Roach, Rudd, Dace, Chub.—The next group ofCyprinidaeconsists of fish which will take a bait similar to those already mentioned and also a fly. The sizes which limit the ordinary angler's aspirations are roach about 2 lb, rudd about 2½ lb, dace about 1 lb and chub about 5 lb. There are instances of individuals heavier than this, one or two roach and many rudd of over 3 lb being on record, while dace have been caught up to 1 lb 6 oz., and chub of over 7 lb are not unknown. Roach only take a fly as a rule in very hot weather when they are near the surface, or early in the season when they are on the shallows; the others will take it freely all through the summer. Ordinary trout flies do well enough for all four species, but chub often prefer something larger, and big bushy lures called "palmers," which represent caterpillars, are generally used for them. The fly may be used either wet or dry for all these fish, and there is little to choose between the methods as regards effectiveness. Fly-fishing for these fish is a branch of angling which might be more practised than it is, as the sport is a very fair substitute for trout fishing. Roach, chub and dace feed on bottom food and give good sport all the winter.
Gudgeon, Bleak, Minnow, &c.—The small fry of European waters, gudgeon, bleak, minnow, loach, stickleback and bullhead, are principally of value as bait for other fish, though the first-named species gives pretty sport on fine tackle and makes a succulent dish. Small red worms are the best bait for gudgeon and minnows, a maggot or small fly for bleak, and the rest are most easily caught in a small-meshed net. The loach is used principally in Ireland as a trout bait, and the other two are of small account as hook-baits, though sticklebacks are a valuable form of food for trout in lakes and pools.
Mahseer.—Among the carps of India, several of which give good sport, special mention must be made of the mahseer (Barbus mosal), a fish which rivals the salmon both in size and strength. It reaches a weight of 60 lb and sometimes more and is fished for in much the same manner as salmon, with thedifference that after about 10 lb it takes a spinning-bait, usually a heavy spoon-bait, better than a fly.
Cat-fish.—None of the fresh-water cat-fishes (of which no example is found in England) are what may be called sporting fish, but several may be caught with rod and line. There are several kinds in North America, and some of them are as heavy as 150 lb, but the most important is the wels (Silurus glanis) of the Danube and neighbouring waters. This is the largest European fresh-water fish, and it is credited with a weight of 300 lb or more. It is a bottom feeder and will take a fish-bait either alive or dead; it is said occasionally to run at a spinning bait when used very deep.
Burbot.—The burbot (Lota vulgaris) is the only fresh-water member of the cod family in Great Britain, and it is found only in a few slow-flowing rivers such as the Trent, and there not often, probably because it is a fish of sluggish habits which feeds only at night. It reaches a weight of 3 lb or more, and will take most flesh or fish baits on the bottom. The burbot of America has similar characteristics.
Sturgeon.—The sturgeons, of which there are a good many species in Europe and America, are of no use to the angler. They are anadromous fishes of which little more can be said than that a specimen might take a bottom bait once in a way. In Russia they are sometimes caught on long lines armed with baited hooks, and occasionally an angler hooks one. Such a case was reported from California inThe Fieldof the 19th of August 1905.
Shad.—Two other anadromous fish deserve notice. The first is the shad, a herring-like fish of which two species, allice and twaite (Clupea alosaandC. finta), ascend one or two British and several continental rivers in the spring. The twaite is the more common, and in the Severn, Wye and Teme it sometimes gives very fair sport to anglers, taking worm and occasionally fly or small spinning bait. It is a good fighter, and reaches a weight of about 3 lb. Its sheen when first caught is particularly beautiful. America also has shads.
Flounder.—The other is the flounder (Pleuronectes flesus), the only flat-fish which ascends British rivers. It is common a long way up such rivers as the Severn, far above tidal influence, and it will take almost any flesh-bait used on the bottom. A flounder of 1 lb is, in a river, a large one, but heavier examples are sometimes caught.
Eel.—The eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is regarded by the angler more as a nuisance than a sporting fish, but when of considerable size (and it often reaches a weight of 8 lb or more) it is a splendid fighter and stronger than almost any fish that swims. Its life history has long been disputed, but it is now accepted that it breeds in the sea and ascends rivers in its youth. It is found practically everywhere, and its occurrence in isolated ponds to which it has never been introduced by human agency has given rise to a theory that it travels overland as well as by water. The best baits for eels are worms and small fish, and the best time to use them is at night or in thundery or very wet weather.
Sea angling is attended by almost as many refinements of tackle and method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences are differences of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain extent sea angling may also be divided into three classes—fishing on the surface with the fly, at mid-water with spinning or other bait, and on the bottom; but the first method is only practicable at certain times and in certain places, and the others, from the great depths that often have to be sounded and the heavy weights that have to be used in searching them, necessitate shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and stronger tackle than fresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the sea-fisherman is liable to come into conflict with very large fish occasionally. In British waters the monster usually takes the form of a skate or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 lb has been landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching fish of this calibre.
Great Game Fishes.—There are several giants of the sea which are regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them being the tarpon (Tarpon atlanticus) and the tuna or tunny (Thunnus thynnus), which have been taken on rod and line up to 223 lb and 251 lb respectively. Jew-fish and black sea-bass of over 400 lb have been taken on rod and line, and there are many other fine sporting fish of large size which give the angler exciting hours on the reefs of Florida, or the coasts of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically all of them are taken with a fish-bait either live or dead, and used stationary on the bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat.
British Game Fishes.—On a much smaller scale are the fishes most esteemed in British waters. The bass (Labrax lupus) heads the list as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A fish of 10 lb is a large one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken. Small or "school" bass up to 3 lb or 4 lb may sometimes be caught with the fly (generally a roughly constructed thing with big wings), and when they are really taking the sport is magnificent. In some few localities it is possible to cast for them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually a boat is required. In other places bass may be caught from the shore with fish bait used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may again sometimes be caught in mid-water, and in fact there are few methods and few lures employed in sea angling which will not account for them at times. The pollack (Gadus pollachius) and coal-fish (Gadus virens) come next in esteem. Both in some places reach a weight of 20 lb or more, and both when young will take a fly. Usually, however, the best sport is obtained by trailing some spinning-bait, such as an artificial or natural sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes, and especially for pollack, the bait must be kept near the bottom and heavy weights on the line are necessary; the coal-fish are more prone to come to the surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (Mugil capito) is a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely difficult to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet is more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling, and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be caught close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom, and as a rule vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or ragworms are found to answer best. Usually ground-baiting is necessary, and the finer the tackle used the greater is the chance of sport. Not a few anglers fish with a float as if for river fish. The fish runs up to about 8 lb in weight. The cod (Gadus morhua) grows larger and fights less gamely than any of the fish already mentioned. It is generally caught with bait used on the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or young cod, give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The mackerel (Scomber scomber) gives the best sport to a bait, usually a strip of fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to the surface, but it will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on light tackle are game fighters, though they do not usually much exceed 2 lb. Whiting and whiting-pout (Gadus merlangusandGadus luscus) both feed on or near the bottom, do not grow to any great size, and are best sought with fine tackle, usually an arrangement of three or four hooks at intervals above a lead which is called a "paternoster." If one or more of the hooks are on the bottom the tackle will do for different kinds of flat fish as well, flounders and dabs being the two species most often caught by anglers. The bream (Pagellus centrodontus) is another bottom-feeder which resembles the fresh-water bream both in appearance and habits. It is an early morning or rather a nocturnal fish, and grows to a weight of 3 lb or 4 lb. Occasionally it will feed in mid-water or even close to the surface. The conger eel (Conger vulgaris) is another night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as it grows to a great size, and is very powerful. Strong tackle is essential for conger fishing, as so powerful an opponent in the darkness cannot be given any law. The bait must be on or near the bottom. There are, of course, many other fish which come to the angler's rod at times, but the list given is fairly complete as representing the species which are especially sought. Beside them are occasional (in some waters too frequent) captures such as dog-fish and sharks, skates and rays. Many of them run to a great size and giveplenty of sport on a rod, though they are not as a rule welcomed. Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidae, smelts (Osmerus eperlanus), sea-trout, occasionally brown trout, and still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water either in sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best fished for with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with fragments of shrimp, ragworm, and other delicacies.
MODERN AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCE BOOKS.—History and Literature:Prof. A. N. Mayer,Sport with Gun and Rod(New York and Edinburgh), with a chapter on "The Primitive Fish-Hook," by Barnet Phillips; Dr. R. Munro,Lake Dwellings of Europe(London, 1890), with many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-books, &c.; H. Cholmondeley Pennell and others,Fishing Gossip(Edinburgh, 1866), contains a paper on "Fishing and Fish-Hooks of the Earliest Date," by Jonathan Couch; C. D. Badham,Prose Halieutics(London, 1854), full of curious lore, relating, however, more to ichthyophagy than angling;The Angler's Note-Book and Naturalist's Record(London, 1st series 1881, 2nd series 1888), edited by T. Satchell, the two volumes containing much valuable matter on angling history, literature, and other topics; R. Blakey,Angling Literature(London, 1856), inaccurate and badly arranged, but containing a good deal of curious matter not to be found elsewhere; O. Lambert,Angling Literature in England(London, 1881), a good little general survey; J. J. Manley,Fish and Fishing(London, 1881), with chapters on fishing literature, &c.; R. B. Marston,Walton and Some Earlier Writers on Fish and Fishing(London and New York, 1894);Piscatorial Society's Papers(vol. i. London, 1890), contains a paper on "The Useful and Fine Arts in their Relation to Fish and Fishing," by S. C. Harding;Super Flumina(Anon.; London, 1904), givespassimuseful information on fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell,Bibliotheca Piscatoria(London, 1883) an admirable bibliography of the sport: together with the supplement prepared by R. B. Marston, 1901, it may be considered wonderfully complete.
Methods and Practice.—General Fresh-water Fishing: F. Francis,A Book on Angling(London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly sound text-book, particularly good on salmon fishing; H. C. Pennell and others,Fishing—Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish(Badminton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904); John Bickerdyke,The Book of the All-Round Angler(London, 1900); Horace G. Hutchinson and others,Fishing (Country LifeSeries, 2 vols., London, 1904), contains useful ichthyological notes by G. A. Boulenger, a chapter on "The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr. J. Kingston Barton, and a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of Norway, by C. E. Radclyffe.
Salmon and Trout.—Major J. P. Traherne,The Habits of the Salmon(London, 1889); G. M. Kelson,The Salmon Fly(London, 1895), contains instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A. E. Gathorne Hardy,The Salmon("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898); Sir H. Maxwell, Bt.,Salmon and Sea Trout(Angler's Library, London, 1898); Sir E. Grey, Bt.,Fly Fishing(Haddon Hall Library, London and New York, 1899); W. Earl Hodgson,Salmon Fishing(London, 1906), contains a series of coloured plates of salmon flies; Marquis of Granby,The Trout("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing: W. C. Stewart,The Practical Angler(London, 1905), a new edition of an old but still valuable work; E. M. Tod,Wet Fly Fishing(London, 1903); W. Earl Hodgson,Trout Fishing(London, 1905), contains a series of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies. Dry Fly Fishing: F. M. Halford,Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice(London, 1902), the standard work on the subject; G. A. B. Dewar,The Book of the Dry Fly(London, 1897). Grayling: T. E. Pritt, The Book of the Grayling (Leeds, 1888); H. A. Rolt,Grayling Fishing in South Country Streams(London, 1905).
Coarse Fish.—C. H. Wheeley,Coarse Fish(Angler's Library, London, 1897); J. W. Martin,Practical Fishing(London);Float-fishing and Spinning(London, 1885); W. Senior and others,Pike and Perch("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1900); A. J. Jardine,Pike and Perch(Angler's Library, London, 1898); H. C. Pennell,The Book of the Pike(London, 1884); Greville Fennell,The Book of the Roach(London, 1884).
Sea Fishing.—J. C. Wilcocks,The Sea Fisherman(London, 1884); John Bickerdyke (and others),Sea Fishing(Badminton Library, London, 1895);Practical Letters to Sea Fishers(London, 1902); F. G. Aflalo,Sea Fish(Angler's Library, London, 1897); P. L. Haslope,Practical Sea Fishing(London, 1905).
Tackle, Flies, &c.—H. C. Pennell,Modern Improvements in Fishing Tackle(London, 1887); H. P. Wells,Fly Rods and Fly Tackle(New York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds,The Fly-Fisher's Entomology(London, 1883); F. M. Halford,Dry Fly Entomology(London, 1902);Floating Flies and How to Dress them(London, 1886); T. E. Pritt,North Country Flies(London, 1886); H. G. M'Clelland,How to tie Flies for Trout and Grayling(London, 1905); Capt. J. H. Hale,How to tie Salmon Flies(London, 1892); F. G. Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and C. H. Wheeley. How to buy Fishing Tackle (London).
Ichthyology, Fisheries, Fish-Culture, &c.—Dr. Francis Day,Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland(2 vols., London, 1889);British and Irish Salmonidae(London, 1887); Dr. A. C. L. G. Günther,Introduction to the Study of Fishes(London, 1880); Dr. D. S. Jordan,A Guide to the Study of Fishes(2 vols., New York and London, 1905); F. Francis,Practical Management of Fisheries(London, 1883);Fish Culture(London, 1865); F. M. Halford,Making a Fishery(London, 1902); J. J. Armistead,An Angler's Paradise(Dumfries, 1902); F. Mather,Modern Fish-Culture(New York, 1899); Livingstone Stone,Domesticated Trout(Charlestown and London, 1896).
Angling Guide Books, Geographical Information, &c.—Great Britain:The Angler's Diary(London), gives information about most important waters in the British Isles, and about some foreign waters, published annually;The Sportsman's and Tourist's Guide to Scotland(London), a good guide to angling in Scotland, published twice a year; Augustus Grimble,The Salmon Rivers of Scotland(London, 1900, 4 vols.);The Salmon Rivers of Ireland(London, 1903);The Salmon and Sea Trout Rivers of England and Wales(London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series gives minute information as to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history, catches, &c.; W. M. Gallichan,Fishing in Wales(London, 1903);Fishing in Derbyshire(London, 1905); J. Watson,English Lake District Fisheries(London, 1899); C. Wade,Exmoor Streams(London, 1903); G. A. B. Dewar,South Country Trout Streams(London, 1899); "Hi Regan,"How and Where to Fish in Ireland(London, 1900); E. S. Shrubsole,The Land of Lakes(London, 1906), a guide to fishing in County Donegal. Europe: "Palmer Hackle,"Hints on Angling(London, 1846), contains "suggestions for angling excursions in France and Belgium," but they are too old to be of much service; W. M. Gallichan,Fishing and Travel in Spain(London, 1905); G. W. Hartley,Wild Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod(Edinburgh, 1903), contains a chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem Borne,Wegweiser für Angler durch Deutschland, Oesterreich und die Schweiz(Berlin, 1877), a book of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though out of date in many particulars;Illustrierte Angler-Schule (der deutschen Fischerei Zeitung), Stettin, contains good chapters on the wels and huchen; H. Storck, Der Angelsport (Munich, 1898), contains a certain amount of geographical information; E. B. Kennedy,Thirty Seasons in Scandinavia(London, 1904), contains useful information about fishing; General E. F. Burton,Trouting in Norway(London, 1897); Abel Chapman,Wild Norway(London, 1897); F. Sandeman,Angling Travels in Norway(London, 1895). America: C. F. Holder,Big Game Fishes of the United States(New York, 1903); J. A. Henshall,Bass, Pike, Perch and Pickerel(New York, 1903); Dean Sage and others,Salmon and Trout(New York, 1902); E. T. D. Chambers, Angler's Guide to Eastern Canada (Québec, 1899); Rowland Ward,The English Angler in Florida(London, 1898); J. Turner Turner,The Giant Fish of Florida(London, 1902). India: H. S. Thomas,The Rod in India(London, 1897); "Skene Dhu,"The Mighty Mahseer(Madras, 1906), contains a chapter on the acclimatization of trout in India and Ceylon. New Zealand: W. H. Spackman,Trout in New Zealand(London, 1894); Capt. Hamilton,Trout Fishing and Sport in Maoriland(Wellington, 1905), contains a valuable section on fishing waters.
