Chapter 14

See Otwikowski,History of Poland under Augustus II.(Cracow, 1849); F. Förster,Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im achtzehnten Jahrhtmdert(Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski,History of Augustus II.(Posen, 1856-1874); C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe,Geschichte des Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen(Gotha, 1867-1873).

AUGUSTUS III.,king of Poland, and, asFrederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of Augustus II. (“the Strong”), was born at Dresden on the 17th of October 1696. Educated as a Protestant, he followed his father’s example by joining the Roman Catholic Church in 1712, although his conversion was not made public until 1717. In August 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the emperor Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father’s death in February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish crown; and having purchased the support of the emperor Charles VI. by assenting to the Pragmatic Sanction, and that of the czarina Anne by recognizing the claim of Russia to Courland, he was elected king of Poland in October 1733. Aided by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski from Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734, and was generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736. On the death of Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was among the enemies of his daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I., claimed a portion of the Habsburg territories. In 1742, however, he was induced to transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took part in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian wars, and again when the Seven Years’ War began in 1756. Saxony was in that year attacked by the Prussians, and with so much success that not only was the Saxon army forced to capitulate at Pirna in October, but the elector, who fled to Warsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony, which remained under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of Hubertsburg was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony, where he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons, the eldest of whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick Christian; and five daughters, one of whom was the wife of Louis, the dauphin of France, and mother of Louis XVI. Another daughter was the wife of Charles III., king of Spain, but she predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither talent nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poland under the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of his ministers. He took great interest in music and painting, and added to the collection of art treasures at Dresden.

See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe,Geschichte des Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen(Gotha, 1867-1873); R. Röpell,Polen um die Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts(Gotha, 1876).

AUGUSTUSBAD,a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 10 m. E. from Dresden, close to Radeberg, in a pleasant valley. Pop. 900. It has five saline chalybeate springs, used both for drinking and bathing, and specific in feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and neuralgia. The spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable public rooms and gardens.

AUK,a name commonly given to several species of sea-fowl. A special interest attaches to the great auk (Alca impennis), owing to its recent extinction and the value of its eggs to collectors. (SeeGarefowl; alsoGuillemot,Puffin,Razorbill.)

AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE(1849- ), French historian, was born at Montbron in Charente in 1849. Having obtained the degree of doctor of letters in 1877 with a Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French one upon Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated into French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during the French Revolution, and published two volumes uponLes Orateurs de la constituante(1882) and uponLes Orateurs de la legislative et de la convention(1885). With these works, which were reprinted in 1905, he entered a fresh field, where he soon became an acknowledged master. Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of historical criticism which had produced such rich results in the study of ancient and medieval history, he devoted himself to profound research in the archives, and to the publication of numerous most important contributions to the political, administrative and moral history of that marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the French Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds of students who in their turn have done valuable work. To him we owe theRecueil des actes du comité de salut public(vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904);La Société des Jacobins; recueil de documents pour l’histoire du club des Jacobins de Paris(6 vols., 1889-1897); andParis pendant la reaction thermidorienne et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour l’histoire de l’esprit public à Paris(5 vols., 1898-1902), which was followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat (2 vols., 1903-1904). For the Société de l’Histoire de la Révolution Française, which brought out under his supervision an important periodical publication calledLa Révolution française, he produced theRegistre des déliberations du consulat provisoire(1894), andL’État de la France en l’an VIII et en l’an IX, with the reports of the prefects (1897), besides editing various works or memoirs written by men of the Revolution, such as J.C. Bailleul, Chaumette, Fournier (called the American), Hérault de Séchelles, and Louvet de Couvrai. But these large collections of documents are not his entire output. Besides a little pamphlet upon Danton, he has written aHistoire politique de la Révolution française(1901), and a number of articles which have been collected in volumes under the titleÉtudes et leçons sur la Révolution française(5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitledTaine, historien de la Révolution française(1908), Aulard has submitted the method of the eminent philosopher to a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but certainly well-informed. This is, as it were, the “manifesto” of the new school of criticism applied to the political and social history of the Revolution (seeLes Annales Révolutionnaires, June 1908).

See A. Mathiez, “M. Aulard, historien et professeur,” in theRevue de la Révolution française(July 1908).

