Chapter 21

See E.M. Woodward,Bonaparte’s Park and the Murats(Trenton, 1879).

BORDERS, THE,a name applied to the territory on both sides of the boundary line between England and Scotland. The term has also a literary and historical as well as a geographical sense, and is most frequently employed of the Scottish side. The line begins on the coast of Berwickshire at a spot 3 m. N. by W. of Berwick, and, after running a short distance W. and S., reaches the Tweed near the village of Paxton, whence it keeps to the river to a point just beyond Carham. There it strikes off S.S.E. to the Cheviot Hills, the watershed of which for 35 m. constitutes the boundary, which is thereafter formed by a series of streams—Bells Burn, the Kershope, Liddel and Esk. After following the last named for 1 m. it cuts across country due west to the Sark, which it follows to the river’s mouth at the head of the Solway Firth. The length of the boundary thus described is 108 m., but in a direct line from the Solway to the North Sea the distance is only 70 m. At the extreme east end a small district of 8 sq. m., consisting of the tract north of the Tweed which is not included in Scotland, forms the “bounds” or “liberties” of Berwick, or the country of the borough and town of Berwick-on-Tweed. At the extreme west between the Sark and Esk as far up the latter as its junction with the Liddel, there was a strip of country, a “No man’s land,” for generations the haunt of outlaws and brigands. This was called the Debatable Land, because the possession of it was a constant source of contention between England and Scotland until its boundaries were finally adjusted in 1552. The English Border counties are Northumberland and Cumberland, the Scottish Berwick, Roxburgh and Dumfries; though historically, and still by usage, the Scottish shires of Selkirk and Peebles have always been classed as Border shires. On the English side the region is watered by the Till, Bowmont, Coquet, Rede and North Tyne; on the Scottish by the Tweed, Whiteadder, Leet, Kale, Jed, Kershope, Liddel, Esk and Sark. Physically there is a marked difference between the country on each side. On the southern it mostly consists of lofty, bleak moorland, affording subsistence for sheep and cattle, and rugged glens and ravines, while on the northern there are many stretches of fertile soil, especially in the valleys and dales, and the landscape is often romantic and beautiful. Railway communication issupplied by the east coast route to Berwick, the Waverley route through Liddesdale, the London & North-Western by Carlisle, the North British branch from Berwick to St Boswells, and the North Eastern lines from Berwick to Kelso, Alnwick to Coldstream, and Newcastle to Carlisle.

At frequent intervals during a period of 1500 years the region was the scene of strife and lawlessness. The Roman road of Watling Street crossed the Cheviots at Brownhartlaw (1664 ft.), close to the camp ofAd Fines, by means of which the warlike Brigantes on the south and the Gadeni and Otadeni on the north were held in check, while another Roman road, the Wheel Causeway, passed into Scotland near the headwaters of the North Tyne and Liddel. (For early history seeLothian;Northumbria;Strathclyde.) In the 12th century were founded the abbeys of Hexham and Alnwick, the priory church of Lindisfarne and the cathedral of Carlisle on the English side, and on the Scottish the abbeys of Jedburgh, Kelso, Melrose and Dryburgh. The deaths of Alexander III. (1286) and Margaret the Maid of Norway (1290), whose right to the throne had been acknowledged, plunged the country into the wars of the succession and independence, and until the union of the crowns in 1603 the borders were frequently disturbed. Berwick and Carlisle were repeatedly assailed, and battles took place at Halidon Hill (1333), