The authorities for the history of ancient Athens will mostly be found underGreece:History, and the various biographies. The following books deal with special periods or subjects only:—(1)Early Athens: W. Warde Fowler,The City-State, ch. vi. (London, 1893). (2)The fifth and fourth centuries: the “Constitution of Athens,” ascribed to Xenophon; W. Oncken,Athen und Hellas(Leipzig, 1865); U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,Aus Kydathen(Berlin, 1880); L. Whibley,Political Parties at Athens(Cambridge, 1889); G. Gilbert,Beiträge zur inneren Geschichte Athens(Leipzig, 1877); J. Beloch,Die attische Politik seit Perikles(Leipzig, 1884). (3)The Hellenistic and Roman periods: J.P. Mahaffy,Greek Life and Thought, from 323 to 146 (London, 1887), chs. v., vi., xvii.; A. Holm,Greek History(Eng. trans., London, 1898), iv. chs. vi. and xxiii.; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,Antigonos von Karystos(Berlin, 1881), pp. 178-291; W. Capes,University Life in Ancient Athens(London, 1877); A. Dumont,Essai sur l’Ephebie attique(Paris, 1875). (4)The Latin rule: G. Finlay,History of Greece(Oxford ed., 1877), vol. iv. ch. vi. (5)Constitutional History: The Aristotelian “Constitution of Athens”; U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,Aristoteles und Athen(Berlin and Leipzig, 1893), vol. ii.; G. Gilbert,Greek Constitutional Antiquities(Eng. trans., London, 1895), pp. 95-453; A.H.J. Greenidge,Handbook of Greek Constitutional History(Oxford, 1896), ch. vi.; J.W. Headlam,Election by Lot at Athens(Cambridge, 1891). (6)Finance and statistics: A. Boeckh,The Public Economy of the Athenians(Eng. trans., London, 1828); Ed. Meyer,Forschungen zur alten Geschichte(Halle, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 149-195. (7)Inscriptions:Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, with supplements (Berlin, 1873-1895). (8)Coins: B.V. Head,Historia Numorum(Oxford, 1887), pp. 309-328.
The authorities for the history of ancient Athens will mostly be found underGreece:History, and the various biographies. The following books deal with special periods or subjects only:—(1)Early Athens: W. Warde Fowler,The City-State, ch. vi. (London, 1893). (2)The fifth and fourth centuries: the “Constitution of Athens,” ascribed to Xenophon; W. Oncken,Athen und Hellas(Leipzig, 1865); U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,Aus Kydathen(Berlin, 1880); L. Whibley,Political Parties at Athens(Cambridge, 1889); G. Gilbert,Beiträge zur inneren Geschichte Athens(Leipzig, 1877); J. Beloch,Die attische Politik seit Perikles(Leipzig, 1884). (3)The Hellenistic and Roman periods: J.P. Mahaffy,Greek Life and Thought, from 323 to 146 (London, 1887), chs. v., vi., xvii.; A. Holm,Greek History(Eng. trans., London, 1898), iv. chs. vi. and xxiii.; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,Antigonos von Karystos(Berlin, 1881), pp. 178-291; W. Capes,University Life in Ancient Athens(London, 1877); A. Dumont,Essai sur l’Ephebie attique(Paris, 1875). (4)The Latin rule: G. Finlay,History of Greece(Oxford ed., 1877), vol. iv. ch. vi. (5)Constitutional History: The Aristotelian “Constitution of Athens”; U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,Aristoteles und Athen(Berlin and Leipzig, 1893), vol. ii.; G. Gilbert,Greek Constitutional Antiquities(Eng. trans., London, 1895), pp. 95-453; A.H.J. Greenidge,Handbook of Greek Constitutional History(Oxford, 1896), ch. vi.; J.W. Headlam,Election by Lot at Athens(Cambridge, 1891). (6)Finance and statistics: A. Boeckh,The Public Economy of the Athenians(Eng. trans., London, 1828); Ed. Meyer,Forschungen zur alten Geschichte(Halle, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 149-195. (7)Inscriptions:Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, with supplements (Berlin, 1873-1895). (8)Coins: B.V. Head,Historia Numorum(Oxford, 1887), pp. 309-328.
(M. O. B. C.)
8.Byzantine Period.—The city now sank into the position of a provincial Byzantine town. Already it had been robbed of many of its works of art, among them the Athena Promachos and the Parthenos of Pheidias, for the adornment of Constantinople, and further spoliation took place when the church of St Sophia was built inA.D.532. The Parthenon, the Erechtheum, the “Theseum” and other temples were converted into Christian churches and were thus preserved throughout the middle ages. The history of Athens for the next four centuries is almost a blank; the city is rarely mentioned by the Byzantine chronicles of this period. The emperor Constantine II. spent some months here inA.D.662-663. In 869 the see of Athens became an archbishopric. In 995 Attica was ravaged by the Bulgarians under their tsar Samuel, but Athens escaped; after the defeat of Samuel at Belasitza (1014) the emperor Basil II., who blinded 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, came to Athens and celebrated his triumph by a thanksgiving service in the Parthenon (1018). From the Runic description on the marble lion of the Peiraeus it has been inferred that Harold Hardrasda and the Norsemen in the service of the Byzantine emperors captured the Peiraeus in 1040, but this conclusion is not accepted by Gregorovius (bk. i. pp. 170-172). Like the rest of Greece, Athens suffered greatly from the rapacity of its Byzantine administrators. The letters of Acominatus, archbishop of Athens, towards the close of the 12th century, bewail the desolate condition of the city in language resembling that of Jeremiah in regard to Jerusalem.
9.Period of Latin Rule: 1204-1458.—After the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204, Otho de la Roche was granted the lordship of Athens by Boniface of Montferrat, king of Thessalonica, with the title of Megaskyr (μέγας κύριος= great lord). His nephew and successor, Guy I., obtained the title duke of Athens from Louis IX. of France in 1258. On the death of Guy II., last duke of the house of la Roche, in 1308, the duchy passed to his cousin, Walter of Brienne. He was expelled in 1311 by his Catalonian mercenaries; the mutineers bestowed the duchy “of Athens and Neopatras” on their leader, Roger Deslaur, and, in the following year, on Frederick of Aragon, king of Sicily. The Sicilian kings ruled Athens by viceroys till 1385, when the Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli, lord of Corinth, defeated the Catalonians and seized the city. Nerio, who received the title of duke from the king of Naples, founded a new dynasty. His palace was in the Propylaea; the lofty “Tower of the Franks,” which adjoined the south wing of that building, was possibly built in his time. This interesting historical monument was demolished by the Greek authorities in 1874, notwithstanding the protests of Penrose, Freeman and other scholars. The Acciajuoli dynasty lasted till June 1458, when the Acropolis after a stubborn resistance was taken by the Turks under Omar, the general of the sultan Mahommed II., who had occupied the lower city in 1456. The sultan entered Athens in the following month; he was greatly struck by its ancient monuments and treated its inhabitants with comparative leniency.
10.Period of Turkish Rule: 1458-1833.—After the Turkish conquest Athens disappeared from the eyes of Western civilization. The principal interest of the following centuries lies in the researches of successive travellers, who may be said to have rediscovered the city, and in the fate of its ancient monuments, several of which were still in fair preservation at the beginning of this period. The Parthenon was transformed into a mosque; the existing minaret at its south-western corner was built after 1466. The Propylaea served as the residence of the Turkish commandant and the Erechtheum as his harem. In 1466 the Venetians succeeded in occupying the city, but failed to take the Acropolis. About 1645 a powder magazine in the Propylaea was ignited by lightning and the upper portion of the structure was destroyed. Under Francesco Morosini the Venetians again attacked Athens in September 1687; a shot fired during the bombardment of the Acropolis caused a powder magazine in the Parthenon to explode, and the building was rent asunder. After capturing the Acropolis the Venetians employed material from its ancient edifices in repairing its walls. They withdrew in the following year, when the Turks set fire to the city. The central sculptures of the western pediment of the Parthenon, which Morosini intended to take to Venice, were unskilfully detached by his workmen, and falling to the ground were broken to pieces. Several ancient monuments were sacrificed to provide material for a new wall with which the Turks surrounded the city in 1778.