Fishery Law.—G. C. Oke,A Handy Book of the Fishery Laws(edited by J. W. Willis Band and A. C. M'Barnet, London, 1903).
[1]As to whether "angling" necessarily implies a rod as well as a line and hook, see the discussion in the law case ofBarnardv.Roberts(Times L. R., April 13, 1907), when the question arose as to the use of night-lines being angling; but the decision against night-lines went on the ground of the absence of the personal element rather than on the absence of a rod. The various dictionaries are blind guides on this point, and the authorities cited are inconclusive; but, broadly speaking, angling now implies three necessary factors—a personal angler, the sporting element, and the use of recognized fishing-tackle.
[1]As to whether "angling" necessarily implies a rod as well as a line and hook, see the discussion in the law case ofBarnardv.Roberts(Times L. R., April 13, 1907), when the question arose as to the use of night-lines being angling; but the decision against night-lines went on the ground of the absence of the personal element rather than on the absence of a rod. The various dictionaries are blind guides on this point, and the authorities cited are inconclusive; but, broadly speaking, angling now implies three necessary factors—a personal angler, the sporting element, and the use of recognized fishing-tackle.
[2]Trolling is very commonly confused in angling writing and talk withtrailing, which simply means drawing a spinning-bait along behind a boat in motion.
[2]Trolling is very commonly confused in angling writing and talk withtrailing, which simply means drawing a spinning-bait along behind a boat in motion.
[3]The precise date when silkworm gut (now so important a feature of the angler's equipment) was introduced is obscure. Pepys, in hisDiary(1667), mentions "a gut string varnished over" which "is beyond any hair for strength and smallness" as a new angling secret which he likes "mightily." In the third edition (1700) of Chetham'sVade-Mecum, already cited, appears an advertisement of the "East India weed, which is the only thing for trout, carp and bottom-fishing." Again, in the third edition of Nobbes'sArt of Trolling(1805), in the supplementary matter, appears a letter signed by J. Eaton and G. Gimber, tackle-makers of Crooked Lane (July 20, 1801), in which it is stated that gut "is produced from the silkworm and not an Indian weed,as has hitherto been conjectured...." The word "gut" is employed before this date, but it seems obvious that silkworm gut was for a long time used under the impression that it was a weed, and that its introduction was a thing of the 17th century. It is probable, however, that vegetable fibre was used too; we believe that in some parts of India it is used by natives to this day. Pepys' "minikin" was probably cat-gut.
[3]The precise date when silkworm gut (now so important a feature of the angler's equipment) was introduced is obscure. Pepys, in hisDiary(1667), mentions "a gut string varnished over" which "is beyond any hair for strength and smallness" as a new angling secret which he likes "mightily." In the third edition (1700) of Chetham'sVade-Mecum, already cited, appears an advertisement of the "East India weed, which is the only thing for trout, carp and bottom-fishing." Again, in the third edition of Nobbes'sArt of Trolling(1805), in the supplementary matter, appears a letter signed by J. Eaton and G. Gimber, tackle-makers of Crooked Lane (July 20, 1801), in which it is stated that gut "is produced from the silkworm and not an Indian weed,as has hitherto been conjectured...." The word "gut" is employed before this date, but it seems obvious that silkworm gut was for a long time used under the impression that it was a weed, and that its introduction was a thing of the 17th century. It is probable, however, that vegetable fibre was used too; we believe that in some parts of India it is used by natives to this day. Pepys' "minikin" was probably cat-gut.
ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY,the contention that the British people in the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the United States, are the racial descendants of the "ten tribes" forming the kingdom of Israel, large numbers of whom were deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall of Samaria in 721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a book calledPhilo-Israel) rests on premises which are deemed by scholars—both theological and anthropological—to be utterly unsound.
ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE:—The French language (q.v.) came over to England with William the Conqueror. During the whole of the 12th century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary language of England, and it was in use at the court until the 14th century. It was not until the reign of Henry IV. that English became the native tongue of the kings of England. After the loss of the French provinces, schools for the teaching of French were established in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that of Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which gradually distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but, except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules of pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language was subjected were the individual modifications of the various authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-Norman writers, an Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, gradually ceased to exist. The prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the 14th century, the author of theManière de languagecalls "le plus bel et le plus gracious languageet plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde et de touz genz mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre (quar Dieux le fist si douce et amiable principalement à l'oneur et loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels du ciel, pour la grand doulceur et biaultée d'icel)," was such that it was not till 1363 that the chancellor opened the parliamentary session with an English speech. And although the Hundred Years' War led to a decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes, to be the classical language of the courts of justice until the 17th century. It is still the language of the Channel Islands, though there too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English.
It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period of Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12th century to the end of the first quarter of the 13th. The end of this period is generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to Philip Augustus, but literary and political history do not correspond quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more accurately denoted by the appearance of the history of William the Marshal in 1225 (published for theSociete de l'histoire de France, by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy largely to the protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men of letters of his day. "He could speak French and Latin well, and is said to have known something of every tongue between'the Bay of Biscay and the Jordan.' He was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest in literature and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty, they always had either a bow or a book" (Dict. of Nat. Biog.). Wace and Benoît de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding, and it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems. An event with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder of Thomas Becket, gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of which are purely Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the works of Béroul and Thomas respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated of the Anglo-Normanromans d'aventure. It is important to keep this fact in mind when studying the different works which Anglo-Norman literature has left us. We will examine these works briefly, grouping them into narrative, didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic literature.
Narrative Literature:(a)Epic and Romance.—The French epic came over to England at an early date. We know that theChanson de Rolandwas sung at the battle of Hastings, and we possess Anglo-Norman MSS. of a fewchansons de geste. ThePèlerinage de Charlemagne(Koschwitz,Altfranzösische Bibliothek, 1883) was, for instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman manuscript of the British Museum (now lost), although the author was certainly a Parisian. The oldest manuscript of theChanson de Rolandthat we possess is also a manuscript written in England, and amongst the others of less importance we may mentionLa Chançun de Willame, the MS. of which has (June 1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul Meyer,Romania, xxxii. 597-618). Although the diffusion of epic poetry in England did not actually inspire any newchansons de geste, it developed the taste for this class of literature, and the epic style in which the tales ofHorn, ofBovon de Hampton, ofGuy of Warwick(still unpublished), ofWaldef(still unpublished), and ofFulk Fitz Warineare treated, is certainly partly due to this circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down to us only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a previous poetic form, and what we possess is really only a rendering into prose similar to the transformations undergone by many of thechansons de geste(cf. L. Brandin,Introduction to Fulk Fitz Warine, London, 1904).
The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in the Breton romances and theromans d'aventureeven better than in the epic poetry of the period. TheLay of Orpheusis known to us only through an English imitation; theLai du corwas composed by Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century (Wulff, Lund, 1888). Thelaisof Marie de France were written in England, and the greater number of the romances composing thematière de Bretagneseem to have passed from England to France through the medium of Anglo-Norman. The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in theHistoria Regum Britanniaeby Geoffrey of Monmouth († 1154), passed into French literature, bearing the character which the bishop of St. Asaph had stamped upon them. Chrétien de Troye'sPerceval(c. 1175) is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron (c. 1215) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris and J. Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols.,Société des Anciens Textes) from Geoffrey of Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-legend of the middle ages, and one of the most beautiful inventions of world-literature, the story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two authors, Béroul and Thomas, the first of whom is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman (see ARTHURIAN LEGEND; GRAIL, THE HOLY; TRISTAN). OneFolie Tristanwas composed in England in the last years of the 12th century. (For all these questions seeSoc. des Anc. Textes, Muret's ed. 1903; Bédier's ed. 1902-1905). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the tworomans d'aventureof Hugh of Rutland,Ipomedon(published by Kölbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) andProtesilaus(still unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adventures of a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria, niece of King Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the king's wife. The second poem is the sequel toIpomedon, and deals with the wars and subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder, lord of Apulia, and Protesilaus, the younger, lord of Calabria. Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him from Calabria. He saves his brother's life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria, and, after the death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently marries Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize Apulia, having transferred her affection for Ipomedon to his younger son (cf. Ward,Cat. of Rom., i. 728). To these two romances by an Anglo-Norman author,Amadas et Idoine, of which we only possess a continental version, is to be added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed that the original was composed in England in the 12th century (An English Miscellany presented to Dr. Furnivall in Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday, Oxford, 1901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem on theLife of Richard Coeur de Lionis lost, and an English version only has been preserved. About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into England theroman d'Alexandrein hisRoman de toute chevalerie, many passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English poems on Alexander, namely,King Alisaunder(P. Meyer,Alexandre le grand, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber,Metrical Romances, Edinburgh).
(b)Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales.—In spite of the incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we have only some half-dozenfableauxwritten in England, viz.Le chevalier à la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler les muets, Le chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure, Le prêtre d'Alison, La bourgeoise d'Orléans(Bédier,Les Fabliaux, 1895). As to fables, one of the most popular collections in the middle ages was that written by Marie de France, which she claimed to have translated fromKing Alfred. In theContes moralisés, written by Nicole Bozon shortly before 1320 (Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889), a few fables bear a strong resemblance to those of Marie de France.
The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and have been handed down to us in three collections:
(i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated from William of Malmesbury († 1143?) by Adgar in the 12th century ("Adgar's Marien-Legenden,"Altfr. Biblioth. ix.; J. A. Herbert,Rom. xxxii. 394).
(ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a monk of St. Edmund at Bury, who wrotec. 1250 three Mary Legends (Rom. xxix. 27).
(iii.) An anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composedc. 1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have been published in Suchier'sBibliotheca Normannica; in theAltf. Bibl. See also Mussafia, "Studien zu den mittelalterlichenMarien-legenden" inSitzungsh. der Wien. Akademie(t. cxiii., cxv., cxix., cxxiii., cxxix.).
Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in Chardri'sSet dormansandJosaphat, c.1216 (Koch,Altfr. Bibl., 1880; G. Paris,Poèmes et légendes du moyen âge).
(c)History.—Of far greater importance, however, are the works which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The first Anglo-Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who wrote hisEstorie des Angles(between 1147 and 1151) for Dame Constance, wife of Robert Fitz-Gislebert (The Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle,Hardy and Martin, i. ii., London, 1888). This history comprised a first part (now lost), which was merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth'sHistoria regum Britanniae, preceded by a history of the Trojan War, and a second part which carries us as far as the death of William Rufus. For this second part he has consulted historical documents, but he stops at the year 1087, just when he has reached the period about which he might have been able to give us some first-hand information. Similarly, Wace in hisRoman de Rou et des dues de Normandie(ed. Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-1879, 2 vols.), written 1160-1174, stops at the battle of Tinchebray in 1107 just before the period for which he would have been so useful. HisBrutorGeste des Bretons(Le Roux de Lincy, 1836-1838, 2 vols.), written in 1155, is merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth. "Wace," says Gaston Paris, speaking of theRoman de Rou, "traduit en les abrégeant des historiens latins que nous possédons; mais çà et là il ajoute soit des contes populaires, par exemple sur Richard 1'er, sur Robert 1'er, soit des particularités qu'il savait par tradition (sur ce même Robert le magnifique, sur l'expédition de Guillaume, &c.) et qui donnent à son oeuvre un réel intérêt historique. Sa langue est excellente; son style clair, serré, simple, d'ordinaire assez monotone, vous plaît par sa saveur archaïque et quelquefois par une certaine grâce et une certaine malice."
TheHistory of the Dukes of Normandyby Benoît de Sainte-More is based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the request of Henry II. about 1170, and takes us as far as the year 1135 (ed. by Francisque Michel, 1836-1844,Collection de documents inédits,3 vols.). The 43,000 lines which it contains are of but little interest to the historian; they are too evidently the work of aromancier courtois,who takes pleasure in recounting love-adventures such as those he has described in his romance of Troy. Other works, however, give us more trustworthy information, for example, the anonymous poem on Henry II.'sConquest of Irelandin 1172 (ed. Francisque Michel, London, 1837), which, together with theExpugnatio hibernicaof Giraud de Barri, constitutes our chief authority on this subject. TheConquest of Irelandwas republished in 1892 by Goddard Henry Orpen, under the title ofThe Song of Dermot and the Earl(Oxford, Clarendon Press). Similarly, Jourdain Fantosme, who was in the north of England in 1174, wrote an account of the wars between Henry II., his sons, William the Lion of Scotland and Louis VII., in 1173 and 1174 (Chronicle of the reigns of Stephen... III., ed. by Joseph Stevenson and Fr. Michel, London, 1886, pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to be compared in value withThe History of William the Marshal, Count of Striguil and Pembroke,regent of England from 1216-1219, which was found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer (Société de l'histoire de France,3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of historiography was composed in 1225 or 1226 by a professional poet of talent at the request of William, son of the marshal. It was compiled from the notes of the marshal's squire, John d'Early († 1230 or 1231), who shared all the vicissitudes of his master's life and was one of the executors of his will. This work is of great value for the history of the period 1186-1219, as the information furnished by John d'Early is either personal or obtained at first hand. In the part which deals with the period before 1186, it is true, there are various mistakes, due to the author's ignorance of contemporary history, but these slight blemishes are amply atoned for by the literary value of the work. The style is concise, the anecdotes are well told, the descriptions short and picturesque; the whole constitutes one of the most living pictures of medieval society. Very pale by the side of this work appear theChroniqueof Peter of Langtoft, written between 1311 and 1320, and mainly of interest for the period 1294-1307 (ed. by T. Wright, London, 1866-1868); theChroniqueof Nicholas Trevet (1258?-1328?), dedicated to Princess Mary, daughter of Edward I. (Duffus Hardy,Descr. Catal.III., 349-350); theScala Chronicacompiled by Thomas Gray of Heaton (†c.1369), which carries us to the year 1362-1363 (ed. by J. Stevenson, Maitland Club, Edinburgh, 1836); theBlack Prince,a poem by the poet Chandos, composed about 1386, and relating the life of the Black Prince from 1346-1376 (re-edited by Francisque Michel, London and Paris, 1883); and, lastly, the different versions of theBrutes,the form and historical importance of which have been indicated by Paul Meyer (Bulletin de la Société des Anciens Textes,1878, pp. 104-145), and by F. W. D. Brie (Geschichte und Quellen der mittelenglischen Prosachronik, The Brute of England or The Chronicles of England,Marburg, 1905).
Finally we may mention, as ancient history, the translation of Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of Waterford (13th century), who gave also theSecret des Secrets,a translation from a work wrongly attributed to Aristotle, which belongs to the next division (Rom.xxiii. 314).
Didactic Literature.—This is the most considerable, if not the most interesting, branch of Anglo-Norman literature: it comprises a large number of works written chiefly with the object of giving both religious and profane instruction to Anglo-Norman lords and ladies. The following list gives the most important productions arranged in chronological order:—
Philippe de Thaun,Comput, c. 1119 (edited by E. Mall, Strassburg, 1873), poem on the calendar;Bestiaire, c. 1130 (ed. by E. Walberg, Paris, 1900; cf. G. Paris,Rom.xxxi. 175);Lois de Guillaume le Conquérant(redaction between 1150 and 1170, ed. by J. E. Matzke, Paris, 1899);Oxford Psalter, c. 1150 (Fr. Michel,Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua gallica, Oxford, 1860);Cambridge Psalter, c. 1160 (Fr. Michel,Le Livre des Psaumes,Paris, 1877);London Psalter,same as Oxford Psalter (cf. Beyer,Zt. f. rom. Phil.xi. 513-534; xii. 1-56);Disticha Catonis, translated by Everard de Kirkham and Elie de Winchester (Stengel,Ausg. u. Abhandlungen);Le Roman de fortune, summary of Boetius'De consolatione philosophiae,by Simon de Fresne (Hist. lit.xxviii. 408);Quatre livres des rois, translated into French in the 12th century, and imitated in England soon after (P. Schlösser,Die Lautverhältnisse der quatre livres des rois,Bonn, 1886;Romania,xvii. 124);Donnei des Amanz,, the conversation of two lovers, overheard and carefully noted by the poet, of a purely didactic character, in which are included three interesting pieces, the first being an episode of the story of Tristram, the second a fable,L'homme et le serpent,the third a tale,L'homme et l'oiseau, which is the basis of the celebratedLai de l'oiselet(Rom.xxv. 497);Livre des Sibiles(1160);Enseignements Trebor, by Robert de Ho (=Hoo, Kent, on the left bank of the Medway) [edited by Mary Vance Young, Paris; Picard, 101; cf. G. Paris,Rom.xxxii. 141];Lapidaire de Cambridge(Pannier,Les Lapidaires français); Frére Angier de Ste. Frideswide,Dialogues,29th of November 1212 (Rom.xii. 145-208, and xxix.; M. K. Pope,Étude sur la langue de Frère Angier,Paris, 1903);Li dialoge Grégoire le pape, ed. by Foerster, 1876;Petit Plet, by Chardri,c.1216 (Koch,Altfr Bibliothek.i., and Mussafia,Z. f. r. P.iii. 591);Petite philosophie, c.1225 (Rom.xv. 356; xxix. 72);Histoire de Marie et de Jésus (Rom.xvi. 248-262);Poème sur l'Ancien Testament(Not. et Extr.xxxiv. 1, 210;Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889, 73-74);Le CorsetandLe Miroir, by Robert de Gretham (Rom.vii. 345; xv. 296);Lumière as Lais,by Pierre de Peckham,c.1250 (Rom.xv. 287); an Anglo-Norman redaction ofImage du monde, c.1250 (Rom.xxi. 481); two Anglo-Norman versions ofQuatre soeurs(Justice, Truth, Peace, Mercy), 13th century (ed. by Fr. Michel,Psautier d'Oxford,pp. 364-368,Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes,1886, 57,Romania,xv. 352); anotherComputby Raüf de Lenham, 1256 (P. Meyer,Archives des missions,2nd series iv. 154 and 160-164;Rom.xv. 285);Le chastel d'amors,by Robert Grosseteste or Greathead, bishop ofLincoln († 1253) [ed. by Cooke,Carmina Anglo-Normannica, 1852, Caxton Society];Poème sur l'amour de Dieu et sur la haine du péché, 13th century, second part (Rom.xxix. 5);Le mariage des neuf filles du diable(Rom.xxix. 54);Ditie d' Urbain, attributed without any foundation to Henry I. (P. Meyer,Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes, 1880, p. 73 andRomaniaxxxii, 68);Dialogue de l'évêque Saint Julien et son disciple(Rom.xxix. 21);Poème sur l'antichrist et le jugement dernier, by Henri d'Arci (Rom.xxix. 78;Not. et. Extr.35, i. 137). Wilham de Waddington produced at the end of the 13th century hisManuel des péchés, which was adapted in England by Robert of Brunne in hisHandlying Sinne(1303) [Hist. lit.xxviii. 179-207;Rom.xxix. 5, 47-53]; see Furnivall,Robert of Brunne's Handlying Synne(Roxb. Club, 1862); in the 14th century we find Nicole Bozon'sContes moralisés(see above);Traité de naturesse(Rom.xiii. 508);Sermonsin verse (P. Meyer, op. cit. xlv.);Proverbes de bon enseignement(op. cit. xlvi.). We have also a few handbooks on the teaching of French. Gautier de Biblesworth wrote such a treatiseà Madame Dyonise de Mountechensi pur aprise de langage(Wright,A Volume of Vocabularies; P. Meyer,Rec. d'anc. textes, p. 360 andRomaniaxxxii, 22);Orthographia gallica(Sturzinger,Altfr. Bibl.1884);La manière de language, written in 1396 (P. Meyer,Rev. crit. d'hist. et de litt.nos. compl. de 1870);Un petit livre pour enseigner les enfants de leur entreparler comun françois, c. 1399 (Stengel,Z. für n.f. Spr. u. Litt.i. 11). The importantMirour de l'omme, by John Gower, contains about 30,000 lines written in very good French at the end of the 14th century (Macaulay,The Complete Works of John Gower, i., Oxford, 1899).
