Notation: C6 B5b A5b F5 E5b D5 B4 A4 G4 E4 E6b B3b D6 E4b F4 A4b B4b C5 D5b E5 G5 A5 D6b B5.
Other evidences of the origin of the barrel-organ are not wanting. The inventory of the organs and other keyboard instruments belonging to the duke of Modena, drawn up in 1598, contains two entries of anorgano Tedesco.[10]In England these organs were also known as "Dutch organs," and the name clung to the instrument even in its diminutive form of hand-organ of the itinerant musician. In Jedediah Morse's description of themanners and customs of the Netherlands,[11]we find the following allusion:—"The diversions of the Dutch differ not much from those of the English, who seem to have borrowed from them the neatness of their drinking booths, skittle and other grounds ... which form the amusements of the middle ranks, not to mention their hand-organs and other musical inventions." An illustration of the hand-organ of that period is given in Knight'sLondon[12]being one of a collection of street views published by Dayes in 1789. In a description of Bartholomew Fair, as held at the beginning of the 18th century, is a further reference to the Dutch origin of the barrel-organ:—"A band at the west-end of the town, well known for playing on winter evenings before Spring Garden Coffee House, opposite Wigley's great exhibition room, consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ, the tambourine, violin, pipes and the Turkish jingle used in the army. This band was generally hired at one of the booths of the fair."[13]Mr Thomas Brown relates that one Mr Stephens, aPoultryauthor, proposed to parliament for any one that should presume to keep an organ in a Publick House to be fined £20 and made incapable of being an ale-draper for the future.[14]In 1737 Horace Walpole writes[15]:—"I am now in pursuit of getting the finest piece of music that ever was heard; it is a thing that will play eight tunes. Handel and all the great musicians say that it is beyond anything they can do, and this may be performed by the most ignorant person, and when you are weary of those eight tunes, you may have them changed for any other that you like." The organ was put in a lottery and fetched £1000.
There was a very small barrel-organ in use during the 18th and 19th centuries, known as the bird-organ (Fr.serinette,turlutaine,merline). One of these now in the collection of the Brussels Conservatoire is described by V. C. Mahillon.[16]The instrument is in the form of a book, on the back of which is the title "Le chant des oiseaux, Tome vi." There are ten pewter stopped pipes giving the scale of G with the addition of F♭and A two octaves higher.Notation: G4 A5.The whole instrument measures approximately 8 × 5½ × 2¾ in. and plays eight tunes. Mozart wrote anAndante[17]for a small barrel-organ.
For an illustration of the construction of the barrel-organ during the 18th century, consult P. M. D. J. Engramelle,La Tonotechnie ou l'art de noter les cylindres et tout ce qui est susceptible de notage dans les instruments de concerts méchaniques(Paris, 1775), with engravings (not in the British Museum); and for a clear diagram of the modern instrument the article on "Automatic Appliances connected with Music," by Dr. E. J. Hopkins, in Grove'sDictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. i. (1904), p. 134.
(K. S.)
[1]This practice had evidently not been adopted in Germany, as the following instance will show. The use of barrel-organs (Drehorgeln) in country churches was seriously recommended by an anonymous writer in two German papers at the beginning of the 19th century (Beobachter an der Spree, Berlin, 22nd October 1821, and inMarkische Boten, Nos. 138 and 139, 1821). The organist Wilke of Leipzig published in reply an article in theAllgem. musik. Zeitung(1822, pp. 777 et seq.) in which "he very properly repudiated such a laughable recommendation."[2]Archives générales du royaume de Belgique, Chambre des Comptes, No. 2, 449 ro. cf. 52 ro.; and Edmund van der Straeten,La Musique aux Pays-Bas, vol. vii. pp. 230-232.[3]Van der Straeten,op. cit.p. 299.[4]Van der Straeten,op. cit.p. 231.[5]Solomon de Caus,Les Raisons des forces mouvantes(Frankfort, 1615), problems 25, 28, 29, 30.[6]Historia utriusque cosmi(Oppenheim, 1617), t. i., experimentum viii. p. 483.[7]Op. cit.problem 29 shows the arrangement of the bellows for the wind-supply. In problem 30 is drawn a large section of the barrel, showing six bars of music represented by the pin tablature, which can be actually deciphered by the help of the keyboard included in the drawing. These diagrams are admirably clear and of real technical value. A copy of this work is in the library of the British Museum.[8]See also E. van der Straeten, who has translated Philips' setting into modern notation,op. cit.t. vi. pp. 506 and 510.[9]See V. C. Mahillon,Catalogue descriptif(Brussels, 1896), No. 1137, p. 371.[10]Tedescowas applied by Italians to both German and Dutch. Count Valdrighi,Musurgiana I. Serandola, Pianoforte, Salterio(Modena, 1879), pp. 27 and 28; and E. van der Straeten,op. cit.vol. vi. p. 122.[11]Jedediah MorseAmerican Geography, part ii. p. 334 (Boston, Mass., 1796).[12]Knight'sLondon, vol. i. p. 144.[13]Hone'sEvery Day Book, i. p. 1248.[14]Collection of all the Dialogues written by Mr Thomas Brown(London, 1704), p. 297.[15]Hone'sEvery Day Book, ii. pp. 1452-1453.[16]SeeCatalogue descriptif(Ghent, 1880), Nos. 461 and 462.[17]Breitkopf and Härtel'sCritically revised edition of Mozart's Works, series x. no. 10.
[1]This practice had evidently not been adopted in Germany, as the following instance will show. The use of barrel-organs (Drehorgeln) in country churches was seriously recommended by an anonymous writer in two German papers at the beginning of the 19th century (Beobachter an der Spree, Berlin, 22nd October 1821, and inMarkische Boten, Nos. 138 and 139, 1821). The organist Wilke of Leipzig published in reply an article in theAllgem. musik. Zeitung(1822, pp. 777 et seq.) in which "he very properly repudiated such a laughable recommendation."
[2]Archives générales du royaume de Belgique, Chambre des Comptes, No. 2, 449 ro. cf. 52 ro.; and Edmund van der Straeten,La Musique aux Pays-Bas, vol. vii. pp. 230-232.
[3]Van der Straeten,op. cit.p. 299.
[4]Van der Straeten,op. cit.p. 231.
[5]Solomon de Caus,Les Raisons des forces mouvantes(Frankfort, 1615), problems 25, 28, 29, 30.
[6]Historia utriusque cosmi(Oppenheim, 1617), t. i., experimentum viii. p. 483.
[7]Op. cit.problem 29 shows the arrangement of the bellows for the wind-supply. In problem 30 is drawn a large section of the barrel, showing six bars of music represented by the pin tablature, which can be actually deciphered by the help of the keyboard included in the drawing. These diagrams are admirably clear and of real technical value. A copy of this work is in the library of the British Museum.
[8]See also E. van der Straeten, who has translated Philips' setting into modern notation,op. cit.t. vi. pp. 506 and 510.
[9]See V. C. Mahillon,Catalogue descriptif(Brussels, 1896), No. 1137, p. 371.
[10]Tedescowas applied by Italians to both German and Dutch. Count Valdrighi,Musurgiana I. Serandola, Pianoforte, Salterio(Modena, 1879), pp. 27 and 28; and E. van der Straeten,op. cit.vol. vi. p. 122.
[11]Jedediah MorseAmerican Geography, part ii. p. 334 (Boston, Mass., 1796).
[12]Knight'sLondon, vol. i. p. 144.
[13]Hone'sEvery Day Book, i. p. 1248.
[14]Collection of all the Dialogues written by Mr Thomas Brown(London, 1704), p. 297.
[15]Hone'sEvery Day Book, ii. pp. 1452-1453.
[16]SeeCatalogue descriptif(Ghent, 1880), Nos. 461 and 462.
[17]Breitkopf and Härtel'sCritically revised edition of Mozart's Works, series x. no. 10.
BARREN ISLAND,a volcanic island in the Bay of Bengal. It has an irregularly circular form of about 2 m. in diameter, composed of an outer rim rising to a height of from 700 to 1000 ft., with a central cone the altitude of which is 1015 ft. This cone rises from a depth of 800 fathoms below the sea. It was active between 1789 and 1832, but has since been dormant.
BARRÈS, MAURICE(1862- ), French novelist and politician, was born at Charmes (Vosges) on the 22nd of September 1862; he was educated at thelycéeof Nancy, and in 1883 went to Paris to continue his legal studies. He was already a contributor to the monthly periodical,Jeune France, and he now issued a periodical of his own,Les Taches d'encre, which survived for a few months only. After four years of journalism he went to Italy, where he wroteSous l'œil des barbares(1888), the first volume of atrilogie du moi, completed byUn Homme libre(1889), andLe Jardin de Bérénice(1891). He divided the world intomoiand the barbarians, the latter including all those antipathetic to the writer's individuality. These apologies for individualism were supplemented byL'Ennemi des lois(1892), and an admirable volume of impressions of travel,Du sang, de la volupté et de la mort(1893). His early books are written in an elaborate style and are often very obscure. Barrès carried his theory of individualism into politics as an ardent partisan of General Boulanger. He directed a Boulangist paper at Nancy, and was elected deputy in 1889, retaining his seat in the legislature until 1893. His play,Une Journée parlementaire, was produced at the Comédie Française in 1894. In 1897 he began his trilogy,Le Roman de l'énergie nationale, with the publication ofLes Déracinés. The series is a plea for local patriotism, and for the preservation of the distinctive qualities of the old French provinces. The first narrates the adventures of seven young Lorrainers, who set out to conquer fortune in Paris. Six of them survive in the second novel of the trilogy,L'Appel au soldat(1900), which gives the history of Boulangism; the sequel,Leurs figures(1902), deals with the Panama scandals. Later works are:—Scènes et doctrines du nationalisme(1902);Les Amitiés françaises(1903), in which he urges the inculcation of patriotism by the early study of national history;Ce que j'ai vu à Rennes(1904);Au service de l'Allemagne(1905), the experiences of an Alsatian conscript in a German regiment;Le Voyage de Sparte(1906). M. Barrès was admitted to the French Academy in 1906.
