoroughly understand the part he is to play in it.
Formation.—The formation for the several classes of tactical employment will be explained when each is considered below.
Offensive Operations
When it has been decided to attack a certain sector of the enemy's position a detailed reconnaissance is made with a view to locating and developing every element of the position, detailed plans are made and imparted to all concerned. (See Chapter XI.)
The phases of the attack consist of: (1) The artillery preparation; (2) the infantry assault; (3) the occupation and organization of the captured position, and preparation to meet a counter attack.
During the course of the artillery preparation grenadier squads work their way across "no man's land" and establish themselves sufficiently close to throw grenades into the fire trenches. Failing in this they accompany the assaulting troops.
When they are able to work up close they cover the advance of the infantry assaulting lines by showering grenades into the enemy's fire trenches after the curtain of artillery fire has been extended back into his position to prevent the supports and reserves from coming up to the front.
All men of the squad carry as many grenades as possible and such number as the squad leader may designate act as throwers, while the others act as carriers and prepare the grenades for throwing. Accurate throwing, properly observed and distributed, will greatly assist in preparing for a successful assault.
Clearing Fire Trenches
No matter how well the infantry assault on the enemy's fire trenches may be conducted, it rarely succeeds in occupying the hostile position throughout its entire length. Casualties, loss of direction, and unexpectedobstacles encountered are bound to break up the assaulting line more or less, thereby leaving gaps in the captured position. Furthermore the attack on a line of trenches takes place on a relatively small front by a large number of men. When the trenches are finally reached and a lodgment effected there will be great overcrowding. Provision must be made immediately for extending the line, otherwise the casualties at these points will be exceedingly heavy.
It is the particular duty of the grenadier squads to clear these "gaps" of the enemy as quickly as possible. For this purpose an efficient and well-organized storming party must be immediately available.
Let us say that, after careful artillery preparation, the assault has reached the enemy's fire trench. There is much overcrowding at the points where lodgments have been effected. There is a gap in the line between two adjacent elements. How is this cleared of the enemy?
The grenadier squad immediately forms for action. Two bayonet men are in the lead, followed by the grenade thrower, who is in turn followed by the two carriers. Further to the rear are the two barricaders,who carry a reserve supply of grenades in addition to their sandbags and shovels. The squad leader is where he can best direct the operations.
The grenadier squad is formed as shown in thefirst position, Plate 40.
1. The grenade thrower puts grenades: (1) into bay 1, atA; (2) into bay 2, atD; (3) into bay 1, atB; (4) into the traverse leg atC.
2. When the four grenades have exploded the bayonet men rush into bay 1, the leader advancing into the first leg of the traverse trench belowB, while his mate remains in the bay for a moment.
3. The squad leader rushes around the traverse toA, followed by the grenade thrower.
4. When the bay and the next traverse passages are all cleared of the enemy the word "O.K." is passed back to the squad leader by the bayonet men. The bayonet men get into their proper positions and the remainder of the squad rush into the cleared bay 1 and prepare for the further clearing of succeeding bays in the same manner as described above.
Take the diagram on Plate 40. Study it out in connection with the text and you will see how this system works out.
The men work in pairs, the two bayonet men together; the two carriers behind the thrower; the two barricaders sufficiently far to the rear to be protected by a corner of solid earth. The squad leader must of necessity go where his presence is necessary. Usually he stays as near the grenade thrower as possible.
When the enemy's grenadier parties are also very active in the sector, the distances between pairs are extended so that no more than two men are exposed in any one bay or traverse leg.
The formation of the squad must be preserved as long as possible. You will appreciate that when losses occur the squad leader will have to replace men and the formation will have to be modified to meet the changed conditions. This makes it absolutely necessary that every member of the squad be competent to take over the duties of any other member.
When the squad has reached the limit of its advance the barricaders will come forward and construct a barricade in suchposition that it is well in view from a corner some distance behind.
No passing of bombs forward from man to man is permitted. When the first carrier's supply is exhausted he returns to the rear to secure a fresh supply from the reserve grenade carriers who are following the grenade squad, and who have by now advanced to a point where their supply is available. As soon as his supply is replenished he returns to his proper position in the formation. Should the second carrier run out of grenades the squad leader may cause one of the barricaders to take all the grenades in the possession of the two and replace him while he goes to the rear to secure a fresh supply.
In the meantime other grenadier squads are clearing out the communication and supervision trenches, blocking up the exits to dugouts and destroying machine-gun detachments that have thus far escaped. The assaulting troops have passed on towards the second line, covered by the curtain of fire of the artillery.
Clearing Communication Trenches
The clearing of communication trenchesis effected much in the same manner as explained for the fire trench. The grenadier squad is organized and formed in the same manner. The squad works its way into the communication trench by bombing each leg until they arrive at a point where the formation, as illustrated in Plate 41, can be assumed. The grenade thrower throws grenades into the trench atBand then atC. As soon as these have exploded the bayonet men take advantage of the confusion to advance into the legA-Bunder cover of the shoulderb, the squad leader and thrower advance toA, the carriers to the point formerly occupied by the squad leader, and the barricaders to the point formerly occupied by the carriers. The thrower then puts grenades into the trench at C and then at D, after which the whole squad advances another notch as formerly explained.
Where island traverses are encountered the thrower puts a grenade on each side of the traverse and one in the rear of it. The bayonet men, one on a side, assault around the traverse and meet on the far side, and the operation proceeds as heretofore explained.
Night Operations
The grenadier squads may be called upon at night, to perform any of the services that are theirs by day, and in addition may be called upon to make night reconnaissances. For this work the men must be able to organize and reorganize the squad quickly and noiselessly. The throwers must be particularly efficient. There must be the highest order of team work.
Grenadier Patrols
Grenadier patrols are sent out at night to make reconnaissances of the enemy's lines with a view to getting information which may include:
1. Location and organization of line.
2. The length of line occupied.
3. Numbers and disposition of occupying troops.
4. To get an accurate description of the ground.
5. To locate observation and listening posts or any other advanced positions.
6. To locate machine guns.
These patrols may consist of from two men to the entire grenadier squad. In apatrol of six or eight men two of them carry rifles and belts, bayonets fixed. The remaining members of the patrol carry no equipment except a haversack filled with grenades. The grenades are used only in case of emergency. It is a reconnoitering patrol charged with gaining information and therefore does not enter into an encounter with the enemy except as a last resort.
The men move or crawl without noise and take advantage of all cover that the ground affords. If they suspect they are observed, they should "freeze" to the ground and remain absolutely motionless. On dark nights it is easy to lose the direction and for the men to lose one another. Every device or scheme to lessen risks in this respect must be employed. The men may tie themselves lightly together so they will not proceed in a bunch and at the same time retain connection with each other.
Notes on Grenade Warfare
The first step in the training of a grenadier is to overcome his fear of the grenade itself. This is accomplished by first having him practice fuse lighting with dummygrenades having live fuses. The men will be impressed with the fact that the grenades are dangerous weapons and that familiarity in handling them must not be permitted to degenerate into carelessness.
The next step towards efficiency is the development of accuracy of throwing. For short distances it may be lobbed from the shoulder by a motion similar to "putting the shot." Stick grenades may be thrown for a short distance like throwing a dart. In the trenches the grenade should be thrown with an overhand motion like the bowler of a cricket ball, as there is danger of exploding them by knocking the hand against the back of the trench.
The men should be taught to throw from all positions—standing, sitting, kneeling and prone.
Should the grenade with a time fuse be dropped in the act of throwing, there is time to pick it up and throw it out of the trench before it explodes. Under no circumstances must it be allowed to explode in the trench.
Communication throughout the squad in action should be maintained at all times. System is required to insure the throwers having a supply of grenades on hand all thetime and that casualties are promptly replaced.
Quick action is essential to success. Crawling and stalking give the enemy what he is waiting for.
Arrangements to assist a storming party by rifle and machine-gun fire are of the utmost value and should be provided whenever possible. Care must be taken to provide a signal which will mark the progress of the storming party through the trenches. A helmet held up on a bayonet will do this.
All grenadiers must be especially trained in the filling of sandbags and making sandbag barricades.
The work of the observer is difficult and requires much practice. He must give his directions to the thrower in no uncertain terms. When the thrower has missed his objective the observer will give positive directions for the next throw. Instead of saying "A yard too much to the left," he will say, "Throw a yard to the right." Positive directions, even if only half heard, are of some use; negative directions are certain to be both confused and confusing. The observer should be expert in the use of the periscope.
Hand Grenades and Petards
The hand grenade used by our allies on the western front is the bracelet grenade with automatic firing mechanism and consists of a ball of cast iron filled with an explosive and of a leather bracelet which is fastened to the wrist. To the bracelet is attached a piece of rope about 30 centimeters long, having an iron hook at its end.
Just before the grenade is thrown, the hook is engaged in the ring of the roughened wire of the friction primer placed inside the fuse plug which closes the cast iron ball. When the grenade is thrown, the ring with the primer wire, held back by the hook of the bracelet, is wrenched off by a sudden movement of withdrawal from the wrist and the fuse is fired. The explosion takes place four or five seconds later.
This grenade is supplied to the fighting zone ready for use. It is quite complicated. It can be thrown about 25 meters.
The German grenade is composite; it can be thrown by hand or fired from a rifle. As a hand missile, it is used at short distances, 15 to 20 meters. It is composed of a copper rod to the extremity of which is fixed acast iron cylinder, grooved to facilitate its breaking into small pieces at the moment of explosion. The explosive is placed inside this cylinder. A copper tube, also containing some explosive, is placed in the interior. It is surmounted by a complicated system for closing the grenade and for automatic ignition by percussion, which results in at least 50 per cent. of misfires.
Plate41b.—British hand grenade No. 1.
a.Removable cap.b.Detonator holder.c.Detonator.d.Explosive charge.e.Wood block.f.Handle.g.Safety pin.h.Firing pin.i.Cast iron ring.j.Streamer.
Used with the rifle, this grenade has a maximum range of 400 meters. At the extremity opposite the grenade, the copper rod ends in a copper stem about 3 centimeters in length, movable about the axis of therod. This stem is covered with a copper sleeve of slight thickness, which is attached to it only at the extremity fastened to the rod. The diameter of the exterior of the sleeve must be such that it can be pushed into the gun barrel without pressure. To fire the grenade, a blank cartridge is placed in the chamber of the rifle; the quantity of powder left in the cartridge is regulated according to the distance at which the missile is to be thrown. At the moment of firing, the explosive gases penetrate between the sleeve and the stem and jam the sleeve against the grooves of the barrel. The sleeve and the stem, which is attached to it, take a movement of rotation in the grooves of the barrel, which insures the direction of the missile and the maximum efficiency of the explosive gases of the cartridge.
Plate41c.—The latest type British hand grenade.
a.Percussion cap.b.Firing pin.c.Safety pin. When in place prevents firing pin from striking primer. It is removed just before throwing the grenade.d.Primer.e.Chamber filled with high explosive.f.Cast iron shell, serrated.g.Wooden handle.h.Streamers, to keep the grenade head-on.
The bracelet grenade and the German grenade just described have to be made in a factory. Attempts have been made to construct similar missiles with the explosives which are at hand at the front, cheddite and melinite. Several kinds have been made: a primed cartridge and a primed hand petard, fitted on a wooden paddle, apreserved meat tin can filled with explosive, etc.
The Germans have hand petards similar to those of the Allies but with different explosives. These missiles are primed by a detonator and a slow match and can be thrown about 30 meters. The discharge takes place either automatically or by tinder. They are made on the spot and very rapidly. The assaulting troops carry them in baskets or strung on a circle of wire carried on the shoulder.
Plate41d.—Throwing hand grenades.
Grenades and petards constitute a terrible weapon. The projectiles exert considerable moral effect owing to the violence of their explosion and the awful wounds they occasion, and they make it possible to reach the enemy at points where it is impossible to use the rifle and bayonet.
Chapter IX
GAS WARFARE
Germany first made use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases on the field of battle. It has become an accepted element in the present war. Every soldier should, therefore, have a knowledge of the various ways in which gas is employed in the attack, as well as the measures to be taken to counteract its effect in the defense.
The two methods of disseminating the gas over the battlefield are by emanation and grenades charged with it.
Emanation
This method has for its object to create a poisonous or irritant atmosphere. This is accomplished by means of the arsenic and phosphorous gas being forced through tubes in the direction of the enemy or by means of liquefied chlorine, bromide, phosgene and sulphuretted hydrogen gas stored in cylinders under high pressure. To be successful the gas attack must be attended by the following conditions:
1. The weather must be comparatively calm with a wind blowing in the directionof the enemy at about 5 miles an hour. If the wind is too strong the gas will be carried over the enemy's trenches so rapidly that it will not settle in them. If the wind be too light the gas will be carried up into the air and disseminate or may even be blown back into our own trenches, in which case chloride of lime scattered about freely will disperse them.
2. There must be no rain, for that would quickly disseminate the gas and negative the effect.
3. The attack must come as a surprise. If the elements of surprise are missing and the enemy has time to take protective measures, the effect is lost. If the surprise is complete, the enemy trenches should be emptied very quickly.
4. The gas used must be heavier than the air, so that it will sift into the enemy's trenches as it passes them. It is impracticable to decide upon any definite hour for launching the gas attack. Everything depends upon the direction and velocity of the wind. If an hour has been tentatively designated and the wind changes, the attack will have to be postponed.
When an assault follows the gas attack the men should wear the smoke helmets for at least 30 minutes after the dissemination has ceased; in fact they must not be removed until the order to do so is given by the officer commanding the attack. You will appreciate that the enemy's machine gunners may have better protection than the men in the bays of the trenches.
Shell and Grenade Method
In this method the gas dissemination is effected by means of shells or bombs being fired into the enemy's trenches containing the desired substances which are released and give off irritant fumes on explosion. The grenades used weigh about 1 pound. They are similar in appearance to the ordinary tin can grenade. Their effect in a trench will continue for 20 to 30 minutes. In the attack a large number should be concentrated in a particular area to produce a large volume of gas. They are thrown by hand, trench mortar or catapult.
Defense
Surprise must be guarded against in every possible way. The direction of thewind must be continually watched, and when its velocity and direction are specially favorable the protective measures must be kept ready for instant use and special observers posted. Previous to an attack the enemy may remain comparatively quiet for several days. Noises like the moving of sheet iron may be heard. Preparations may be observed along the position. When the attack starts a hissing noise is heard; this latter is one of the indications that may be evident at night.
Helmets
Each man on duty in the trenches is provided with two smoke helmets, specially devised and constructed so as to absorb the gas and neutralize its effect, and which if properly cared for and used will provide complete protection from any substance likely to be used by the enemy. They are fitted with a valve tube through which to breathe and with goggles to see through. There are certain rules prescribed for their care and use.
1. They must not be removed from the protective covering except for actual use against an attack.
2. When the helmet has been used once it should be replaced by a new one.
Dummy Helmets
Dummy gas helmets will be provided in each organization by which the men may be practiced in putting them on. The men must be thoroughly drilled in the methods to be employed.
Plate40a.—Gas helmet.
The following directions accompany thehelmets issued to the British Army. When our helmets are issued it is probable that each will be accompanied by a complete set of rules for its use and full instructions for the method of getting into it and for its care and preservation.
Direction for Use and Care of Tube Helmets
Description
These helmets are the same as the smoke helmet already issued, except that stronger chemicals are added and a tube valve provided through which to breathe out. The tube valve makes the helmet cooler and saves chemicals from being affected by the breath. The wearer cannot breatheinthrough the tube valve; this is intended for breathingoutonly.
Directions for Use
Remove paper cap from mouthpiece of tube valve. Remove service cap. Pull helmet over head. Adjust so that goggles are over eyes. Tuck in skirt of helmet under coat collar and button coat so as to close in skirt of helmet. Hold the tube lightly in lips or teeth like stem of pipe, so as tobe able to breathe in past it and out through it.
Breathe in through mouth and nose, using the air inside the helmet. Breathe out through tube only.
Directions for Care of Tube Helmet
1. Do not remove the helmet from its waterproof case except to use for protection against gas.
2. Never use your tube helmet for practice or drill. Special helmets are kept in each company for instruction only.
Should the goggles become misty during use they can be cleared by rubbing them gently against the forehead.
When lacrimatory gases are used goggles affording mechanical protection may be worn, as these gases are not likely to irritate the lungs, though they sometimes produce sickness.
Improvised Methods
If a soldier does not possess one of the official pattern respirators, the following measures will be found useful:
1. Wet and wring out any woolen article, such as a stocking or muffler, so as to forma thick pad large enough to cover the nose and mouth, and press firmly over both.
2. Place in a scarf, stocking or handkerchief, a pad of about three handfuls of earth, preferably damp, and tie it firmly over the mouth and nose.
3. A wet cloth pulled down over the eyes will be found useful as additional protection, especially against certain gases other than chlorine or when the gas is too strong for the ordinary respirator.
4. A stocking, wetted with water and soda solution or tea, folded into eight folds and firmly held or tied over the nose.
5. A sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and held or tied. If the sock or comforter has been soaked in soda solution it will still act efficiently when dry, though if possible, it should be moist. The spare tapes from puttees may be used for tying on the sock.
6. Any loose fabric, such as a sock, sandbag, woolen scarf or comforter, soaked in urine, then wrung out to allow of free breathing and tied tightly over the nose and mouth.
In the absence of any other cloths, theflannel waistbands issued for winter use could be used for this purpose.
Knapsack Sprayers
Knapsack sprayers are issued for use to clear gases out of the trenches after the cloud has blown over. A man with the sprayer on his back (and wearing his smoke helmet) slowly traverses the trench, working the spray. If this is not done the heavy poisonous gas may linger in the trench for days and be a source of great danger.
If supports or reinforcements enter a trench charged with gas, they should be preceded by a man using a sprayer.
Sprayers are charged with sodium thiosulphate—more commonly known as "hypo"—6 pounds being dissolved in a bucket of water and a handful of ordinary washing soda added.
Garden syringes and buckets may be used if sprayers are not available, but these are not so effective. Sprayers should be charged before they are taken up to the trenches, and should be kept ready for immediate use.
Every officer defending a trench against an enemy gas attack should endeavor tocollect information whenever possible, to be sent to headquarters through the usual channels. Particularly valuable is the capture of apparatus used by the enemy either for disseminating gas or for protection against it. If a shell attack is made, unexploded shells or portions of them should be sent through to headquarters at once. The time of day, duration of attack, color, taste or smell of gas used, effect on the eyes, breathing, and all other symptoms should be noted. New gases may be used at any time, and speedy information greatly forwards the adoption of preventive measures.
Chapter X
SERVICE IN THE TRENCHES
Preparations for Entering Trenches
Preparing to enter upon a period of service in the trenches the company commander makes a complete inspection of the company which includes:
1. Inspection of rifles and ammunition.
2. Inspection of equipment, contents of packs, intrenching tools, field glasses, wire cutters, first-aid packets, emergency rations, gas helmets, identification tags, canteens, clothing, etc.
3. Canteens to be filled with water.
4. Test bayonets, fix and unfix.
5. Have company fill magazines.
Inspection of Section
The company commander precedes the company into the trenches and makes a tour and inspection of the section assigned, which includes:
1. Layout of the trenches: fire trench, supervision trench, communication trenches, machine-gun positions, snipers' positions, listening and observation trenches, dugouts, latrines, etc.
2. Locate telephones, reserve ammunition and munitions depots, water supply, gas alarms, tools and any trench accessories and utilities that may be included in the section.
3. Get any information of the enemy that may be of value from the outgoing company commander.
Tactical Disposition
The company commander will then make his tactical dispositions. In occupying the trenches a certain section of the line is assigned to each company. This section contains so many bays of the trench. The following dispositions are suggested as meeting the requirements under our organization:
1. The company is organized into four platoons of four squads each.
2. The section of the line assigned to the company contains eight bays.
3. Support No. 1 consists of the first and second platoons.
4. Support No. 2 consists of the third and fourth platoons.
5. From Support No. 1: Two squads of the first platoon occupy bays 1 and 2; twosquads of the second platoon occupy bays 3 and 4.
PLATE 41a.TACTICAL DISPOSITIONS ONE COMPANY OF INFANTRY.
6. From Support No. 2: Two squads of the third platoon occupy bays 5 and 6; two squads of the fourth platoon occupy bays 7 and 8.
7. Each squad establishes a double sentinel post in the bay assigned to it and the remaining members go into the squad shelters just in rear of the bays. This gives three reliefs for a double sentinel post and allows one extra man to be utilized as "runner," etc.
8. The remainder of the company is established in the company dugouts.
9. Depending upon the length of the tours of duty of the company in the first line trenches, the squads are changed according to a system that will have to be varied to suit the occasion, the squads in support taking their place in the fire trench and those in the fire trench returning to the support.
Going Into the Trenches
Platoons enter by not more than two squads at one time, thus minimizing the danger from shell fire. The platoon commander will explain to his squad leaders the extent of trench to be taken over and the action to be taken in case they are caught under shell fire or rapid fire while going up to the trenches. A second in command in each squad will be designated, so that if casualties occur among the squad leaders the relief will proceed as previously arranged.
The operation will proceed in silence. Rifles must be carried so that they do not show over the parapet. On reaching the fire trench the men of the first relief are posted to relieve the old detail and each man finds out any points that may be useful from his predecessor on that post.
Information to be Obtained
The platoon commander confers with the commander of the outgoing party and secures all the information possible about the position which includes:
1. Behavior of enemy during period preceding relief, and any point in their line requiring special information,e.g., enemy may have cut wire as though preparing to attack.
Plate 42.
2. Machine-gun emplacement may be suspected at some particular point.
3. Anything ascertained by patrols about ground between firing lines, thus avoiding unnnecessary reconnaissance.
4. Any standing arrangements for patrols at night, including point at which wire can best be passed, ground to be patrolled, or place where they can lie under cover.
5. Any parts of trench from which it is not safe to fire. Such positions are apt to occur in winding trenches, and are not always recognizable in the dark.
6. Special features of trench, recent improvements, work not completed, dangerous points (on which machine guns are trained at night), useful loopholes for observation.
7. Places from which food and water can be safely obtained.
8. Amount of ammunition, number of picks, shovels and empty sandbags in that section of the line.
Information on these points cannot always be given properly by word of mouth.Writtennotes and plans should therefore be handed over to a platoon commander taking over for the first time.
Every man is required to see that he has a good firing position for all directions. Commanders must satisfy themselves that men have done this, and report.The whole line "Stands to Arms" during the hour before dawn.
After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles should be left in firing position on the parapet. All men not on sentry should keep rifles, with bayonets fixed, in the trench.
Routine
1. Double sentinel posts are established in each bay. They are on post one hour at a time.
2. When the enemy's trench-mortar detachments are active, special sentinels will be posted to give notice of coming bombs.
3. Every man in the platoon is to know:
(a) The location of the platoon reserve ammunition and munitions.
(b) The location of latrines.
(c) The topography of the trenches in the platoon section and the adjoining sections, including the approaches. The location of the accessory defenses, listening and observation posts, machine-gun positions,snipers' positions, trench-mortar positions, etc.
(d) The tactical disposition in the sector and the general disposition of the company.
(e) The location of loopholes.
(f) The places of especial danger in order that he may stay away from them.
4. Rifles are inspected twice daily. Every precaution is taken to keep the rifle and ammunition free from mud.
5. There is a gas helmet parade daily.