(C. B.*)

AULIC COUNCIL(Reichshofrat), an organ of the Holy Roman Empire, originally intended for executive work, but acting chiefly as a judicature, which worked from 1497 to 1806. In theearly middle ages the emperor had already hisconsiliarii; but his council was a fluctuating body of personal advisers. In the 14th century there first arose an official council, with permanent and paid members, many of whom were legists. Its business was largely executive, and it formed something of a ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions addressed to the king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of judicature. It was thus parallel to the king’s council, orconcilium continuum, of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th century, stood theKammergericht, composed of the legal members of the council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood beside the English council. But the real history of the Aulic Council, as that term was understood in the later days of the Empire, begins with Maximilian I. in 1497-1498. In these years Maximilian created three organs (apparently following the precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in the Netherlands)—aHofrat, aHofkammerfor finance, and aHofkanzlei.Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of Maximilian, these bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and theHofratwas to deal with “all and every business which may flow in from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king’s hereditary principalities.” It was thus to be the supreme executive and judicial organ, discharging all business except that of finance and the drafting of documents; and it was intended to serve Maximilian as apoint d’appuifor the monarchy against the system of oligarchical committees, instituted by Berthold, archbishop of Mainz. But it was difficult to work such a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary principalities; and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire alone (circ.1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from its cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and powers were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (1) It consisted of about 20 members—a president, a vice-president, the vice-chancellor of the Empire, and some 18 other members. These came partly from the Empire at large, partly (and in greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of the emperor. There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors of civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed at Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its members, whose office terminated with his life—an arrangement which made the council more dependent than it should have been on the emperor’s will. (2) Its powers were nominally both executive and judicial. (a) Its executive powers were small: it gradually lost everything except the formal business of investiture with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of charters, its other powers being taken over by theGeheimräte.TheseGeheimräte, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already become a determinateconciliumby 1527; and though at first only concerned with foreign affairs, they acquired, from the middle of the 16th century onwards, the power of dealing with imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic Council. (b) In its judicial aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the emperor’s judicial powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it were, to the oldKammergericht, had exclusive cognizance of matters relating to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases “reserved” for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic Council was a competitor for judicial work with the Imperial Chamber1(Reichskammergericht, a tribunal dating from the great diet of Worms of 1495: see underImperial Chamber). It was determined in 1648 that the one of these two judicial authorities which first dealt with a case should alone have competence to pursue it. An appeal lay from the decision of the council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given by those members of the council who had not joined in the original decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by members of the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could deal with cases of outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the decision of the diet. To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are in Vienna, though parts of its records have been given to the German states which they concern.

Authorities.—R. Schröder,Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adler,Die Organisation der Centralverwaltung unter Maximilian I.(Leipzig, 1886), deals with Maximilian’s reorganization of the Council; and J. St. Pütter,Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des Teutschen Reichs(Göttingen, 1798-1799), may be consulted for its development and later form.

(E. Br.)

1The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public court of the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of the Empire.

AULIE-ATA,a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province of Syr-darya, 152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at the western end of the Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft. The inhabitants are mostly Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle, horses and hides. Pop. (1897) 12,006.

AULIS,an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated on a rocky peninsula between two bays, near the modern village of Vathy, about 3 m. S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the tradition that it was the starting-place of the Greek fleet before the Trojan War, the scene of the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The temple of Artemis was still to be seen in the time of Pausanias.

AULNOY(orAunoy),MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE,Baronne D’(c.1650-1705), French author, was born about 1650 at Barneville near Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau des Loges, the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called the “tenth Muse.” She married on the 8th of March 1666 François de la Motte, a gentleman in the service of César, duc de Vendôme, who became Baron d’Aulnoy in 1654. With her mother, who by a second marriage had become marquise de Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high treason against her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two women saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they went (February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed to return to France in reward for secret services rendered to the government. Mme. d’Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of January 1705. She wrote fairy tales,Contes nouvelles ou les Fées a la mode(3 vols., 1698), in the manner of Charles Perrault. This collection (24 tales) includedL’Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron, La Chatte blancheand others. The originals of most of her admirable tales are to be found in thePentamerone(1637) of Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are:L’Histoire d’Hippolyte, comte de Duglas(1690), a romance in the style of Madame de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model;Mémoires de la cour d’Espagne(1679-1681); and aRelation du voyage d’Espagne(1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876 asLa Cour et la ville de Madridby Mme. B. Carey;Histoire de Jean de Bourbon(1692);Mémoires sur la cour de France(1692);Mémoires de la cour d’Angleterre(1695). Her historical writings are partly borrowed from existing records, to which she adds much that must be regarded as fiction, and some vivid descriptions of contemporary manners.

TheDiverting Works of the Countess d’Anois, including some extremely untrustworthy “Memoirs of her own life,” were printed in London in 1707.The Fairy Tales of Madame d’Aulnoy, with an introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For biographical particulars see M. de Lescure’s introduction to theContes des Fées(1881).

AULOS(Gr.αὐλός; Lat.tibia; Egyptian hieroglyphic,Ma-it; medieval equivalents,shalm, chalumeau, schalmei, hautbois), in Greek antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments with single or with double reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical or conical bore, thus corresponding to both oboe and clarinet. In its widest acceptation theauloswas a generic term for instruments consisting of a tube in which the air column was set in vibration either directly by the lips of the performer, or through the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or a double reed. Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (syrinx polycalamus,1σῦριγξ πολυκάλαμος) were sometimes called auloi (αὐλοί). The aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which, by gradual assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe, reachedthe stage at which it became known as theTyrrhenian aulos(Pollux iv. 70) or thehydraulos, according to the method of compressing the wind supply (seeOrgan:Early History; andSyrinx). The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during the best classical period had a cylindrical bore (κοιλία) like that of the modern clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic properties of the stopped pipe, whether the air column was set in vibration by means of a single or of a double reed, for the mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.2To the acoustic properties of open or stopped pipes are due those essential differences which underlie the classification of modern wind instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone one octave lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding length, and overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the third above the second octave of the fundamental tone,i.e.the odd numbers of the series; whereas the open pipe gives the whole series of harmonics, the octave, the twelfth, the double octave, and the third above it, &c.

To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its compass, the stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the side of the pipe, at appropriate distances from each other, and from the end of the pipe, whereas the open pipe requires but six. The acoustic properties of the open pipe can only be secured in combination with a reed mouthpiece by making the bore conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their indebtedness to the Greeks in matters relating to musical instruments, and more especially to the cithara and aulos) understood the acoustic principle utilized to-day in making wind instruments, that a hole of small diameter nearer the mouthpiece may be substituted for one of greater diameter in the theoretically correct position. This is demonstrated by the 4th-century grammarian Macrobius, who says (Comm. in Somn. Scip.ii. 4, 5): “Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta” (seeBassoon). Aristotle gives directions for boring holes in the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe of cylindrical bore (Probl. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but three or four holes; to Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of having increased this number (Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th centuryB.C.), further improved the aulos by making it possible to play on one pair of instruments the three musical scales in use at his time, the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5; Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass of a tenth in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.

There are two ways in which this increased compass might have been obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes and covering up those not required, (2) by means of contrivances for lowering the pitch of individual notes as required. We have evidence that both means were known to the Greeks and Romans. The simplest device for closing holes not in use was a band of metal left free to slide round the pipe, and having a hole bored through it corresponding in diameter with the hole in the pipe. Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings of metal. The line on fig. 1 betweenrandsis thought to have been one of these rings.

Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the bone, in such a manner that only one could be exposed at a time. This is clearly shown in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments of an aulos from the museum at Candia, for which the writer is greatly indebted to Professor John L. Myres, by whom measured drawings were made from the instrument in 1893. These highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5), seem to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad pipes in the Castellani collection at the British Museum, illustrated below; they are constructed like modern flutes, but played by means of a reed inserted into the lateral embouchure.

In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented the bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of No. 2 atl; there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a in No. 4 (the drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed for parts 3 and 4), and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 atk.

According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair of pipes in the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction as the one in Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative position of the holeson the circumferenceis approximate only, but their position lengthways is measured.

a, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide.

b, Slide with hole.

c, Slides with two holes not uncovered together.

d, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back.

e, Slide.

f, Slide missing.

g, Slide missing, scars of slide holes.

h, Slide.

iandj, Slide.

k, Socket.

l, Male half of joint.

m, n, o, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only.

pandq, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back.

r, Bronze covering (and slide?).

s, Male joint.

t, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment.

u, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter.

w, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering.

x, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment.

y, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines.

The line betweenrandsis either a turned ring or part of bronze cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.

Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii3(fig. 2), as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani collection (fig. 4) and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British Museum. In order to enable the performer to use these bands conveniently, a contrivance such as a little ring, a horn or a hook termed keras (κέρας) was attached to the band.4

Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets which probably originally containedkerata. Pollux (iv. 80) mentions that Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the range of the aulos, made lateral channels for the air (πλάγιαι ὁδοί). These consisted of tubes inserted into the holes in the bands for the purpose of lengthening the column of air, and lowering individual notes at will, the sound being then produced at the extremity of the tube, instead of at the surface of the pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes in the slides of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of these tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern crook or piston.5The mouthpiece of the aulos was calledzeugos(ζεῦγος),6the reed tongueglossa7orglotta(γλῶσσαorγλῶττα), and the socket into which the reed was fixedglottis8(γλωττίς).

The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest form of mouthpiece; the wordzeugos, moreover, signifies a pair of like things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting the probability that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece was used by the Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it with the as-it or arghoul (q.v.).

The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii (fig. 3) has all the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having, on the side not shown, the lay on which to fix a single or beating reed.9It may, however, have been the cap of a covered reed, or even a whistle mouthpiece in which the lip does not show in the photograph. It is difficult to form a conclusion without seeing the real instrument. On a mosaic of Monnus in Trèves10is represented an aulos which also appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.

The upper part of the aulos, as in the Pompeian pipes, frequently had the form of a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped bulb, respectively identified as theholmos(ὄλμος) and thehypholmion(ὑφόλμιον), the support of theholmos. An explanation of the original nature and construction of the bulb and flaring cup, so familiar in the various representations of the aulos, and in the real instruments found in Pompeii, is provided by an ancient Egyptian flute belonging to the collection of G. Maspero, illustrated and described by Victor Loret.11Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece of the instrument, and describes its construction; it consists of a piece of reed of larger diameter than that of the flute, and eight centimetres long; this reed has been forcibly compressed a little more than half way down by means of a ligature of twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6 mm. to 4 mm. The end of the pipe, covered by rows of waxed thread, fits into the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was also bound by waxed thread exactly as in the Elgin pipe at the British Museum, described below. There is no indication of the manner in which the pipe was sounded, and Loret assumes that there was once a whistle or flageolet mouthpiece. To the present writer, however, it seems probable that the constricted diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case at least, the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated in the upper bulb or air-chamber. This simple contrivance was probably also employed in the earliest Greek pipes, and was later copied and elaborated in wood, bone or metal, the upper bulb being made shorter and developing into the flaring cup, in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the mouth. During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken directly into the mouth12and not enclosed in an air-chamber. The two pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped the holes and turned the bands by means of theφορβεία(Lat.capistrum), a bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having holes through which the reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth of the performer; thephorbeiaalso relieved the pressure of the breath on the cheeks and lips,13which is felt more especially by performers on oboe and bassoon at the present day.

In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to the Elgin collection at the British Museum, one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved in the same case as the pipes, was fastened to the pipes by means of waxed thread, the indented lines being still visible on the rim of the bulb. The aulos was kept in a case calledsybene14(συβήνη) oraulotheke15(αὐλοθήκη), and the little bag or case in which the delicate reeds were carried was known by the name ofglottokomeion15(γλωττοκομεῖον).16Two Egyptian flute cases are extant, one in the Louvre,17and the other in the museum at Leiden. The latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical in shape, with a stopper of the same wood; there is no legend or design upon it. The case contained seven pipes, five pieces of reed without bore or holes, and three pieces of straw suitable for making double-reed mouthpieces.18

Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of pipes as over three octaves:—“For doubtless we should find an interval greater than the above mentioned three octaves between the highest note of the soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest note of the bass-clarinet (aulos); and again between the highest note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker open, and the lowest note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker closed.”19

This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to the full range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves fromtoIt is evident that the ancient Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of the harmonics. Proclus (Comm. in Alcibiad.chap. 68) states that from each hole of the pipe at least three tones could be produced. Moreover, classic writers maintain that if the performer press thezeugosor theglottaiof the pipes, a sharper tone is produced.20This is exactly how a performer on a modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher harmonics of the instrument.21The small bore of the aulos in comparison to its length facilitated the production of the harmonics (cf. Zamminer p. 218), as does also the use of a small hole near the mouthpiece, called in Greeksyrinx(σῦριγξ) and in the modern clarinet the “speaker,” which when open enables the performer to overblow with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamentaltones. To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due the credit of having identified thesyrinxof the aulos with the speaker of the clarinet.22This assumption is doubtless correct, and is supported by classical grammarians,23who state that thesyrinxwas one of the holes of the aulos. It renders quite clear certain passages in Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, and a scholion to Pindar’s 12thPythian, which before were difficult to understand (seeSyrinx).

The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties enumerated by Pollux (Onomast.iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus (iv. 76 et seq.). They fall into two distinct classes, the single and the double pipes. There were three principal single pipes, themonaulos, theplagiaulosand thesyrinx monocalamos. The double pipes were used by the great musicians of ancient Greece, and notably at the musical contests at Delphi, and what has been said above concerning the construction of the aulos refers mainly to the double pipes. Themonaulos, a single pipe of Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been played from the end by means of a reed, may have been the archetype of the oboe or clarinet. Theplagiaulos photinxortibia obliqua, invented by the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74), or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute, but was played by means of a mouthpiece containing a reed. Three of the existing pipes at the British Museum (the two in the Castellani collection, and the pipe from Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The mouthpiece projects from the side of the pipe and communicates with the main bore by means of a slanting passage; the end nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the modern flute; in the latter, however, the embouchure is not closed by the lips when playing, and therefore the flute has the acoustic properties of the open pipe, whereas theplagiauloshaving a reed mouthpiece gave the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double pipes existed in five sizes according to pitch, in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a treatise on the construction of the auloi (Περὶ αὐλῶν τρήσεως), unfortunately not extant,24divides them thus:—

(1)Parthenioi auloi(παρθένιοι αὐλοί), the maiden’sauloi, corresponding to the soprano compass.

(2)Paidikoi auloi(παιδικοὶ αὐλοί), the boy’s pipes or altoauloi, used to accompany boys’ songs and also in double pairs at feasts.

(3)Kitharisterioi auloi(κιθαριστήριοι αὐλοί), used to accompany the cithara.

(4)Teleioi auloi, the perfect aulos, or tenor’s pipes; also known as thepythic auloi(πυθικοὶ αὐλοί); used for the paeans and for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was thepythic auloiand thekitharisterioi auloimore especially which were provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic notes (seeSyrinx).

(5)Hyperteleioi auloi(ὑπερτέλειοι αὐλοί) orandreioi auloi(ἀνδρεῖοί αὐλοί) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.

The Phrygian pipes orauloi Elymoi25were made of box-wood and were tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed from all others in that the two pipes were unequal in length and in the diameter of their bores;26sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and terminated in a horn bell;27they seem to have had a conical bore, if representations on monuments are to be trusted. We may conclude that the archetype of the oboe with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks; it was frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on many has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For illustrations see Wilhelm Froehner,Les Musées de France, pl. iii., “Marsyas playing the double pipes.” There the bore is decidedly conical in the ratio of at least 1 : 4 between the mouthpiece and the end of the instrument; the vase is Roman, from the south of France. See alsoBulletino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd series, pl. vii. and p. 119 et seq., “Le Nozze di Elena e Paride,” from a bas-relief in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm Zahn,Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemälde aus Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae(German and French), vol. iii., pl. 43 and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).

For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard, “The Aulos or Tibia,”Harvard Studies, iv., 1893; François A. Gevaert,Histoire de la musique dans l’antiquité, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.; Carl von Jan’s article “Flote” in August Baumeister’sDenkmaler des klassischen Altertums(Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo Riemann,Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112 (Leipzig, 1904); Caspar Bartholinus,De Tibiis Veterum(Amsterdam, 1779).

(K. S.)

1See Pollux,Onom.iv. 69.2See Friedrich Zamminer,Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik(Giessen, 1855), p. 305.3These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867, and are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and descriptions of them are given in “The Aulos or Tibia,” by Albert A. Howard,Harvard Studies, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and pp. 48-55.4For illustrations ofauloiprovided with these contrivances, see illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in Vatican, No. 535; Helbig’sWandgemãlde, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &c.5For illustrations ofὁδοίshowing the holes at the ends of the tubes, seeDescription des marbres antiques du Musée Campana, by H. d’Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner’sCatalogue of the Louvre, No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A. Howard, “The Aulos or Tibia,”Harvard Studies, iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. 1, No. 1.6For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus,Hist. Plant.iv. 11.7Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle,H.A.6, 10, 9, &c.8Lucian,Harm.1.9Cf. articleMouthpiece.10SeeAntike Denkmaler, Deutsches archäol. Inst., Berlin, 1891, vol. i. pi. 49.11See “Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,”Journal asiatique, 8th ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215.12See Aristotle,De Audib.p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a; Festus, ed. Mueller, p. 116.13See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann,Gesch. d. Musik, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904).14Pollux,Onomasticon, vii. 153.15Hesychius.16Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit. pp. 26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given inDenkmaler des klassischen Altertums, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig. 591.17Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double pipe. See E. de Rougé,Notice sommaire des monuments égyptiens exposés dans les galeries du Louvre, p. 87.18See Victor Loret, “Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,” inJournal asiatique, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp. 207, 211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans,Description raisonnée des monuments égyptiens du Musée d’Antiquités de Leyde, p. 132, No. 489; contents of case Nos. 474-488.19Aristoxenus,Harm.bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran’s edition with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179.20Aristotle,De audib.p. 804a; Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249;ibid.p. 252.21Zamminer,op. cit.p. 301.22Op. cit.p. 32-35.23SeeEtymologicum magnum(Augsburg. 1848), s.v. “Syrinx.”24See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus.25Pollux iv. 74.26Serviusad Aen.ix. 615.27Tibullus ii. 85; Virg.Aen.xi. 735; Ovid,Met.iii. 533,Ex Pontoi. 1. 39.

1See Pollux,Onom.iv. 69.

2See Friedrich Zamminer,Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik(Giessen, 1855), p. 305.

3These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867, and are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and descriptions of them are given in “The Aulos or Tibia,” by Albert A. Howard,Harvard Studies, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and pp. 48-55.

4For illustrations ofauloiprovided with these contrivances, see illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in Vatican, No. 535; Helbig’sWandgemãlde, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &c.

5For illustrations ofὁδοίshowing the holes at the ends of the tubes, seeDescription des marbres antiques du Musée Campana, by H. d’Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner’sCatalogue of the Louvre, No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A. Howard, “The Aulos or Tibia,”Harvard Studies, iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. 1, No. 1.

6For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus,Hist. Plant.iv. 11.

7Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle,H.A.6, 10, 9, &c.

8Lucian,Harm.1.

9Cf. articleMouthpiece.

10SeeAntike Denkmaler, Deutsches archäol. Inst., Berlin, 1891, vol. i. pi. 49.

11See “Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,”Journal asiatique, 8th ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215.

12See Aristotle,De Audib.p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a; Festus, ed. Mueller, p. 116.

13See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann,Gesch. d. Musik, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904).

14Pollux,Onomasticon, vii. 153.

15Hesychius.

16Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit. pp. 26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given inDenkmaler des klassischen Altertums, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig. 591.

17Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double pipe. See E. de Rougé,Notice sommaire des monuments égyptiens exposés dans les galeries du Louvre, p. 87.

18See Victor Loret, “Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,” inJournal asiatique, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp. 207, 211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans,Description raisonnée des monuments égyptiens du Musée d’Antiquités de Leyde, p. 132, No. 489; contents of case Nos. 474-488.

19Aristoxenus,Harm.bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran’s edition with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179.

20Aristotle,De audib.p. 804a; Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249;ibid.p. 252.

21Zamminer,op. cit.p. 301.

22Op. cit.p. 32-35.

23SeeEtymologicum magnum(Augsburg. 1848), s.v. “Syrinx.”

24See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus.

25Pollux iv. 74.

26Serviusad Aen.ix. 615.

27Tibullus ii. 85; Virg.Aen.xi. 735; Ovid,Met.iii. 533,Ex Pontoi. 1. 39.

AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D’ORLÉANS,Duc d’(1822-1897), French prince and statesman, fifth son of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of the French, and of Marie Amélie, princess of the Two Sicilies, was born at Paris on the 16th of January 1822. While still young he inherited a large fortune from the prince de Condé. Brought up by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at the college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeen he entered the army with the rank of a captain of infantry. He distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, and was appointed governor of that colony, in which capacity he received the submission of the amir Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to England and busied himself with historical and military studies, replying in 1861 by aLetter upon the History of Franceto Prince Napoleon’s violent attacks upon the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War he volunteered for service in the French army, but his offer was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, he returned to France, and succeeded to thefauteuilof the comte de Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 1872 he resumed his place in the army as general of division; and in 1873 he presided over the court-martial which condemned Marshal Bazaine to death. About this period, being appointed commandant of the VII. army corps at Besançon, he retired from political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of the army. By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of families that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprived of their military positions; consequently the duc d’Aumale was placed on the unemployed supernumerary list. Subsequently, in 1886, another law was promulgated which expelled from French territory the heads of former reigning families, and provided that henceforward all members of those families should be disqualified for any public position or function, and for election to any public body. The duc d’Aumale protested energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the 3rd of June 1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute of France his Chantilly estate, with all the art-collection he had gathered there. This generosity led the government to withdraw the decree of exile, and the duke returned to France in 1889.He died at Zucco in Sicily on the 7th of May 1897. Of his marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first cousin, Caroline de Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were born two sons: the prince de Condé (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d. 1872). The due d’Aumale’s principal literary work was anHistoire des princes de Condé, which he left unfinished.

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