CHAPTER II

Lumbering and Varieties of Wood

8. The manufacture of lumber.—(A.) There are two distinct processes in the preparation of lumber for commercial purposes,loggingandsawing; the former includes all the steps from felling the tree to the delivery of the logs at the sawmill; there the logs are sawed into boards, planks, and timbers of certain dimensions, which are piled and exposed to the sun and air for a sufficient time to allow a large part of the water in them to evaporate, when the lumber is said to be “weather dried,” and ready for shipment to the consumer.

Fig. 4.—Felling a Tree.

(B.) If a lumber concern desires to begin operations in one of the great forest areas, a “land-looker” or “timber-cruiser” is sent to spy out the land, and to report upon the probable yield of timber within certain areas, and the conditions which would aid or retard the work of getting out the logs. If the report is favorable, the standing timber may be purchased by “stumpage,” which means that a certain price will be paid for each thousand feet of lumber cut, or the land may be purchased outright, though in the early history of lumbering cases have been known where these little formalities were omitted.

Fig. 5.—Cutting Small Branches fromFelled Spruce.

Camps are located at convenient points throughout the boundary, roads are made through the woods, and foundations, or “skidways,” built at right angles to them, to receive the logs as they are hauled down the “travoy” roads, which are narrow trails cut through the woods at frequent distances for this purpose.

(C.) The above preparations completed, the work offelling the trees is begun (Fig. 4); this part of the work requires nice skill and judgment, as it is necessary that the tree should fall so that it will cause the least damage to itself and to surrounding trees. After the tree is down, the branches are cut close to the trunk (Fig. 5) and carried to one side so that they will not be in the way of the horses. The trunk is then sawed into logs, twelve, fourteen, sixteen, or eighteen feet in length, as the imperfections and the length of the tree trunk may allow. Longer or shorter logs are rarely cut except for special purposes.

(D.) One end of the log is placed upon a drag, or is gripped by a pair of tongs, and hauled to the nearest travoy road and skidway, where it is piled (Fig. 6). (E.) From the skidway the logs are loaded upon trucks, cars, or sledges (Fig. 7), and carried to the cable (Fig. 8), which is a method of hauling logs used in some parts of the country, or to the railroad (Fig. 9), or floated down a river (Fig. 10). If either of these latter methods oftransportation is employed, the logs are generally piled upon another skidway until there is enough for a train load, or until the conditions upon the river are favorable for them to be floated to the mill.

Fig. 6.—Skidway of Spruce Logs.

Fig. 7.—Load of White Pine Logs.

Fig. 8.—Hauling Logs by Steel Cable.

Fig. 9.—Loading Logs from Shedway to Train.

Fig. 10.—Boom of Logs.

Fig. 11.—Log Jam.

(F.) Figure 11 illustrates a jam of logs, which is generally the most dangerous obstacle the lumberman has to face. A jam usually depends upon one key log, which, if loosened, will allow the jam to break instantly. The work of loosening the key log is frequently done by one or two men, who must be men of spring steel nerves and muscles, and possessed of the highest possible skill and activity, or they cannot hope to break a large jam and escape with their lives.

Fig. 12.—Sawmill in the Big Tree District.

(G.) The mill illustrated by Fig. 12 is one which receives its logs by both rail and river. In this case the logs which come in by rail are rolled into the river, as they can be more easily placed upon the chain feed of the mill. In winter, a small pond of water is heated, in which the logs are soaked before they are taken into the mill; this draws the frost out of them, and allows them to be worked much more easily.

(H.) There are different types of sawmills, in which the logs are worked into commercial shapes. The small enterprises use portable mills, which are moved into the woods and located upon a tract of land, remaining until all the desirable timber in the vicinity has been sawed, and then moved to another locality and the process repeated.