During the 18th century many works of art, which still remainedin situ, fell a prey to foreign collectors. The removal to London in 1812 of most of the remaining sculptures of the Parthenon by Lord Elgin possibly rescued many of them from injury in the period of warfare which followed. In 1821 the Greek insurgents surprised the city, and in 1822 captured the Acropolis. Athens again fell into the hands of the Turks in 1826, who bombarded and took the Acropolis in the following year; the Erechtheum suffered greatly, and the monument of Thrasyllus was destroyed. The Turks remained in possession of the Acropolis till 1833, when Athens was chosen as the capital of the newly established kingdom of Greece; since that date the history of the city forms part of that of modern Greece. (SeeGreece:History, modern.)
General Bibliography.—W.M. Leake,Topography of Athens and the Demi(2nd ed., London, 1841); C. Wachsmuth,Die Stadt Athen im Alterthum(vol. i., Leipzig, 1874; vol. ii. part i., Leipzig, 1890); E. Burnouf,La Ville et l’acropole d’Athènes aux diverses époques(Paris, 1877); F.C. Penrose,Principles of Athenian Architecture(London, 1888); J.E. Harrison,Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens(London, 1890); E. Curtius and A. Milchhöfer,Stadtgeschichte von Athen(Berlin, 1891); H. Hitzig and H. Blümner,Pausanias(text and commentary; vol. i., Berlin, 1896); J.G. Frazer,Pausanias(translation and commentary; 6 vols., London, 1898. The commentary on Pausanias’ description of Athens,contained in vol. ii. with supplementary notes in vol. v., is an invaluable digest of recent researches); H. Omont,Athènes au XVIIesiècle(Paris, 1898, with plans and views of the town and acropolis and drawings of the sculptures of the Parthenon); J.H. Middleton and E.A. Gardner,Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings(London, 1900); E.A. Gardner,Ancient Athens(London, 1902); W. Judeich,Topographie von Athen(Munich, 1905; forming vol. iii. part ii. second half, in 3rd edition of I. von Müller’sHandbuch der klass. Altertumswissenschaft). The history of excavations on the Acropolis is summarized in M.L. d’Ooge,Acropolis of Athens(1909); see also A. Bötticher,Die Akropolis von Athen(Berlin, 1888); O. Jahn,Pausaniae descriptio arcis Athenarum(Bonn, 1900); A. Furtwängler,Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture(appendix; London, 1895); A. Milchhöfer,Über die alten Burgheiligtümer in Athen(Kiel, 1899). For the Parthenon, A. Michaelis,Der Parthenon(texts and plates, Leipzig, 1871); L. Magne,Le Parthénon(Paris, 1895); J. Durm,Der Zustand der antiken athenischen Bauwerken(Berlin, 1895); F.C. Penrose inJournal of Royal Institute of British Architectsfor 1897; N.M. Balanos inἘφήμερις τῆς κυβερνήσεως(Athens, August 25, 1898). For the Dionysiac theatre, A.E. Haigh,The Attic Theatre(Oxford, 1889); W. Dörpfeld and E. Reisch,Das griechische Theater(Athens, 1896); Puchstein,Die griechische Bühne(Berlin, 1901). For the “Theseum,” B. Sauer,Das sogenannte Theseion(Leipzig, 1899). For the Peiraeus, E.I. Angelopoulos,Περὶ Πειραιῶς καὶ τῶν λιμένων αὐτοῦ(Athens, 1898). For the Attic Demes, A. Milchhöfer,Untersuchungen über die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes(in transactions of Berlin Academy, Berlin, 1892); Pauly-Wissowa,Realencyclopädie der class. Altertumswissenschaft(supplement, part i., article “Athenai”; Stuttgart, 1903). For the controversies respecting the Agora, the Enneacrunus and the topography of the town in general, see W. Dörpfeld,passiminAthenische Mittheilungen; C. Wachsmuth, “Neue Beiträge zur Topographie von Athen,” inAbhandlungen der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften(Leipzig, 1897). A. Milchhöfer, “Zur Topographie von Athen,” inBerlin. philol. Wochenschrift(1900), Nos. 9, 11, 12. For the Byzantine and medieval periods, William Miller,Latins in the Levant(London, 1908); F. Gregorovius,Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter(2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889). Periodical Literature.Mittheilungen des kais. deutsch. arch. Instituts(Athens, from 1876);Bulletin de correspondance hellénique(Athens, from 1877);Papers of the American School(New York, 1882-1897);Annual of the British School(London, from 1894);Journal of Hellenic Studies(London, from 1880);American Journal of Archaeology(New York, from 1885);Jahrbuch des kais. deutsch. arch. Instituts(Berlin, from 1886). The best maps are those inDie Karten van Attika, published with explanatory text by the German Archaeological Institute (Berlin, 1881). See also Baedeker’sGreece(London, 1895); Murray’sGreece and the Ionian Islands(London, 1900); Guide Joanne, vol. i.Athènes et ses environs(Paris, 1896); Meyer’sTurkei und Griechenländer(5th ed., 1901).
General Bibliography.—W.M. Leake,Topography of Athens and the Demi(2nd ed., London, 1841); C. Wachsmuth,Die Stadt Athen im Alterthum(vol. i., Leipzig, 1874; vol. ii. part i., Leipzig, 1890); E. Burnouf,La Ville et l’acropole d’Athènes aux diverses époques(Paris, 1877); F.C. Penrose,Principles of Athenian Architecture(London, 1888); J.E. Harrison,Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens(London, 1890); E. Curtius and A. Milchhöfer,Stadtgeschichte von Athen(Berlin, 1891); H. Hitzig and H. Blümner,Pausanias(text and commentary; vol. i., Berlin, 1896); J.G. Frazer,Pausanias(translation and commentary; 6 vols., London, 1898. The commentary on Pausanias’ description of Athens,contained in vol. ii. with supplementary notes in vol. v., is an invaluable digest of recent researches); H. Omont,Athènes au XVIIesiècle(Paris, 1898, with plans and views of the town and acropolis and drawings of the sculptures of the Parthenon); J.H. Middleton and E.A. Gardner,Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings(London, 1900); E.A. Gardner,Ancient Athens(London, 1902); W. Judeich,Topographie von Athen(Munich, 1905; forming vol. iii. part ii. second half, in 3rd edition of I. von Müller’sHandbuch der klass. Altertumswissenschaft). The history of excavations on the Acropolis is summarized in M.L. d’Ooge,Acropolis of Athens(1909); see also A. Bötticher,Die Akropolis von Athen(Berlin, 1888); O. Jahn,Pausaniae descriptio arcis Athenarum(Bonn, 1900); A. Furtwängler,Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture(appendix; London, 1895); A. Milchhöfer,Über die alten Burgheiligtümer in Athen(Kiel, 1899). For the Parthenon, A. Michaelis,Der Parthenon(texts and plates, Leipzig, 1871); L. Magne,Le Parthénon(Paris, 1895); J. Durm,Der Zustand der antiken athenischen Bauwerken(Berlin, 1895); F.C. Penrose inJournal of Royal Institute of British Architectsfor 1897; N.M. Balanos inἘφήμερις τῆς κυβερνήσεως(Athens, August 25, 1898). For the Dionysiac theatre, A.E. Haigh,The Attic Theatre(Oxford, 1889); W. Dörpfeld and E. Reisch,Das griechische Theater(Athens, 1896); Puchstein,Die griechische Bühne(Berlin, 1901). For the “Theseum,” B. Sauer,Das sogenannte Theseion(Leipzig, 1899). For the Peiraeus, E.I. Angelopoulos,Περὶ Πειραιῶς καὶ τῶν λιμένων αὐτοῦ(Athens, 1898). For the Attic Demes, A. Milchhöfer,Untersuchungen über die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes(in transactions of Berlin Academy, Berlin, 1892); Pauly-Wissowa,Realencyclopädie der class. Altertumswissenschaft(supplement, part i., article “Athenai”; Stuttgart, 1903). For the controversies respecting the Agora, the Enneacrunus and the topography of the town in general, see W. Dörpfeld,passiminAthenische Mittheilungen; C. Wachsmuth, “Neue Beiträge zur Topographie von Athen,” inAbhandlungen der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften(Leipzig, 1897). A. Milchhöfer, “Zur Topographie von Athen,” inBerlin. philol. Wochenschrift(1900), Nos. 9, 11, 12. For the Byzantine and medieval periods, William Miller,Latins in the Levant(London, 1908); F. Gregorovius,Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter(2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889). Periodical Literature.Mittheilungen des kais. deutsch. arch. Instituts(Athens, from 1876);Bulletin de correspondance hellénique(Athens, from 1877);Papers of the American School(New York, 1882-1897);Annual of the British School(London, from 1894);Journal of Hellenic Studies(London, from 1880);American Journal of Archaeology(New York, from 1885);Jahrbuch des kais. deutsch. arch. Instituts(Berlin, from 1886). The best maps are those inDie Karten van Attika, published with explanatory text by the German Archaeological Institute (Berlin, 1881). See also Baedeker’sGreece(London, 1895); Murray’sGreece and the Ionian Islands(London, 1900); Guide Joanne, vol. i.Athènes et ses environs(Paris, 1896); Meyer’sTurkei und Griechenländer(5th ed., 1901).
(J. D. B.)
ATHENS,a city and the county-seat of Clarke county, Georgia, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 73 m. E. by N. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890) 8639; (1900) 10,245, of whom 5190 were negroes and only 114 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 14,913. It is served by the Georgia, the Central of Georgia, the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line and the Gainesville Midland railways. Athens is an important educational centre. It was founded in 1801 as the seat of the university of Georgia, which had been chartered in 1785. Franklin College, the academic department of the university, was opened in 1801, and afterwards the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (the School of Science, 1872), the State Normal School (co-educational, 1891), the School of Pharmacy (1903), the University Summer School (1903), the School of Forestry (1906), and the Georgia State College of Agriculture (1906), also branches of the university, were established at Athens, and what had been the Lumpkin Law School (incorporated in 1859) became the law department of the university in 1867. Branches of the university not in Athens are: the North Georgia Agricultural College (established in 1871; became a part of the university in 1872), at Dahlonega; the medical department, at Augusta (1873; founded as the Georgia Medical College in 1829); the Georgia School of Technology (1885), at Atlanta; the Georgia Normal and Industrial College for Girls (1889), at Milledgeville; and the Georgia Industrial College for Colored Youth (1890), near Savannah. At Athens also are several secondary schools, and the Lucy Cobb Institute (for girls), opened in 1858 and named in honour of a daughter of its founder, Gen. T.R.R. Cobb (1823-1862). The city has various manufactures, the most important being fertilizers, cotton goods, and cotton-seed oil and cake; the value of the total factory product in 1905 was $1,158,205, an increase of 70.9% in five years. Athens was chartered as a city in 1872.
ATHENS,a village and the county-seat of Athens county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of Athens, on the Hocking river, about 76 m. E.S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 2620; (1900) 3066; (1910) 5463; of the township (1910) 10,156. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, the Toledo & Ohio Central (Ohio Central Lines), and the Hocking Valley railways. The village is built on rolling ground rising about 70 ft. above the river (which nearly encircles it), and commands views of some of the most beautiful scenery in the state. There are several ancient mounds in the vicinity. Athens is the seat of Ohio University (co-educational), a state institution established in 1804, and having in 1908 a college of liberal arts, a state normal college (1902), a commercial college, a college of music and a state preparatory school. In 1908 the University had 53 instructors and 1386 students. South of the village, and occupying a fine situation, is a state hospital for the insane. In the vicinity there are many coal mines, and among the manufactures are bricks, furniture, veneered doors, and shirts. The municipality operates the water-works. When the Ohio Company, through Manasseh Cutler, obtained from congress their land in what is now Ohio, it was arranged that the income from two townships was to be set aside “for the support of a literary institution.” In 1795 the townships (Athens and Alexander) were located and surveyed, and in 1800 Rufus Putnam and two other commissioners, appointed by the Territorial legislature, laid out a town, which was also called Athens. Settlers slowly came; the town became the county-seat in 1805, was incorporated as a village in 1811, and was re-incorporated in 1828.