See also R. Doumic,Les Jeunes(1896); J. Lionnet,L'Évolution des idees(1903); Anatole France,La Vie littéraire(4th series, 1892).
BARRETT, LAWRENCE(1838-1891), American actor, was born of Irish parents in Paterson, New Jersey, on the 4th of April 1838. His family name was Brannigan. He made his first stage appearance at Detroit as Murad inThe French Spyin 1853. In December 1856 he made his first New York appearance at the Chambers Street theatre as Sir Thomas Clifford inThe Hunchback. In 1858 he was in the stock company at the Boston Museum. He served with distinction in the Civil War as captain in the 28th Massachusetts infantry regiment. From 1867 to 1870, with John McCullough, he managed the California theatre, San Francisco. Among his many and varied parts may be mentioned Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth, Shylock, Richard III., Wolsey, Benedick, Richelieu, David Garrick, Hernani, Alfred Evelyn, Lanciotto in George Henry Boker's (1823-1890)Francesca da Rimini, and James Harebell inThe Man o' Airlie. He played Othello to Booth's Iago and Cassius to his Brutus. He acted in London in 1867, 1881, 1883 and 1884, his Richelieu in Bulwer Lytton's drama being considered his best part. He wrote a life of Edwin Forrest in theAmerican Actors Series(Boston, 1881), and an admirable sketch of Edwin Booth inEdwin Booth and his Contemporaries(Boston, 1886). He died on the 20th of March 1891.
BARRETT, LUCAS(1837-1862), English naturalist and geologist, was born in London on the 14th of November 1837, and educated at University College school and at Ebersdorf. In 1855 he accompanied R. McAndrew on a dredging excursion from the Shetlands to Norway and beyond the Arctic Circle; and subsequently made other cruises to Greenland and to the coast of Spain. These expeditions laid the foundations of an extensive knowledge of the distribution of marine life. In 1855 he was engaged by Sedgwick to assist in the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge, and during the following three years he aided the professor by delivering lectures. He discovered bones of birds in the Cambridge Greensand, and he also prepared a geological map of Cambridge on the one-inch Ordnance map. In 1859, when twenty-two years of age, he was appointed director of the Geological Survey of Jamaica. He there determined the Cretaceous age of certain rocks which contained Hippurites, the new genusBarrettiabeing named after him by S. P. Woodward; he also obtained many fossils from the Miocene and newer strata. He was drowned at the early age of twenty-five, on the 18th of December 1862, while investigating the sea-bottom off Kingston, Jamaica.
Obituary by S. P. Woodward inGeologist(Feb. 1863), p. 60.
BARRETT, WILSON(1846-1904), English actor, manager and playwright, was born in Essex on the 18th of February 1846, theson of a farmer. He made his first appearance on the stage at Halifax in 1864, and then played in the provinces alone and with his wife, Caroline Heath, inEast Lynne. After managerial experiences at Leeds and elsewhere, in 1879 he took the management of the old Court theatre, where he introduced Madame Modjeska to London, in an adaptation of Schiller'sMaria Stuart,Adrienne Lecouvreur,La Dame aux caméliasand other plays. It was not till 1881, however, when he took the Princess's theatre, that he became well known to the public in the emotional drama,The Lights o' London, by G. R. Sims. The play which made him an established favourite wasThe Silver Kingby Henry Arthur Jones, perhaps the most successful melodrama ever staged, produced in 1882 with himself as Wilfred Denver, his brother George (an excellent comedian) in the cast, and E. S. Willard (b. 1853) as the "Spider,"—this being the part in which Mr Willard, afterwards a well-known actor both in America and England, first came to the front. Barrett played this part for three hundred nights without a break, and repeated his London success in W. G. Wills'sClaudianwhich followed. In 1884 he appeared inHamlet, but soon returned to melodrama, and though he had occasional seasons in London he acted chiefly in the provinces. In 1886 he made his first visit to America, repeated in later years, and in 1898 he visited Australia. During these years the London stage was coming under new influences, and Wilson Barrett's vogue in melodrama had waned. But in 1895 he struck a new vein of success with his drama of religious emotion,The Sign of the Cross, which crowded his theatre with audiences largely composed of people outside the ordinary circle of playgoers. He attempted to repeat the success with other plays of a religious type, but not with equal effect, and several of his later plays were failures. He died on the 22nd of July 1904. Wilson Barrett was a sterling actor of a robust type and striking physique, not remarkable for intellectual finesse, but excelling in melodrama, and very successful as the central figure on his own stage.
BARRHEAD,a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, situated on the Levern, 7½ m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9855. Founded in 1773, it has gradually absorbed the villages of Arthurlie, Dovecothall and Grahamston, and become a thriving town. The chief industries include bleaching, calico-printing, cotton-spinning, weaving, iron and brass founding, engineering and the manufacture of sanitary appliances. Neilston (pop. 2668), about 2 m. S.W., has bleachfields and print-works, and 2 m. N. by E. lie Hurlet, where are important manufactures of alum and other chemicals, and Nitshill (pop. 1242) with chemical works, quarries and collieries.