Hagiography.—Among the numerous lives of saints written in Anglo-Norman the most important ones are the following, the list of which is given in chronological order:—Voyage de Saint Brandan(orBrandain), written in 1121, by an ecclesiastic for Queen Aelis of Louvain (Rom. St.i. 553-588;Z. f. r. P.ii. 438-459;Rom.xviii. 203. C. Wahlund,Die altfr. Prosaübersetz. von Brendan's Meerfahrt, Upsala, 1901); life of St. Catherine by Clemence of Barking (Rom.xiii. 400, Jarnik, 1894); life of St Giles, c. 1170, by Guillaume de Berneville (Soc. Anc. Textes fr., 1881;Rom.xi. and xxiii. 94); life of St. Nicholas, life of Our Lady, by Wace (Delius, 1850; Stengel,Cod. Digby, 66); Uhlemann,Gram. Krit. Studien zu Wace's Conception und Nicolas, 1878; life of St. George by Simon de Fresne (Rom.x. 319; J. E. Matzke,Public. of the Mod. Lang. Ass. of Amer.xvii. 1902;Rom.xxxiv. 148);Expurgatoire de Ste. Patrice, by Marie de France (Jenkins, 1894; Eckleben,Aelteste Schilderung vom Fegefeuer d.H. Patricius, 1851; Ph. de Felice, 1906);La vie de St. Edmund le Rei, by Denis Pyramus, end of 12th century (Memorials of St. Edmund's Abbey, edited by T. Arnold, ii. 1892;Rom.xxii. 170); Henri d'Arci's life of St. Thais, poem on the Antichrist,Visio S. Pauli(P. Meyer,Not. et Extr.xxxv. 137-158); life of St. Gregory the Great by Frère Angier, 30th of April 1214 (Rom.viii. 509-544; ix. 176; xviii. 201); life of St. Modwenna, between 1225 and 1250 (Suchier,Die dem Matthäus Paris zugeschriebene Vie de St. Auban, 1873, pp. 54-58); Fragments of a life of St Thomas Becket, c. 1230 (P. Meyer,Soc. Anc. Text. fr., 1885); and another life of the same by Benoit of St. Alban, 13th century (Michel,Chron. des ducs de Normandie; Hist. Lit.xxiii. 383); a life of Edward the Confessor, written before 1245 (Luard,Lives of Edward the Confessor, 1858;Hist. Lit.xxvii. 1), by an anonymous monk of Westminster; life of St. Auban, c. 1250 (Suchier, op. cit.; Uhlemann, "Über die vie de St. Auban in Bezug auf Quelle," &c.Rom. St.iv. 543-626; ed. by Atkinson, 1876).The Vision of Tnudgal, an Anglo-Norman fragment, is preserved in MS. 312, Trinity College, Dublin; the MS. is of the 14th century; the author seems to belong to the 13th (La vision de Tondale, ed. by Friedel and Kuno Meyer, 1906). In this category we may add the life of Hugh of Lincoln, 13th century (Hist. Lit.xxiii. 436; Child,The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, 1888, p. v; Wolter,Bibl. Anglo-Norm., ii. 115). Other lives of saints were recognized to be Anglo-Norman by Paul Meyer when examining the MSS. of the Welbeck library (Rom.xxxii. 637 andHist. Lit.xxxiii. 338-378).
Lyric Poetry.—The only extant songs of any importance are the seventy-oneBalladsof Gower (Stengel,Gower's Minnesang, 1886). The remaining songs are mostly of a religious character. Most of them have been discovered and published by Paul Meyer (Bulletin de la Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889;Not. et Extr.xxxiv;Rom.xiii. 518, t. xiv. 370; xv. p. 254, &c.). Although so few have come down to us such songs must have been numerous at one time, owing to the constant intercourse between English, French and Provençals of all classes. An interesting passage inPiers Plowmanfurnishes us with a proof of the extent to which these songs penetrated into England. We read of: