Chapter 11

Fig. 62.—Chisels.A, tanged firmer chisel;B, socketchisel;C, beveled-edge chisel;D,mortise, or framing chisel.

Fig. 62.—Chisels.

A, tanged firmer chisel;B, socketchisel;C, beveled-edge chisel;D,mortise, or framing chisel.

(D.) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard wood and of any convenient shape, as these should not be pounded upon. Although they are occasionally used for cutting small mortises, it is not a good practice unless the tops of the handles are protected by leather or fiber tops. Mortising chisels should have handles of the toughest wood obtainable, preferably hickory, with leather nailed with small brads upon the top to protect the wood. If a leather washer is fastened to the handle by a pin or dowel, the wood will in time pound down and the leather be broken out and destroyed, while if braided upon the handle, the leather may be renewed as often as necessary. An iron ring, or ferrule, is used by many to prevent the handle from splitting, but this will bruise the face of the mallet. A hammer should never be used upon any sort of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly destroyed, but a mallet will injure it comparatively little. In fitting the handle to the chisel blade, care should be used that they are in perfect alignment, as otherwise a sharp blow may break the blade.

(E.) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be groundat an angle of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be apt to break upon coming in contact with a knot. A paring chisel may be ground as thin as 20°, as it does not have to stand heavy blows, and a better edge for the purpose may thus be obtained. In whetting a chisel, the bevel must be carefully maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight, like the face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to work to a line.

Fig. 63.—Drawshave.

47. Gougesmay in general be described in the same way as chisels, except that they are curved instead of flat. The terms “inside” and “outside,” used in describing them, indicate whether they are ground upon the inside or the outside of the curve.

48. The drawshave(Fig. 63) is often used in cutting curves, in chamfering, and for roughing out work. The patent drawshave, with folding handles, is a safer tool to keep in the tool box, as the edge is protected, but it is not as satisfactory for general work as the ordinary rigid-handled tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood should be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands when the tool is not in use.

Fig. 64.—Spokeshave.

49. The spokeshave(Fig. 64) should not be used in any place where a plane can be used, but only upon concave or convex surfaces; when used, it maybe either pushed or pulled.

Fig. 65.—Auger Bit.

50. Bits(A.) are of many different types, the most common being theauger bit(Fig. 65). The use of the “worm”(a) is to draw the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy pressure upon the bit unnecessary. The “lips” (bb) make an incision on the wood below the cut made by the “cutters” (cc), which take the shavings out and into the “twist,” which in turn lifts them out of the hole.

Fig. 66.—Cross-handled Auger.

(B.) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that the bit is removed before the shavings clog in the twist, which will happen if the hole becomes full of shavings which cannot be lifted out. Should clogging occur, do not use a great deal of strength in trying to back the bit out, or its “shank” may be twisted off; it is better to pull it out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if sufficient strength cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being straight over the center of the bit from the “chuck,” not from the head of the bitbrace.

After boring the hole to the desired depth, do not turn the bit backward to remove it, as shavings will be left in the hole, but give it one turn back to loosen the worm, then turn as though boring the hole deeper, lifting under the head of the bitbrace in the meantime, by which process the shavings will be lifted out. These bits are numbered from ³⁄₁₆ths to ¹⁶⁄₁₆ths inch by 16ths of an inch. Sizes larger than these are known as augers.

Fig. 67.A, German bit;B, twist drill.

Fig. 67.

A, German bit;B, twist drill.

(C.) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross handles, as in Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient leverage to make the bit cut the wood; these are called augers. The form shown is known as a “Ford auger.”

(D.) TheGerman bit(Fig. 67,A) is used for boring small holes for screws and nails, and has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our forefathers, as its action is much more rapid. Its progression in sizes is from ¹⁄₁₆” to ¹²⁄₃₂” by 32ds of an inch; this tool is also called ascrew bit.

Fig. 68.A, extension bit;B, center bit.

Fig. 68.

A, extension bit;B, center bit.