BARRICADE,orBarricado(from the Span.barricada, frombarrica, a cask, casks filled with earth having been early used to form barricades), an improvised fortification of earth, paving-stones, trees or any materials ready to hand, thrown up, especially across a street, to hinder the advance of an enemy; in the old wooden warships a fence or wooden rail, supported by stanchions and strengthened by various materials, extending across the quarter-deck as a protection during action.
BARRIE, JAMES MATTHEW(1860- ), British novelist and dramatist, was born at Kirriemuir, a small village in Forfarshire, on the 9th of May 1860. He was educated at the Dumfries academy and Edinburgh University. He has told us in his quasi-autobiographicalMargaret Ogilvythat he wrote tales in the garret before he went to school, and at Edinburgh wrote the greater part of a three-volume novel, which a publisher presumed was the work of a clever lady and offered to publish for £100. The offer was not accepted, and it was through journalism that he found his way to literature. After a short period of waiting in Edinburgh, he became leader-writer on theNottingham Journalin February 1883. To this paper he contributed also special articles and notes, which provided an opening and training for his personal talent. He soon began to submit articles to London editors, and on the 17th of November 1884 Mr Frederick Greenwood printed in theSt James's Gazettehis article on "An Auld Licht Community." With the encouragement of this able editor, more Auld Licht "Idylls" followed; and in 1885 Mr Barrie moved to London. He continued to write for theSt James's Gazetteand forHome Chimes(edited by Mr F. W. Robinson). He was soon enlisted by Mr Alexander Riach for theEdinburgh Evening Dispatch, which in turn led to his writing (over the signature "Gavin Ogilvy ") for Dr Robertson Nicoll'sBritish Weekly. Later he became a contributor to theScots(afterwardsNational)Observer, edited by W. E. Henley, and also to theSpeaker, upon its foundation in 1890. In 1887 he published his first book,Better Dead. It was a merejeu d'esprit, a specimen of his humorous journalism, elaborated from theSt James's Gazette. This was followed in 1888 byAuld Licht Idylls, a collection of the Scots village sketches written for the same paper. They portrayed the life and humours of his native village, idealized as "Thrums," and were the fruits of early observation and of his mother's tales. "She told me everything," Mr Barrie has written, "and so my memories of our little red town were coloured by her memories." Kirriemuir itself was not wholly satisfied with the portrait, but "Thrums" took its place securely on the literary map of the world. In the same year he publishedAn Edinburgh Eleven, sketches from theBritish Weeklyof eminent Edinburgh students; also his first long story,When a Man's Single, a humorous transcription of his experiences as journalist, particularly in the Nottingham office. The book was introduced by what was in fact another Thrums "Idyll," on a higher level than the rest of the book. In 1889 cameA Window in Thrums. This beautiful book, and theIdylls, gave the full measure of Mr Barrie's gifts of humanity, humour and pathos, with abundant evidence of the whimsical turn of his wit, and of his original and vernacular style. In 1891 he made a collection of his lighter papers from theSt James's Gazetteand published them asMy Lady Nicotine. In 1891 appeared his first long novel,The Little Minister, which had been first published serially inGood Words. It introduced, not with unmixed success, extraneous elements, including the winsome heroine Babbie, into the familiar life of Thrums, but proved the author's possession of a considerable gift of romance. In 1894 he publishedMargaret Ogilvy, based on the life of his mother and his own relations with her, most tenderly conceived and beautifully written, though too intimate for the taste of many. The book is full of revelations of great interest to admirers of Mr Barrie's genius. The following year cameSentimental Tommy, a story tracing curiously the psychological development of the "artistic temperament" in a Scots lad of the people. R. L. Stevenson supposed himself to be portrayed in the hero, but it may be safely assumed that the author derived his material largely from introspection. The story was completed by a sequel,Tommy and Grizel, published in 1900. The effect of this story was somewhat marred by the comparative failure of the scenes in society remote from Thrums. In 1902 he publishedThe Little White Bird, a pretty fantasy, wherein he gave full play to his whimsical invention, and his tenderness for child life, which is relieved by the genius of sincerity from a suspicion of mawkishness. This book contained the episode of "Peter Pan," which afterwards suggested the play of that name. In the meantime Mr Barrie had been developing his talent as a dramatist. In 1892 Mr Toole had made a great success at his own theatre of Barrie'sWalker, London, a farce founded on a sketch inWhen a Man's Single. In 1893 Mr Barrie married Miss Ansell (divorced in 1909), who had acted inWalker, London. In this year he wrote, with Sir A. Conan Doyle, a play calledJane Annie. He found more success, however, inThe Professor's Love-Storyin 1895; and in 1897 the popularity of his dramatized version ofThe Little Ministerprobably confirmed him in a predilection for drama, evident already in some of his first sketches in theNottingham Journal. In 1900 Mr Bourchier producedThe Wedding Guest, which was printed as a supplement to theFortnightly Reviewin December of the same year. After the publication ofThe Little White Bird, Mr Barrie burst upon the town as a popular and prolific playwright. The struggling journalist of the early 'nineties had now become one of the most prosperous literary men of the day. In 1903 no fewer than three plays from his hand held the stage—Quality Street,The AdmirableCrichtonandLittle Mary. The year 1904 producedPeter Pan, a kind of poetical pantomime, in which the author found scope for some of his most characteristic and permanently delightful gifts. In 1905Alice-Sit-by-the-Fireand in 1908What Every Woman Knowswere added to the list. As dramatist Mr Barrie brought, to a sphere rather ridden by convention, a method wholly unconventional and a singularly fresh fancy, seasoned by a shrewd touch of satirical humour; and inPeter Panhe proved himself a Hans Andersen of the stage. In literature, the success of "Thrums" produced a crop of imitations, christened in derision by W. E. Henley the "Kailyard School," though the imitations were by no means confined to Scotland. In this school theAuld Licht IdyllsandA Window in Thrumsremained unsurpassed and unapproached. The Scots village tale was no novelty in literature—witness John Gait, theChronicles of Carlingfordand George MacDonald. Yet Mr Barrie, in spite of a dialect not easy to the Southron, contrived to touch a more intimate and more responsive chord. With the simplest materials he achieved an almost unendurable pathos, which yet is never forced; and the pathos is salted with humour, while about the moving homeliness of his humanity play the gleams of a whimsical wit. Stevenson, in a letter to Mr Henry James, in December 1892, said justly of Barrie that "there was genius in him, but there was a journalist on his elbow." This genius found its most perfect and characteristic expression in the humanity of "Thrums" and the bizarre and tender fantasy ofPeter Pan.
See alsoJ. M. Barrie and His Books, by J. A. Hamerton (Horace Marshall, 1902); and for bibliography up to May 1903,English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. (N.S.), p. 208.
(W. P. J.)
BARRIE,the capital of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada, 56 m. N. of Toronto, on Lake Simcoe, an important centre on the Grand Trunk railway. It contains several breweries, carriage factories, boat-building and railway shops, and manufactories of woollens, stoves and leather. It is also a summer resort and the starting-point for the numerous Lake Simcoe steamers. Pop. (1901) 5949.
BARRIÈRE, THÉODORE(1823-1877), French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1823. He belonged to a family of map engravers which had long been connected with the war department, and spent nine years in that service himself. The success of a vaudeville he had performed at the Beaumarchais and which was immediately snapped up for the repertory of the Palais Royal, showed him his real vocation. During the next thirty years he signed, alone or in collaboration, over a hundred plays; among the most successful were:La Vie de bohème(1849), adapted from Henri Murger's book with the novelist's help;Manon Lescaut(1851);Les Filles de marbre(1853);L'Héritage de Monsieur Plumet(1858);Les Faux Bonshommes(1856) with Ernest Capendu;Malheureux vaincus(1865), which was forbidden by the censor;Le Gascon(1878). Barrière died in Paris on the 16th of October 1877.
See alsoRevue des deux mondes(March 1859).
BARRIER TREATY,the name given first to the treaty signed on 29th of October 1709 between Great Britain and the states-general of the United Netherlands, by which the latter engaged to guarantee the Protestant succession in England in favour of the house of Hanover; while Great Britain undertook to procure for the Dutch an adequatebarrieron the side of the Netherlands, consisting of the towns of Furnes, Nieuport, Ypres, Menin, Lille, Tournai, Condé, Valenciennes, Maubeuge, Charleroi, Namur, Halle, Damme, Dendermond and the citadel of Ghent. The treaty was based on the same principle of securing Holland against French aggression that had inspired that of Ryswick in 1698, by the terms of which the chief frontier fortresses of the Netherlands were to be garrisoned by Dutch troops. A second Barrier Treaty was signed between Great Britain and Holland on 29th of January 1713, by which the strong places designed for the barrier were reduced to Furnes, the fort of Knocke, Ypres, Menin, Tournai, Mons, Charleroi and the citadel of Ghent, and certain fortresses in the neighbourhood of that city and of Bruges; Great Britain undertaking to obtain the right for the Dutch to garrison them from the future sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands. Its terms were included in the treaty of Rastatt, between the emperor and France, signed on the 7th of March 1714. A third Barrier Treaty was signed in November 1715.
See Jean Dumont,Corps universel diplomatique, &c. (1726-1731), vol. viii.
BARRILI, ANTONIO GIULIO(1836- ), Italian novelist, was born at Savona, and was educated for the legal profession, which he abandoned for journalism in Genoa. He was a volunteer in the campaign of 1859 and served with Garibaldi in 1866 and 1867. From 1865 (Capitan Dodero) onwards he published a large number of books of fiction, which had wide popularity, his work being commonly compared with that of Victor Cherbuliez. Some of the best of the later ones areSanta Cecilia(1866),Come un Sogno(1875), andL'Olmo e l' Edera(1877). HisRaggio di Dioappeared in 1899. Barrili also wrote two plays and various volumes of criticism, includingIl rinnovamento letterario italiano(1890). He was elected to the Italian chamber of deputies in 1876; and in 1889 became professor of Italian literature at Genoa.
BARRING-OUT,a custom, formerly common in English schools, of barring the master out of the school premises. A typical example of this practice was at Bromfield school, Cumberland, where William Hutchinson says "it was the custom, time out of mind, for the scholars, at Fasting's Even (the beginning of Lent) to depose and exclude the master from the school for three days." During this period the school doors were barricaded and the boys armed with mock weapons. If the master's attempts to re-enter were successful, extra tasks were inflicted as a penalty, and willingly performed by the boys. On the third day terms of capitulation, usually in Latin verse, were signed, and these always conceded the immediate right to indulge in football and a cockfight. The custom was long retained at Eton and figures in many school stories.
BARRINGTON, DAINES(1727-1800), English lawyer, antiquary and naturalist, was born in 1727, fourth son of the first Viscount Barrington. He was educated for the profession of the law, and after filling various posts, was appointed a Welsh judge in 1757 and afterwards second justice of Chester. Though an indifferent judge, hisObservations on the Statutes, chiefly the more ancient, from Magna Charta to 21st James I., cap. 27, with an appendix, being a proposal for new-modelling the Statutes(1766), had a high reputation among historians and constitutional antiquaries. In 1773 he published an edition of Orosius, with Alfred's Saxon version, and an English translation with original notes. HisTracts on the Probability of reaching the North Pole(1775) were written in consequence of the northern voyage of discovery undertaken by Captain C. J. Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave (1744-1792). Barrington's other writings are chiefly to be found in the publications of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, of both of which he was long a member, and of the latter vice-president. Many of these were collected by him in a quarto volume entitledMiscellanies on various Subjects(1781). He contributed to thePhilosophical Transactionsfor 1780 an account of Mozart's visit at eight years of age to London. In hisMiscellanieson varied subjects he included this with accounts of four other prodigies, namely, Crotch, Charles and Samuel Wesley, and Garrett Wellesley, Lord Mornington. Among the most curious and ingenious of his papers are hisExperiments and Observations on the Singing of Birds, and hisEssay on the Language of Birds. He died on the 14th of March 1800 and was buried in the Temple church.
BARRINGTON, GEORGE(b. 1755), an Irishman with a curious history, was born at Maynooth on the 14th of May 1755, the son of a working silversmith named Waldron. In 1771 he robbed his schoolmaster at Dublin and ran away from school, becoming a member of a touring theatrical company under the assumed name of Barrington. At Limerick races he joined the manager of the company in pocket-picking. The manager was detected and sentenced to transportation, and Barrington fled to London, where he assumed clerical dress and continued his pocket-picking. At Covent Garden theatre he robbed the Russian prince Orlov of a snuff-box, said to be worth £30,000. He wasdetected and arrested, but as Prince Orlov declined to prosecute, was discharged, though subsequently he was sentenced to three years' hard labour for pocket-picking at Drury Lane theatre. On his release he was again caught at his old practices and sentenced to five years' hard labour, but influence secured his release on the condition that he left England. He accordingly went for a short time to Dublin, and then returned to London, where he was once more detected pocket-picking, and, in 1790, sentenced to seven years' transportation. On the voyage out to Botany Bay a conspiracy was hatched by the convicts on board to seize the ship. Barrington disclosed the plot to the captain, and the latter, on reaching New South Wales, reported him favourably to the authorities, with the result that in 1792 Barrington obtained a warrant of emancipation (the first issued), becoming subsequently superintendent of convicts and later high constable of Paramatta. In 1796 a theatre was opened at Sydney, the principal actors being convicts, and Barrington wrote the prologue to the first production. This prologue has obtained a wide publicity. It begins:—
"From distant climes, o'er widespread seas, we come,Though not with muchéclator beat of drum;True patriots we, for, be it understood,We left our country for our country's good."
"From distant climes, o'er widespread seas, we come,Though not with muchéclator beat of drum;True patriots we, for, be it understood,We left our country for our country's good."
"From distant climes, o'er widespread seas, we come,
Though not with muchéclator beat of drum;
True patriots we, for, be it understood,
We left our country for our country's good."
Barrington died at a ripe old age at Paramatta, but the exact date is not on record. He was the author ofA Voyage to Botany Bay(London, 1801);The History of New South Wales(London, 1802);The History of New Holland(London, 1808).
BARRINGTON, JOHN SHUTE,1st Viscount(1678-1734), English lawyer and theologian, was the son of Benjamin Shute, merchant, and was born at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, in 1678. He received part of his education at the university of Utrecht; and, after returning to England in 1698, studied law in the Inner Temple. In 1701 he published several pamphlets in favour of the civil rights of Protestant dissenters, to which class he belonged. On the recommendation of Lord Somers he was employed to induce the Presbyterians in Scotland to favour the union of the two kingdoms, and in 1708 he was rewarded for this service by being appointed to the office of commissioner of the customs. From this, however, he was removed on the change of administration in 1711; but his fortune had, in the meantime, been improved by the bequest of two considerable estates,—one of them left him by Francis Barrington of Tofts, whose name he assumed by act of parliament, the other by John Wildman of Becket. Barrington now stood at the head of the dissenters. On the accession of George I. he was returned to parliament for Berwick-upon-Tweed; and in 1720 the king raised him to the Irish peerage, with the title of Viscount Barrington of Ardglass. But having unfortunately engaged in the Harburg lottery, one of the bubble speculations of the time, he was expelled from the House of Commons in 1723,—a punishment which was considered much too severe, and was thought to be due to personal malice of Walpole. In 1725 he published his principal work, entitledMiscellanea Sacra or a New Method of considering so much of the History of the Apostles as is contained in Scripture, 2 vols. 8vo,—afterwards reprinted with additions and corrections, in 3 vols. 8vo, 1770, by his son Shute. In the same year he publishedAn Essay on the Several Dispensations of God to Mankind. He died on the 14th of December 1734.
BARRINGTON, SAMUEL(1720-1800), British admiral, was the fourth son of the 1st Viscount Barrington. He entered the navy at an early age and in 1747 had worked his way to a post-captaincy. He was in continuous employment during the peace of 1748-1756, and on the outbreak of the Seven Years' War served with Hawke in the Basque roads in command of the "Achilles" (60). In 1759 the "Achilles" captured a powerful French privateer, after two hours' fighting. In the Havre-de-Grace expedition of the same year Barrington's ship carried the flag of Rear-Admiral Rodney, and in 1760 sailed with John Byron to destroy the Louisburg fortifications. At the peace in 1763 Barrington had been almost continuously afloat for twenty-two years. He was next appointed in 1768 to the frigate "Venus" as governor to the duke of Cumberland, who remained with him in all ranks from midshipman to rear-admiral. In 1778 the duke's flag-captain became rear-admiral and went to the West Indies, while in conjunction with the army he took the island of Santa Lucia from the French, and repulsed the attempt of the Comte d'Estaing to retake it. Superseded after a time by Byron, he remained as that officer's second-in-command and was present at Grenada and St. Kitts (6th and 22nd of July 1779). On his return home, he was offered, but refused, the command of the Channel fleet. His last active service was the relief of Gibraltar in October 1782. As admiral he flew his flag for a short time in 1790, but was not employed in the French revolutionary wars. He died in 1800.
See Ralfe,Naval Biographies, i. 120; Charnock,Biographia Navalis, vi. 10.
BARRINGTON, SHUTE(1734-1826), youngest son of the 1st Viscount Barrington, was educated at Eton and Oxford, and after holding some minor dignities was made bishop of Llandaff in 1769. In 1782 he was translated to Salisbury and in 1791 to Durham. He was a vigorous Protestant, though willing to grant Roman Catholics "every degree of toleration short of political power and establishment." He published several volumes of sermons and tracts, and wrote the political life of his brother, Viscount Barrington.
BARRINGTON, WILLIAM WILDMAN SHUTE,2nd Viscount(1717-1793), eldest son of the 1st Viscount Barrington, was born on the 15th of January 1717. Succeeding to the title in 1734, he spent some time in travel, and in March 1740 was returned to parliament as member for Berwick-upon-Tweed. Having taken his seat in the Irish House of Lords in 1745, he was appointed one of the lords commissioners of the admiralty in 1746, and was one of the "managers" of the impeachment of Simon, Lord Lovat. In 1754 he became member of parliament for Plymouth, in 1755 was made a privy councillor and secretary at war, and in 1761 was transferred to the office of chancellor of the exchequer. In 1762 he became treasurer of the navy, and in 1765 returned to his former position of secretary at war. He retained this office until December 1778, and during four months in 1782 was joint postmaster-general. He married in 1740 Mary, daughter of Mr Henry Lovell, but left no children. He died at Becket on the 1st of February 1793, and was buried in Shrivenham church.
See Shute Barrington,Political Life of William Wildman, Viscount Barrington(London, 1814).
BARRISTER,in England and Ireland the term applied to the highest class of lawyers who have exclusive audience in all the superior courts, the word being derived from the "bar" (q.v.) in the law courts. Every barrister in England must be a member of one of the four ancient societies called Inns of Court, viz. Lincoln's Inn, the Inner and Middle Temples, and Gray's Inn, and in Ireland, of the King's Inns. The existence of the English societies as schools can be traced back to the 13th century, and their rise is attributed to the clause in Magna Carta, by which the Common Pleas were fixed at Westminster instead of following the king's court, and the professors of law were consequently brought together in London. Associations of lawyers acquired houses of their own in which students were educated in the common law, and the degrees of barrister (corresponding to apprentice or bachelor) and sergeant (corresponding to doctor) were conferred. These schools of law are now represented by the Inns of Court (q.v.).
Students are admitted as members of the Inns of Court, on paying certain fees and on passing a general (elementary) examination or (alternatively) producing evidence of having passed a public examination at a university; their subsequent call to the bar depends on their keeping twelve terms (of which there are four in each year), and passing certain further examinations (seeEnglish Lawad fin.). A term is "kept" by dining six times (three for a student whose name is on the books of a university) in hall. This is a relic of the older system in which examinations were not included, the only requisite being a certificate from a barrister that the student had read for twelve months in his chambers. Dining in hall then applied a certain social test, which has now become unmeaning. The profession of barrister is open to almost every one; but no person connectedwith the law in any inferior capacity or who is a chartered or professional accountant, can enter an Inn of Court as a student until he has entirely and bona fide ceased to act or practise in such capacity. Some of the Inns also make a restriction that their members shall not be engaged in trade. A form of admission has to be filled up, containing a declaration to this effect, and mentioninginter aliathe age, nationality, condition in life and occupation of the applicant. Previous to the student's call this declaration must be repeated, and he must further declare that he is not in holy orders, has not held any clerical preferment and has not performed any clerical functions during the year preceding. Subject to the above, practising solicitors of not less than five years' standing may be called to the bar without keeping any terms, upon passing the necessary examinations, and,per contra, a barrister of the same standing may, without any period of apprenticeship, become a solicitor upon passing the final examination for solicitors. Irish barristers of three years' standing may be called to the English bar without passing any examination upon keeping three terms, and so also may barristers of those colonies where the professions of barrister and solicitor are still kept distinct. No one can become a barrister till he is twenty-one years old.
The benchers of the different Inns of Court have the right of rejecting any applicant for membership with or without cause assigned; and for sufficient reasons, subject to an appeal to the common-law judges as visitors of the Inns, they may refuse to call a student to the bar, or may expel from their society or from the profession ("dis-bar" or "dis-bench") even barristers or benchers. The benchers appear to take cognizance of any kind of misconduct, whether professional or not, which they may deem unworthy of the rank of barrister. The grade of barrister comprehends the attorney-general and solicitor-general (appointed by and holding office solely at the will of the government of the day), who rank as the heads of the profession, king's counsel and ordinary practitioners, sometimes technically known as "utter barristers."
The peculiar business of barristers is the advocacy of causes in open court, but in England a great deal of other business falls into their hands. They are the chief conveyancers, and thepleadings(i.e.the counter statements of parties previous to joining issue) are in all but the simplest cases drafted by them. There was formerly, indeed, a separate class of conveyancers and special pleaders, being persons who kept the necessary number of terms qualifying for a call but who, instead of being called, took out licences, granted for one year only, but renewable, to practise under the bar, but now conveyancing and special pleading form part of the ordinary work of a junior barrister. The higher rank among barristers is that of king's or queen's counsel. They lead in court, and give opinions on cases submitted to them, but they do not accept conveyancing or pleading, nor do they admit pupils to their chambers. Precedence among king's counsel, as well as among outer barristers, is determined by seniority.[1]The old order of serjeants-at-law (q.v.) who ranked after king's counsel, is now extinct. Although every barrister has a right to practise in any court in England, each special class of business has its own practitioners, so that the bar may almost be said to be divided into several professions. The most marked distinction is that between barristers practising in chancery and barristers practising in the courts of common law. The fusion of law and equity brought about by the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875 was expected in course of time to break down this distinction; but to a large extent the separation between these two great branches of the profession remains. There are also subordinate distinctions in each branch. Counsel at common law attach themselves to one or other of the circuits into which England is divided, and may not practise elsewhere unless under special conditions. In chancery the king's counsel for the most part restrict themselves to one or other of the courts of the chancery division. Business before the court of probate, divorce and admiralty, the privy council and parliamentary committees, exhibits, though in a less degree, the same tendency to specialization. In some of the larger provincial towns there are also local bars of considerable strength. The bar of Ireland exhibits in its general arrangements the same features as the bar of England. For the Scottish bar, see underAdvocates, Faculty of. There is no connexion whatever between the Scottish and English bars. A distinctive dress is worn by barristers when attending the courts, consisting of a stuff gown, exchanged for one of silk (whence the expression "to take silk") when the wearer has attained the rank of king's counsel, both classes also having wigs dating in pattern and material from the 18th century.
Counsel is not answerable for anything spoken by him relative to the cause in hand and suggested in the client's instructions, even though it should reflect on the character of another and prove absolutely groundless, but if he mention an untruth of his own invention, or even upon instructions if it be impertinent to the matter in hand, he is then liable to an action from the party injured. Counsel may also be punished by the summary power of the court or judge as for a contempt, and by the benchers of the inn to which he may belong on cause shown.
The rank of barrister is a necessary qualification for nearly all offices of a judicial character, and a very usual qualification for other important appointments. Not only the judgeships in the superior courts of law and equity in England and in her colonies, but nearly all the magistracies of minor rank—recorderships, county court judgeships, &c.—are restricted to the bar. The result is a unique feature in the English system of justice, viz. the perfect harmony of opinion and interest between the bar as a profession and all degrees of the judicial bench. Barristers have the rank of esquires, and are privileged from arrest whilst in attendance on the superior courts and on circuit, and also from serving on juries whilst in active practice.
Revising Barristersare counsel of not less than seven years' standing appointed to revise the lists of parliamentary voters.
Barristers cannot maintain an action for their fees, which are regarded as gratuities, nor can they, by the usage of the profession, undertake a case without the intervention of a solicitor, except in criminal cases, where a barrister may be engaged directly, by having a fee given him in open court, nor is it competent for them to enter into any contract for payment by their clients with respect to litigation.
See J. R. V. Marchant,Barrister-at-law: an Essay on the legal position of Counsel in England(1905).