Large operations are conducted upon a different plan; mills of a permanent type are erected as near the forest as practicable, roads are built, tracks laid, and the logs brought from the woods by one of the methods previously illustrated; or, where it is feasible, flumes are built, and the logs floated in these to the mill. In erecting a mill of this sort, a location is selected upon a waterway if possible, as the logs may be floated more cheaply than by any other method of transportation, though some of the heavier woods will not float, and have to be handled on land. (I.) The immersion of logs in water also improves the quality of the lumber, as the action of the water upon the sap prevents to some degree the tendency to decay, and also facilitates the seasoning of the manufactured product. If the log is left in the water until it becomes water-logged, it will sink, and while it is not injured for many purposes, the wood loses some of the strength which it is supposed to have. In many localities, the salvage of sunken logs has become an industry.

(J.) In modern large lumbering operations, the timber to be cut is selected by trained foresters, thus insuring a permanent supply, and in the near future all extensive lumbering operations will, beyond doubt, be conducted upon a scientific basis, as it is apparent that unless lumbering is carried on differently than it has been in the past, the supply for the future will be entirely inadequate for the demand.

(K.) In the smaller sawmills, the logs are usually sawed into lumber of various dimensions by a circular saw (Fig. 13); but in the larger mills, the band saw generally is used. Figure 14 illustrates a double cut band sawmill,in which it will be seen that the saw makes a cut each time the log is carried either way.

Fig. 13.—Circular Saw.

9. To saw lumber of irregular dimensions.—(A.) Besides sawing dimension timber, joists, scantlings, boards, and planks of different thicknesses are sawed, as follows: 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 2”, 2½”, 3”, 3½”, 4”; and thicker, if desired.

(B.) If lumber is cut again from its original dimensions, it is said to beresawed. When boards or planks of the above dimensions are dressed on both sides, they will be about ⅛” thinner; thus, a board sawed 1” thick will, when seasoned and dressed, be but ⅞”, and a 2” plank will be but 1⅞” or 1¾”, though still classed by their sawed dimensions.

Thicker lumber than that above-mentioned usually comes under the head of dimension timber, which is not used to the extent that it was formerly, as steel and concrete are replacing it upon heavy work.

Fig. 14.—Double Cut Band Saw.

If ½” boards are wanted, 1¼” or “five quarter” lumber is usually resawed to furnish it, and after resawing, is planed upon each side to the desired thickness. Boardsfor box stock and other special purposes are sometimes sawed as thin as ¼”.

Fig. 15.—Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing.Fig. 16.—Four Methods of Quartering.

Fig. 15.—Plain, Slash, or Bastard Sawing.

Fig. 16.—Four Methods of Quartering.

(C.) The method of cutting a log illustrated by Fig. 15 is known asplain,slash, orbastard sawing, and is the cheapest way to cut logs, both as to time and waste. The log is first squared to secure a bed upon which it may lie while being sawed, which also makes it unnecessary to run each board by the edging saw to straighten the edges. The slabs ataare sawed into boards as the log is squared, and the bark, or “live edges,” sawed off afterward. These make an inferior grade of boards, as they are nearly all sap, but they are well worth saving, if large logs are being cut.

In sawing dimension timber, or “bill stuff,” good judgment is necessary to cut a log so that the greatest amount of marketable lumber can be made from it. This is done by cutting various sizes from a log, if it will not cut all of one size without too much waste.

(D.) In cutting woods which have prominent medullary rays or silver grain, the log is sawed by one of the methods shown in Fig. 16, the object being to bring the rays as nearly parallel to the surface of the board as possible, thus giving the broad silver, or quarter, grain which is so highly prized.

The best results are obtained from sectionsa,b; this method also gives the most waste. In plain sawedlumber, the boards from the middle of the log will have the quarter grain; these are usually culled and sold as quarter-sawed.

Neither of these methods results in economy of time or material, as about 25 per cent of each is used in excess of that required in plain sawing; hence, quarter-sawed lumber is more expensive than the plain, or bastard, sawed.

(E.) Quarter-sawed lumber (Fig. 16) is preferred not only on account of its handsomer grain, but because it holds its shape better than lumber sawed in any other way, as the annual layers are approximately square with the surface of the board. As the board shrinks in the direction parallel with the annual layers, and very little from the center to the outside of the tree, it is obvious that there is much less shrinking and warping in quarter-sawed lumber than in that which is sawed plain.

The best grades of flooring are quarter-sawed, and stand usage without the surface splintering much better than does the common plain sawed material. Quarter-sawed lumber is known also as “rift-sawed,” “vertical grain,” and “comb grained.”

10. The grading of lumber.—Custom varies somewhat in different localities as to the grading of lumber, but there are generally four grades, which are often subgraded into qualities suitable for various uses.

“Number 1” lumber should be practically perfect, though in large dimensions, small and unimportant blemishes may be allowed. These blemishes in a board are usually restricted to not more than one inch of sap, a smallsound knot, or small discoloration, and but one blemish to a board is allowed.

“Number 2” lumber is generally allowed two sound knots, an inch of sap, and one other blemish.

“Common boards” are allowed three or four sound knots, but two thirds of one side must be clear stock.

“Culls,” the lowest grade, are used only upon the cheapest work. One half of the board must be usable.

In many cases the boards are graded by the width of clear stock which can be taken out. There are tables published by the different associations of lumber manufacturers which give the gradings under which their lumber has been measured and shipped, but as these vary from time to time no permanent list can be given.

The principal reason why there can be no permanent grading of lumber is that the forests from which the finest timber can be cut in marketable quantities are being destroyed faster than they can be replaced by nature. In anticipation of this condition, the Division of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in organizing government forest preserves, in educating the people, and in promoting legislation aimed at the husbanding of our forests. When we consider the abundance of high grade lumber a few years ago, and the fabulous prices which the same grades now bring, it is evident that this movement should have begun during the days of our grandfathers, instead of waiting until nearly all the best lumber in the great forests east of the Mississippi had been cut, and inestimable damage wrought by forest fires.

11. The testing of lumber.—(A.) Dry, sound stock, if struck with the knuckles or with a hammer, will give aclear ringing response, while a wet or decaying piece will give a dull response to the blow.

(B.) Every kind of lumber has its peculiar odor, by which, as well as by the grain, the student should learn to distinguish the woods in common use. This may be more easily done before the wood has been thoroughly seasoned. Wood in general has a sweet and pleasing odor; if a sour or musty smell is perceptible, it indicates that decay is present.

(C.) If there is much variation in the color of timber, or black and blue spots, the stick is probably diseased.

(D.) Decay is a disease, which may be prevented by dryness or ventilation, and frequently may be cured by soaking the wood in water for several days, or by steaming. The disease of decay is cured also by chemical preservatives being forced into lumber by pressure; this at the same time prevents insects from boring into the tree.

Alternate wetting and drying will produce rot, but most lumber, if permanently submerged or if kept perfectly dry, will last almost indefinitely. Dry rot spreads to adjoining timbers, and even to those which have no connection with the one originally infected.

12. Surveying or estimating lumber.—(A.) It is the custom to consider any board less than one inch in thickness as an inch board, and anything over one inch is measured as so many inches and fractions of an inch. For instance, a board ¾” thick is surveyed as a full inch, while one which is sawed 1½” in thickness is estimated by obtaining its surface measure, and increasing it by one half. Thus, a plank 12’ long, 8” wide, and 1½” thick would have twelve feet board measure in it.

In some localities there is a sliding scale of prices which varies with each quarter inch in thickness of resawed lumber, but this is not universal.

(B.) In surveying joists or scantling, it is customary to obtain the fraction of a foot, board measure, for each lineal foot. Thus, a piece of 2 × 4 (inches understood) has two thirds of a foot for each foot in length; a 2 × 6 has one foot, and a piece of 2 × 8 has one and one third feet of lumber for each foot in length of lumber measured. If a joist is 2 × 12, doubling its length gives the number of square feet, board measure, that the joist contains.

(C.) In measuring a common board, the widest parallel piece which can be cut from it is the width of the board being measured; therefore the board should be surveyed at the narrowest place. In measuring more expensive lumber, it is customary to average the width of the board.

(D.) In estimating all kinds of lumber in common use, the lumber scale shown in Fig. 17 is used. It is made of thin, cleft hickory, about three feet long, with one end large enough for a suitable handle; on the other end is a metal head, which is held against the edge of the board while the scale is being read.

The length of the board is marked near the handle, and at the end of the socket of the metal head, as ata.

In using this scale, the hooked end, or head, is held against the edge of the board, as atb; the eye follows along the same line of figures upon which the length of the board is found, reading those figures nearest the width of the board. Thus, a scale laid upon a board 16’ long would, without further measuring or calculating, show that the board contains 17’ board measure. If the board were12’ long, it would contain 13’; and if 14’ long, by reading the middle line of figures, the board would be seen to contain 15’.

In using this scale, it is customary to read to the nearest figure, and when there is no difference, to alternate between the lower and the higher figures upon different boards. Thus, a board 12’ long and 8¾” or 9¼” wide would be read as having 9’ board measure in it. Two boards 8½” wide, of the same length as the above, would be measured as having 8’ and 9’, respectively, in their surfaces. In short, the fractions of a foot are not considered in surveying the lumber in common use.

Fig. 17.—Lumber Scale.

13. Qualities of wood.—(A.) Certain kinds of wood are adapted for some purposes better than are others; the wood-worker, therefore, should be familiar with the qualities which conditions demand, and the kinds of woods which have these qualities.

Lumber for framing should be strong and durable; it should be cut from trees which grow to a size that will allow large dimensions to be cut from them.

For outside finish, the material should be wood whichwill stand the weather, can be easily worked, and will hold its shape well.

Timbers that are to be buried must possess the quality of durability, and should be of sufficient strength to resist the strain which will be put upon them.

Flooring should wear well, hold its shape, and be of good appearance. In providing lumber for inside finish, care should be used that it has good grain and color, is not too soft, and that it will hold its shape well. Almost any wood may be used as far as strength is concerned, but lumber which shrinks and warps badly is unfit for finishing.

Shingles should be of wood which will resist decay, and which has the least tendency to warp and split.

Boards which are to be used for siding should hold paint well, and be as free as possible from the tendency to warp, split, and twist when exposed to the weather.

(B.) All material used in framing a building should be weather-dried in good drying weather for at least thirty days for each inch in thickness, and that used for inside and outside finish and floors should be thoroughly kiln-dried, and kept in a dry place until ready for use. These conditions are not always obtainable, but if the best results are desired, they should be followed as closely as possible.

The woods hereafter described comprise the principal varieties used by the wood-workers of the United States.

(C.)Ash(deciduous, or broad-leaved) is an open-grained, light-colored wood, in which the porous portions of the annual rings are quite prominent, thus making it somewhat coarse-grained.

It grows in the Northern states, and is a wood of mediumweight and hardness. It is tough and elastic, the young growth being much used in the manufacture of wagons, machinery frames, and for similar purposes, as it is not expensive, quite easily worked, and very strong. It has a tendency to decay, and is often badly infested with insects; therefore it is not suitable for building construction or for contact with soil.

Ash grows in forests with other broad-leaved trees, and is plentiful in many localities. There are two kinds of this wood recognized in commerce: thewhite, which is light-colored, and theblack, which is of a brownish tinge, though there is little difference in the grain of the two. Sap is not considered a defect, but is regarded as the best part of the tree for some purposes. The wood grown in the Northern states is generally tougher than that grown farther south.

The wood from the older and larger trees is not so tough and hard as that from the younger growth, and is much used for cabinet work and for interior finish. It should be filled with a paste-filler, after which it may be brought to a fine polish. The wood holds its shape well and is useful for the purposes mentioned.

(D.)Apple(dec.) is not used for construction, as the proper dimensions cannot be secured, and as it is very stubborn to work. It is one of the best woods known to resist splitting, and is much used for chisel and saw handles.

(E.)Basswood, orlinden(dec.), is a soft, porous wood, which shrinks considerably in drying. It is used for the backing of veneer work, for drawer bottoms of the common grades of furniture, for case backs, and similar purposes, and is also much used in the manufacture of spoolsand other small articles which are made in large quantities. In building construction, basswood is used for ceilings, and for other work where strength is not needed, though for use in such places it should be thoroughly seasoned, or the joints will open.

If steamed, basswood may be bent to almost any form. Steaming also cures to a great extent the tendency of this wood to shrink and swell.

(F.)Beech(dec.) is adapted for use in places where the ability to resist a heavy strain or hard wear is necessary, as in plane stocks, tool handles, and parts of machinery. In building work, it is used to some extent for flooring and for inside finishing. It is used also for furniture, though the difficulty of working it makes it more expensive than other equally desirable woods.

If exposed to alternations of dryness and dampness, it decays rapidly; if submerged, it gives fair satisfaction.

Beech trees are common through the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and are found to some extent in all of the states between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard.

(G.)Birch(dec.) is one of our most useful hard woods. It is found in abundance in the broad-leaved forests of the Eastern states and Canada. There are two varieties recognized in commerce, theredand thewhite birch. The former is used considerably for inside finish and for furniture. It takes a stain well, and may be made to imitate cherry or mahogany so exactly as to deceive any one but an expert. When finished in its own natural color, it is a satisfactory wood for the above uses, but as it ages, it turns to a muddy brown; as it is a stubborn wood to work, it is not popular.

Fig. 18.—Beech and Sugar Maple Forest.

Canoe, orpaper,birchis softer than the red variety, and is used to some extent by paper pulp makers, and for the manufacture of spools, dowels, and a large variety of small articles.

(H.)Butternutorwhite walnut(dec.) has a good grain and color; it is quite soft, though not so easily worked as are some harder woods, for it has a tendency to string while being dressed to a fine surface. It does not absorb moisture readily, and holds its shape under trying conditions.

Butternut does not split easily, takes a fine polish, and is used considerably for furniture and for interior finish.

(I.)Cedar(coniferous, or needle-leaved) is of two varieties, theredand thewhite. The former is used considerably for cooperage and veneers, lead pencils, and for lining moth-proof drawers and chests, as its strong odor and bitter taste protects it from the ravages of insects. The supply of red cedar is becoming limited, and it is now too expensive for common use, though our forefathers used it for shingles. The unwise and avaricious cutting of this valuable timber and of others, notably white and Georgia pine, has destroyed what would have been a supply for all time, if the cutting had been properly controlled.

White cedar is much more plentiful, and a much inferior wood; it is used for shingles, water tanks, boat building, and in the manufacture of barrels and cigar boxes. It is a very durable wood, and shrinks but little in drying. It is well adapted for burying, though not strong enough to resist a very heavy strain. It grows faster than the red cedar, and makes a larger tree.

(J.)Cherry(dec.) is one of the best of our native woods. It is much used for fine finish and for cabinet work, as itholds its shape well, if thoroughly seasoned, and takes a fine finish. Its grain is of fine, even texture, of reddish color, and often stained to imitate mahogany. When well ebonized, it cannot be distinguished from the genuine wood except by weight.

Cherry is used by pattern makers for parts of patterns which are to stand rough usage. The tree is found in all of the states east of Texas, and in the Mississippi valley, but it is becoming too scarce for common use.

(K.)Chestnut(dec.) is a soft, open-grained wood, adapted to use in exposed situations. It is used a great deal for inside finish, as it will take a fine polish, and as the figures formed by the grain make it a very handsome wood for the purpose.

Not being a strong wood, it will not stand a heavy strain, and will shrink and crack badly in drying.

(L.)Cypress(con.) is similar to cedar. It is one of our most durable woods, and perhaps the best we have for outside work. It is used extensively for shingles; roofs covered with cypress shingles have been known to last for more than seventy-five years. The wood is light, straight-grained, and soft; it is easily worked, and holds its shape well. It is to great extent taking the place of white pine in the manufacture of doors, sash, and blinds, and is considered by many to be equal, if not superior, to that wood. It is much used in building small boats, and for use in places where it will be exposed to dampness. Eaves, troughs, and tanks made of it give better satisfaction than those made of any other woods except redwood and cedar, which are the only woods having anti-decaying qualities equal to cypress.

Cypress may be obtained in boards of almost any dimensions, and if it were stronger and harder, it would be one of our best woods for framing and finishing. It is used for the latter purpose to a considerable extent, as it has a handsome grain, and will take a polish well; if thoroughly seasoned, it will hold its shape as well as any wood. If it is seasoned slowly, it does not crack to an appreciable extent, but if forced, it is apt to be filled with fine shakes. Sap is not considered a blemish.

Cypress grows in the swamps and along the rivers of the Southern states, the best of it coming from those bordering on the gulf.

(M.)Elm(dec.) is a moderately hard wood, difficult to split. It warps and checks to some extent in drying, but when well seasoned it holds its shape as well as most woods in common use. It is susceptible to a good polish, and is used a great deal for interior finish and furniture, as it takes a stain well. Much of the quartered oak used in the manufacture of cheap furniture grew upon an elm stump. It is used largely in cooperage, and stands contact with the soil satisfactorily.

The elm is found in nearly all parts of the United States, but is more abundant east of the Mississippi river.

(N.)Gum(dec.), or, as it is more generally known,sweet gum, is extensively used for interior finish upon the better class of buildings. It warps and shrinks badly unless thoroughly seasoned, in which condition it is a very satisfactory wood. It is tough and strong, cross-grained, and of fine texture; its color is a warm, reddish brown, and it finishes handsomely. The gum tree grows abundantly in the Southern states.

(O.)Hemlock(con.) is found in most of the Northern states, and is used for scantlings, rough boards, under floors, and for boarding preparatory to siding. It is a fairly durable wood, but splits easily, and is apt to be full of wind shakes. It holds nails firmly.

(P.)Hickory(dec.) is the hardest native wood in common use, and the toughest wood that we have; it is too hard to be used for building material. It is flexible, and its principal use is for wagon and carriage work, and for other purposes where bent wood and great strength is required. As it does not split easily, it is much used in the manufacture of tool handles. It is liable to attacks from boring insects, and these pests often destroy much valuable timber.

Sap is not considered a defect, and the sapwood is in fact the most desirable part of the tree, on account of its creamy whiteness and great strength.

(Q.)Locust(dec.) is found in nearly all parts of the country, and is a useful and durable wood. It is much used for fence posts and, in damp locations, for railway ties, and sometimes for furniture, as it has a yellowish brown color which takes a polish well.

(R.)Maple(dec.) is a heavy, strong wood, nearly white, with a yellow or brownish tinge. There are several kinds of maple, but the kind generally used for commercial purposes is thesugarorrock maple. It does not shrink excessively, seasons without serious checking, and from it a very fine surface for polishing may be obtained. It is much used in places where it is exposed to wear, as in floors, butchers’ tables, etc., and to a considerable extent as a cabinet wood, and for interior finish. Maple does not resist decay as well as do some other woods.

Sap is not considered a defect, and on account of its whiteness the sapwood is often preferred to the heartwood for many uses.

Bird’s-eye mapleis of this wood, but some peculiarity in the growth of certain trees, believed by many to be caused by woodpeckers, has caused the tree to have what seem to be numerous small knots, known as curls or eyes. The presence of these imparts a beauty which is possessed by no other wood, and has never been successfully imitated.

(S.)Mahogany(dec.) is an imported wood, and is much used in the finish of fine buildings and in the manufacture of fine furniture. It is of a rich red color, and has a beautiful grain and other desirable qualities which make it the finest wood for finish in use. It holds its shape remarkably well, unless it is very cross-grained, and is in every respect an ideal cabinet wood. Its cost is all that prevents it from being universally used.

(T.)Oak(dec.) is our best all-round native wood. It is found abundantly in nearly all parts of the country, and forms the larger part of our broad-leaved forests. There are a number of species of oak, but they are in general known to commerce as theredand thewhite oak. Nearly all these trees are cut for commercial purposes, but the white oak is the finest. The wood of some varieties of oak is so similar to the white oak that the difference cannot be distinguished after the work is finished, therefore they are all put together and sold as a medium grade of white oak for purposes where the strength of the genuine is not required. This will generally account for the difference in the grain and the color which is noticed in handling the commercial white oak.

Red oak is a coarser wood, and is more apt to give trouble in seasoning than white oak, though they both have to be dried very carefully, or there may be checks and cracks to such an extent that the wood will be ruined. Both the red and the white oak are used extensively in finishing and cabinet work, but the red oak is used commonly upon the cheaper grades, as it is easier to work.

The two varieties should never be used upon the same job, unless the wood is to be stained a dark color, as there is a marked difference in their appearance when finished. White oak is much used for flooring, quartered oak resulting in a beautiful floor, if the work is well done.

Oak is not a suitable wood for exposure to trying climatic conditions, though if buried deeply, or in water, where there is no alteration in moisture or dryness, it gives satisfaction. White oak is used to great extent for railroad ties, but what these are to be made of in the future is causing much speculation, as the end of the present supply of white oak is already in sight.

(U.)Pine(con.) in its different varieties is used more than any other kind of wood. It is found in nearly all parts of the United States and in Canada. Certain sections of the country which were once covered with virgin pine forests have, however, been so denuded of their wealth, and so many of their young trees destroyed, within a few short years, by the depredations of lumbermen who cared more for their immediate profit than for the prospective good of the nation, that instead of a permanent and continual supply of this valuable wood, there are now nothing but barren hillsides, and the moss-grown ruins of the lumber camps and sawmills by means ofwhich this irremediable wrong was perpetrated against posterity.

White pineis soft, easily worked, and when thoroughly seasoned will hold its shape better than any other wood except mahogany. For these reasons, and on account of its adaptability to gluing, it is used almost exclusively by pattern makers. It is found in the Northern states and in Canada. Farther south is the belt in which grows the grade of pine known as “Carolina,” thebastardoryellow pine. This belt extends from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic coast, and is of a width to include Virginia and the Carolinas. This pine is harder to work, and has a more pronounced grain than has the white pine, but it makes a handsome wood for interior trim, as it is capable of a fine finish. Carolina pine is neither so hard nor so strong as “Georgia” pine, which is also known commercially aslong-leaved pine,pitch pine, orhard pine. This wood is found from Virginia to Texas, in the states bordering upon the ocean and the gulf.

Pitch pine has a finer, closer grain than has either of the two above described, being much stronger and more dense. This is the wood which is used for heavy timbers of large buildings, and the above described grades should never be confused with it, the Carolina pine resulting in work of less strength, for instance, if used where the pitch pine was intended. Although this wood is very hard and strong, and is the best wood for heavy construction, as has been stated, it should never be used in any place which is not dry and well ventilated, as it will decay rapidly if placed in a damp location, or where it will come in contact with the earth.

Fig. 19.—White Pine Forest.

There are several varieties of pine besides those above mentioned. These are generally less desirable for finish or for construction than is the white, yellow, or Carolina pine, but they are used extensively for the common work of light building, and by box factories.

(V.)Poplarorwhitewood(dec.) is cut from the tulip tree, and is found principally in the Middle West and in some parts of the South. It is of light weight and color, with few knots, and is soft and easily worked. It is used for the common grades of cabinet work, inside finishing, veranda posts, etc. It takes a stain remarkably well, and its even texture makes it a favorite with wood carvers. It warps and shrinks considerably in seasoning, and unless held in its place, it is apt to twist.

(W.)Redwood(con.) is taken from the big trees on the Pacific slope; it is straight-grained, soft, and free from knots, and may be obtained in boards of any size which it is possible to cut. It has the reputation of being one of the best woods for use in trying conditions, or where it will be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.

It has a very coarse grain and takes a finish well, but it is not apt to become very popular for inside finish, as it is easily marred, and, although very soft, will, when thoroughly dry, destroy the edge of tools quicker than many harder woods. It turns to a dull, unattractive brown as it ages, if it is finished in its natural color.

It is claimed by many to be the best wood for shingles, as it resists decay indefinitely. It shrinks both ways of the grain, and burns very slowly.

Fig. 20.—Douglas Spruce Forest.

(X.)Spruce(con.) is moderately hard and strong, and in New England is used generally for framing light buildingsand for rough boarding. Its color is almost pure white, and it has the valuable quality of holding nails firmly. There is little difference between the heart and the sap wood, and its texture is sometimes such that it is difficult to distinguish it from white pine. It warps and twists badly in seasoning, and on that account is not suitable for framing trusses, unless seasoned lumber is used.

Spruce is used also for a cheap grade of clapboards, for flooring, ceiling, and laths, and also by paper pulp manufacturers in immense quantities. It is a fairly satisfactory wood for immersion, but if exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, it decays rapidly.

(Y.)Sycamore, orbuttonwood(dec.), is found in nearly all parts of the Mississippi valley and in the Eastern states. It is a moderately stiff and strong wood, coarse-grained, and quite difficult to smooth to a surface, as the grain seems to run in all directions at once. It has also a disagreeable habit of warping and twisting as it seasons, but if well seasoned and properly handled, it will give no more trouble than do other woods. It takes a good polish, and is a desirable wood for inside finish.

(Z.)Walnut, orblack walnut(dec.), is found in all the Middle and Eastern states. It is heavy, firm, and strong, of a chocolate color, and takes a fine finish. It is well adapted to inside finish and to furniture work.

At one time nearly all the best work was done in this wood, but at present it is out of style, as oak and other woods are more in favor. Like other varieties of our best woods, this has been cut out, and is now too expensive to be considered as anything but a fancy wood.

White walnutis described under butternut.

Fig. 21.—Red Spruce and Balsam Fir Killed by Fire.

Suggestive Exercises8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations? What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill? Why? Compare the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why is scientific forestry a necessity?9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods of quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to economy. Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking qualities. What are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber is known?10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are commonly graded.11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What does it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board? How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured?12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber over 1” in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To what lengths are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should a common board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate the use of the lumber scale.13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of timber for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside finish? For shingles? For siding? How long should lumber be dried before using? How should lumber for inside finish be cared for while waiting for use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the following kinds of lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut, cedar, cherry, chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, maple, mahogany, oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut.

Suggestive Exercises

8. How are small lumbering operations conducted? Large operations? What is the favorite method of bringing logs to the mill? Why? Compare the circular and the band saw as to economy. Why is scientific forestry a necessity?

9. What are the usual thicknesses to which planks are sawed? How much thinner is dressed than sawed lumber? How are ½ boards usually sawed? How should a log be sawed to get the most out of it? To furnish dimension lumber? Describe the advantages and the methods of quarter-sawing. Compare plain and quarter-sawed lumber as to economy. Compare and give reasons for their different shrinking qualities. What are the different names by which quarter-sawed lumber is known?

10. Describe and demonstrate the four grades of lumber as they are commonly graded.

11. What will be the nature of the sound if a dry, perfect piece of timber is struck with the knuckles? A wet or decaying piece? What does it usually signify if there is a great variety of color in a board? How may decayed lumber be detected by its odor? How may incipient decay be stopped? How may decay be prevented or cured?

12. How is lumber less than 1” in thickness surveyed? Lumber over 1” in thickness? How are joists and scantlings measured? To what lengths are logs sawed in the forest? In surveying, where should a common board be measured? A quarter-sawed board? Demonstrate the use of the lumber scale.

13. What should be the qualities of a good framing timber? Of timber for outside finish? To be buried? For floors? For inside finish? For shingles? For siding? How long should lumber be dried before using? How should lumber for inside finish be cared for while waiting for use? Describe the qualities and the uses of the following kinds of lumber: ash, apple, basswood, beech, birch, butternut, cedar, cherry, chestnut, cypress, elm, hemlock, hickory, locust, maple, mahogany, oak, pine, poplar, spruce, sycamore, walnut.

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