(E.) Thetwist drill(Fig. 67,B) is a valuable tool; every carpenter should own an assortment of twist drills for use in places where other bits may come in contact with iron. The sizes range from ¹⁄₁₆” to ⅝” by 32ds. The round shank drill may be purchased in any size up to 3”, by 64ths of an inch.

(F.) Theextension bit(Fig. 68,A) is a very convenient tool for boring a hole of any size within certain limits, and is at times extremely valuable.

(G.) Thecenter bit(Fig. 68,B) is often used in boring holes through thin material which would be apt to be split if an auger bit were used.

(H.) In filing an auger bit, it should be held as shown in Fig. 69, and a small, fine file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of the cutters; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened,as the size of the bit will be reduced. In filing the cutter, be sure that its under side back of the cutting edge is filed enough to clear the wood after the cutter has entered it.

Fig. 69.—Filing an Auger Bit.

In doing this, it should be remembered that the bit progresses into the wood as it cuts, and unless the under side of the cutter is filed properly, it will bear upon the wood beneath it, back of the cutting edge, and prevent the bit from advancing. To remedy this, be sure that the cutter is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from the edge to the beginning of the twist.

(I.) If the lips (Fig. 65,bb) are filed off, an auger bit bores into the end wood easily.

51. The bitbrace, or stock.—(A.) This tool is used to hold the bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn the bit into the wood. Bitbraces are made of different sizes, and with different devices for holding the “tangs” of the bits. A workman should own an 8” and a 10” swing bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or kinds of bits alternately.

Fig. 70.—Ratchet Bitbrace.

(B.) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the ordinary brace only in the ratchet attachment. It is an indispensable tool to an up-to-date workman, as it may be used in many places where an ordinary brace would be useless; for general work, however, being heavier, it is less convenient than the plain brace.

52. The Screwdriver(A.) is one of the most important tools in a carpenter’s kit, and to be of use should be of finely tempered steel, for if too soft, it will turn over, and if too hard, it will break. The edge should be as thick as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to have as much strength as possible.

(B.) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory as one with an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is impossible to obtain as good a grip upon the former as upon the latter; a round handle, planed flat upon the two opposite sides, is quite commonly used.

(C.)Ratchet screwdriversare useful in many places where it is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent quick-action screwdrivers on the market which are suitable only for certain kinds of light work, as what is gained in speed is lost in power. The screwdriver bit is a short screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace; it is essential in doing economical work, as screws may be driven much more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valuable on account of its greater leverage in driving heavy screws.

Fig. 71.Fig. 72.Compasses.Calipers.

53. Compasses, or dividers(Fig. 71), are used to draw circles and curves, and for spacing and scribing, by which is meant the process of fitting a piece of wood to an uneven surface.Calipers(Fig. 72) are used to measure the outside of a round or oval object. Those shown are known as “outside” calipers; “inside” calipers, or those used for measuring the inside of a hole, have straight legs. These tools ordinarily are not considered a part of a carpenter’s kit, as they are generally used upon work requiring more exact measurements. Wood-workers’ tools are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than 16ths of an inch; hence, the ordinary methods of measuring will usually give sufficiently accurate results.

Fig. 73.Fig. 74.Pliers.Nippers.

54. Pliers.—(A.) These are indispensable little tools (Fig. 73), and every workman should own a pair. Those combining several tools are most useful; cheap tools of this sort are usually worthless.

(B.)Nippers(Fig. 74) are made to cut wire, but not to pull nails. Being tempered for cutting, those of good quality are hard and brittle,lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which work a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased.

55. The scraperis one of the most useful tools in the kit of the carpenter who works upon hard wood. This tool may be purchased, or made of a very hard saw; it must be of hard, tough steel, or the edge will not last. A scraper should be about 3” × 5”, which is a convenient size for grasping with the hand. Many workmen make handles for their scrapers (Fig. 75,AandB), but cabinet makers, and others who use them continually, generally prefer to use them without handles. If a large surface is to be scraped, it is well to have a handle of a leather palm (Fig. 75,C). This is a piece of leather of suitable size and shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the action of the scraper in cutting; the thumb is passed through the hole, and the broad part of the palm hangs between the scraper and the thick of the hand. For scraping floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75,D) will be found valuable, though if much of this work is to be done, it will be the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping machines.

Fig. 75.—Scraper.A,B, handles for scraper;C, leather palm;D, scraper plane.

Fig. 75.—Scraper.

A,B, handles for scraper;C, leather palm;D, scraper plane.

Fig. 76.—EdgesofScrapers.A, bevelededge;B, squareedge.

Fig. 76.—EdgesofScrapers.

A, bevelededge;B, squareedge.

56. Edges.—There are two forms of edges used in sharpening scrapers,—thesquareand thebevelededge; in sharpening either of these, the edge should be filed, whetted, and turned with a burnisher, which imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76,AandB, which shows enlarged views of the two forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye glances along the edge of a properly sharpened scraper, the edge will appear slightly curved; this edge must be given it by filing. After the scraper is filed, each corner which is to be turned must be whetted to a perfectly keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of sharpening a scraper is to “turn” this edge at an angle with the sides of the scraper.

Fig. 77.—Angleof BurnisherwithSides ofScraper.

By “turning” the edge of a scraper is meant pushing the particles of steel which form the corner over so that they will form a wire edge which will stand at an angle with the sides of the scraper. When the edge has been skillfully turned, it will cut like a very finely sharpened and adjusted plane, and will work either with or against the grain without tearing the wood.

Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher with the sides of the scraper, as ata, Fig. 77, and as in Fig. 78, which indicates approximately the angle at which it should be held across the edge when seen in the view illustrated of either a square or beveled-edge scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The stroke must be from the bottom, up, as indicated. AtA, Fig. 79, is shown the top view of the burnisher as it makeseach of the strokes in turning the edge of a square edge scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an angle of about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle.

Fig. 78.—Method of Grasping Scraperfor Sharpening.

AtB, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge of a bevel edge scraper; the student will notice that the angles are similar to those shown atA, except that the first stroke is made at nearly the same angle as the bevel of the scraper. An edge may often be turned at one stroke, and more than three should rarely be necessary. If more than three are made, the edge may be turned too far, which is worse than not being turned enough. The strokes should be made in the order indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher; otherwise it will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results.

The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this stage of the work cannot be described, but can only be discovered by practice. A steady, moderate pressure is all that is needed, but care should be used that the angle of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. Thiswill give an edge suitable for common counter or table tops, hardwood floors, and similar work, if the skill to use the burnisher properly has been acquired.

The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil or with the end of the tongue, as this assists it to slide over the edge of the scraper without scratching.

Fig. 79.—Top Views ofthe Angles of theBurnisher.

If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different shaped edge should be made; it should be whetted to four perfectly square and keen corners, each of which will furnish an edge. This is a more difficult method of sharpening a scraper, but it gives four edges suitable for fine work. The edge should be turned by carrying the burnisher as shown atA, Fig. 79, making the strokes at the different angles in the order indicated by the numbers. In sharpening any scraper, care should be used that no strokes are made back of the square, as strokebcof Fig. 80. Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indicated ata, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two or three strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper.

To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is necessary. This tool should be made of the hardest steel, and is often made by the workman himself of an old file, ground perfectly smooth and polished. Perhaps the most satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of the wood-worker may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to a handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a narrow chisel or gouge may be used, though these are rather clumsy. The burnishers found in stores are generallyunsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft, and any steel which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher for sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut into it, instead of turning over.

Fig. 80.—Angleto be Avoidedin SharpeningScraper.

If satisfactory results are not obtained, there may be several causes: the scraper may not be of just the right temper or texture; the burnisher may be soft or rough; the edge may not have been turned over evenly, or it may have been turned over too far, as indicated in an exaggerated way ata, Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying the burnisher around too far, as shown by the linebc. This may be remedied by using the awl point as shown atd, Fig. 81, holding the scraper and burnisher in about the same relative positions as indicated, guiding the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried on the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher its entire length. In this way the edge may be turned back to its correct angle, when a very light touch in the usual way will generally make the desired edge.

Fig. 81.—TurningBack theEdge of aScraper.

If either the scraper or the burnisher is not of the right texture, throw it away, as it is worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge of the scraper is rough, it may be turned back again by laying the scraper flat upon the bench, the rough side up, and the burnisher passed over it several times; then proceed as with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory as it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all overagain, especially if the corner has been turned several times.

Though it may seem from the above explanation of the methods of sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex operation, it will be seen that it is not a difficult matter, if it is once worked out; usually it requires a little time and practice to acquire the knack that will make it possible to do it surely and well.

Fig. 82.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon aBroad Surface.

Fig. 83.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working withina Small Area.

Fig. 84.—Method of Grasping Scraperwhen Working upon an Edge.

In using a scraper, it may be grasped as shown in Figs. 82, 83, 84, as best suits the work being done, and the strokes should be with the grain. In using this tool, as in the use of most others, the easiest way generally is the most efficient. As the young workman gains experience, he will gradually acquire the correct methods to use his tools for all the various purposes within their scope.

57. Nail setsare for the purpose of “setting” the nails, or for sinking them below the surface of the wood; and to stand the hard usage to which they are subjected, they must be very carefully tempered. The best form of nailset is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as it is not so apt to slip off of the head of the nail.

58. Wrenchesare of many kinds and patterns and of every conceivable use, but that known as the “monkey,” or “Coe’s,” wrench (Fig. 85) is perhaps the most convenient for general work and has not been supplanted by any of more recent invention.

Fig. 85.—Monkey Wrench.

59. Handscrews(A.), if of good material and well made, will stand any legitimate use, and if properly used and cared for, will last a lifetime. However, a novice or a careless workman often destroys them rapidly by allowing the jaws to be under strain while in the position shown in Fig. 86, which will probably break the middle screw, and perhaps both.

Fig. 86.—Effect of the Unskillful Use of aHandscrew.

(B.) In using handscrews for gluing, the jaws should be set to nearly the size of the material which is to be placed between them, before the glue is spread. In placing the handscrews upon the work, the outside screw should be turned back so that it will not prevent the jaws from beingslightly closer at the outside screw than at the points. This will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the outside screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only position in which handscrews should be allowed to remain.

In opening or closing a handscrew, the middle screw should be held in the left hand, and the outside screw in the right, as in Fig. 87; the screws should then be grasped so that they will not turn in the hand and the handscrew revolved in the desired direction. Never put unnecessary strain upon handscrews, nor leave them with a heavy strain upon them for a very long time.

Fig. 87.—Correct Use of Handscrew.

If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used than is necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work should be glued unless the joints fit well. In any case, the outside screw should be turned back a quarter or a half a turn after the glue has set; this will relieve the strain, and add much to the life of the handscrew.

In gluing work which requires several handscrews to hold it while the glue is setting, the handles of the outside screws all should point one way, which allows the work tobe handled much more easily, as the handles of the middle screws will form an even bearing upon the floor. If this is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken when a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled, as the weight of the work will rest upon the screws which bear upon the floor.

(C.) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be treated with beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead mixed with oil or with wax. The latter compound is very dirty; the former lubricates the screws perfectly. The screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot.

60.(A.)A grindstoneof good quality, from 20” to 26” in diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and should be used frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools is much increased if they are kept well ground, and much time may be saved in whetting them.

(B.) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true and round, and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite satisfactorily determined by examining several and selecting the coarsest, as that will doubtlessly be a fast cutting stone.

(C.) The stone should be carefully centered and mounted upon a frame; the face may be kept true by means of a file or other hard steel being held against it as it revolves, or a piece of ½” or ¾” gas pipe revolved from side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made softer and heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of true.

(D.) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone continually, or a groove will quickly be worn there; instead,keep the tool moving from side to side. If properly cared for, a stone will hold its face indefinitely.

Fig. 88.—Emery Wheel Dresser.

61. Emery, corundum, carborundum, and other artificial abrasive wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone, as they cut much more rapidly. Any one not accustomed to using them must be careful that the temper of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a high rate of speed, and a tool in unskillful hands is easily burned. To avoid this, the tool should be held lightly but firmly against the stone, and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery wheel burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing; for this purpose a diamond emery wheel dresser is the best, but on account of its cost, various devices have been patented to accomplish the same result, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 88.

62. Whetstones.—(A.) These are used to give to a tool the keen edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The natural stone in most common use is the “Washita stone,” which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains, and is thought by many to be the best natural stone for the general use of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the best quality is of even texture.

(B.) Many workmen prefer an “Arkansas stone,” as it is finer and harder than the Washita. It is also more expensive, however, and is better adapted to the use of woodcarvers and engravers than to the use of wood-workers in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the best of the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained byits use. There are other natural stones, but none so generally used as the above. The purchase of a natural stone is to a great extent a lottery, as only about one stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free from cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities.

(C.) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sandpaper upon a board, and rub the stone over it until it has been ground down. The best place, however, to true up a whetstone is upon the horizontal stone of a marble worker; this is a large grindstone, several feet in diameter, mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed pieces of marble to be ground to a flat surface.

(D.)Artificial oilstones, made of emery, corundum, carborundum, and other artificial abrasives, are coming rapidly into use, and, as in the case of grindstones, eventually will supplant all others in many occupations, as they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture. They are also able to resist many accidents which would destroy a natural stone.

(E.)Slip stonesare used to sharpen gouges and curved tools of all kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape. An oblong stone, 8” × 2” × 1”, is the size of stone in most general use by the wood-worker, and should be fitted into a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it clean. It may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman, though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set on its edge.

(F.) The use of the oilstone is described under topic40, A.The oil used should be a kind that will not gum; its purpose is to prevent the glassiness which is caused bythe friction of the tool over the stone. Common machine oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and kerosene, or coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils will give satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone cleaner, thereby adding to its efficiency, and for this purpose lubricates quite as well as any of those above-mentioned.

63.(A.)Filesare used for many purposes by wood-workers. An assortment consisting of 4” and 6” slim taper, or three-cornered, files; 8” and 10” flat, or bastard, files; 8”, 10”, and 12” round files; and 8” and 12” half round wood files and rasps should be in every carpenter’s kit. The 4” slim taper files should be used upon the finer saws, and the 6” upon the coarser ones, though the latter are used by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it is necessary to have a few warding and knife files to use upon keys and odd jobs, and also to sharpen bits.

Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and for every purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to stand lead or soft brass, and should never be used upon anything harder.

In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow it to drag, as it is injured thereby about as much as when it is cutting.

(B.) There are a great many other tools and appliances used by the wood-worker with which the workman should be familiar, but it is not necessary to describe them, as the above-mentioned are the most essential tools common to all forms of woodworking. There is no important principle involved in the construction, care, anduse of woodworking tools which is not discussed in this chapter, and the student who becomes thoroughly familiar with the matter treated will have little trouble in learning to handle other tools.

Fig. 89.—Jointing a Saw.

64. Saw filing.—(A.) This is an accomplishment which every young wood-worker should master, as its possession will save expense and inconvenience, and add much to his efficiency as a workman.

(B.) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine the edge carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length; if they are not, they should be jointed. This is done by using a flat file held perfectly square in a block, as shown in Fig. 89. One or two light strokes usually will be enough to make all the teeth of the same length. The edge of the saw should round slightly in the middle, say about ⅛” for a 24” or a 26” saw. If the edge is perfectly straight, it should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little at each time for several filings.

Fig. 90.—Hand Saw Set.

(C.) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly set. This may be done by asaw set, of which there are several patterns in use; these are all of two types, thehand set(Fig. 90), and theanvil set(Fig. 91). Either of these forms is efficient, but as it is more convenient, the hand set is more commonly used. Do not give the saw too much set, or it will not cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly on the back side of the cut; there is also greater danger of breaking the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must be applied. The point of the teeth only should be set, and care should be used that the blade of the saw is not sprung, which will be apt to result from setting the teeth too far from the point.

Fig. 91.—Anvil SawSet.

A saw to be used upon green lumber should have coarser teeth and more set than one which is to be used upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A panel saw intended for use upon fine finishing work usually is ground so thin upon the back that it needs little or no set. Some workmen set a saw so heavily that it will do for several filings; while this is satisfactory for a soft saw to be used upon common work, it is not a good plan to treat a fine, hard saw this way, though the latter may be touched up once or twice.

Fig. 92.—Angle of the Filewith the Edge of theSaw.

(D.) In filing, it is important that the file should be carried at the same angle the entire length of both sidesof the blade. For a cutting-off saw, the file should be carried at an angle with the side of the blade of from 60° for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown in Fig. 92; and for general work, at an angle about halfway between the two. The file may be carried horizontally, as ataa, Fig. 93, which makes all the teeth of the same size; as atA, Fig. 94; or it may be carried as atbb, Fig. 93, which will make the teeth of the shape shown atB, Fig. 94. The latter method is preferred by many workmen, as it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening its life a little. There is no difference in the efficiency of the saws filed by these methods, but if filed as atbb, Fig. 93, it is more difficult to keep the teeth of the same size, and to make a good-looking job.

Fig. 93.—Angle of theFile with the Sidesof the Saw.

In filing a cutting-off saw, the top of the file should be held more or less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according to the hook which it is desired that the teeth shall have. The more hook a saw has, the faster it will cut, but the cut will be rougher in proportion. Experience is necessary to discover just the right angles at which the file should be held; after considerable practice, the file will naturally drop into the correct position.

File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect point, one half of the filing being done from each side; filethe entire length from one side, then reverse the saw and file from the other side. This cannot always be the exclusive practice if a saw is in very bad shape, because if the teeth are of uneven sizes, care must be used, and more filed from some teeth than from others. It may, in such a case, be necessary to go over the saw two or three times, but it should be done very carefully, so that the bevel of the teeth may be preserved and their length kept the same. Observe each tooth, and press toward the point or the handle of the saw, as may be necessary. The file should be carried with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cutting or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of the saw, and the back of the tooth next ahead on the nearer side with the same stroke. If the point of the saw is carried toward the handle of the saw, it makes the teeth chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life of a file, as the continuous chatter against its teeth will soon break them, and destroy the file.

Fig. 94.—Results ofFilings as ataaandbb,Fig. 93.

A ripsaw requires more set than a cutting-off saw, and if, as usual, the file is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may be filed from one side.

After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly flat surface, and given a light touch with a flat file or awhetstone, to remove the burr caused by the file, as in Fig. 96.

Fig. 95.—Method of Carrying a Fileto obtain the Hook of a Cutting-offSaw.

The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination of the rip- and the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of both as occasion requires. The teeth should be nearly as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the front teeth filed at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a little lower than horizontal. Figure 41,C, shows three views of the teeth of a compass saw.

Fig. 96.—Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw.

Suggestive Exercises27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a good, serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially for some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to follow in buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known?28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise.29. Describe the rule in common use.30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be used in purchasing one? How may a square be tested?31. Compare the steel square and the try-square.32. Describe the bevel and its use.33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the gauge be depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is useful?34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle. How should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that they will hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving up ceiling or matched boards? How and why should nail heads be sunk below the joint surface?35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening a hatchet.36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare two forms of mallets.37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw. After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of both? For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are other saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the backsaw. How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What kind of saw is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the back of a saw compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this? What test should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What are the best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard and a medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much force should be used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the handles of their saws to make the saws run more easily?38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why is the form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for whittling than the form used by the wood-worker?39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe the mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should bethe condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so that one may see the adjustment of the cutter?40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may a grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side of the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where should the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the bit be held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm while whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? What motion should be avoided in whetting? What is the correct shape of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the cap iron? What is apt to result if the cap iron is too thick?41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way does the edge of its iron differ from that of other planes?42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should a plane be carried to joint an edge square?43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be the position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How should edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain?44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with the above planes.45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of any sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders? What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end of the strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull tools? How should a plane be drawn back after a stroke?46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should a mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why? Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the paring and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a slice, or slick?47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and an outside gouge?48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utilityof the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the edge of a rigid-handled drawshave be protected?49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave.50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the different parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging of a bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, how should it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German bit; of a twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe the method of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part of a bit should never be filed? Why?51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the ratchet brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use?52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a screwdriver? What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value of a screwdriver bit?53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers.54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use? Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why?55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper? Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use.56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for rough work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when the edge of the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is not sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to the grain?57. Describe the best form of nail set.58. What is the form of wrench in most common use?59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How should handscrews be treated to make them work more easily?60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should a grindstone be trued?61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be guarded against in the use of an emery wheel?62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the twokinds. How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming into use? Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and edgeways. What forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of oils are used for oil or whetstones?63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files.64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of the cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate the process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying the file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle with the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a ripsaw? If the saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to bring it to a finished point when going over it the first time? What should be the direction of the point of the file while it is cutting? Compare the set of the ripsaw and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare the teeth of the compass saw with those of others.

Suggestive Exercises

27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a good, serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially for some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to follow in buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known?

28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise.

29. Describe the rule in common use.

30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be used in purchasing one? How may a square be tested?

31. Compare the steel square and the try-square.

32. Describe the bevel and its use.

33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the gauge be depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is useful?

34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle. How should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that they will hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving up ceiling or matched boards? How and why should nail heads be sunk below the joint surface?

35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening a hatchet.

36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare two forms of mallets.

37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw. After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of both? For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are other saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the backsaw. How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What kind of saw is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the back of a saw compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this? What test should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What are the best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard and a medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much force should be used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the handles of their saws to make the saws run more easily?

38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why is the form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for whittling than the form used by the wood-worker?

39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe the mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should bethe condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so that one may see the adjustment of the cutter?

40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may a grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side of the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where should the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the bit be held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm while whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? What motion should be avoided in whetting? What is the correct shape of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the cap iron? What is apt to result if the cap iron is too thick?

41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way does the edge of its iron differ from that of other planes?

42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should a plane be carried to joint an edge square?

43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be the position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How should edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain?

44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with the above planes.

45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of any sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders? What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end of the strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull tools? How should a plane be drawn back after a stroke?

46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should a mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why? Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the paring and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a slice, or slick?

47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and an outside gouge?

48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utilityof the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the edge of a rigid-handled drawshave be protected?

49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave.

50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the different parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging of a bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, how should it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German bit; of a twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe the method of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part of a bit should never be filed? Why?

51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the ratchet brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use?

52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a screwdriver? What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value of a screwdriver bit?

53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers.

54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use? Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why?

55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper? Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use.

56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for rough work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when the edge of the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is not sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to the grain?

57. Describe the best form of nail set.

58. What is the form of wrench in most common use?

59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How should handscrews be treated to make them work more easily?

60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should a grindstone be trued?

61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be guarded against in the use of an emery wheel?

62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the twokinds. How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming into use? Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and edgeways. What forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of oils are used for oil or whetstones?

63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files.

64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of the cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate the process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying the file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle with the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a ripsaw? If the saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to bring it to a finished point when going over it the first time? What should be the direction of the point of the file while it is cutting? Compare the set of the ripsaw and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare the teeth of the compass saw with those of others.

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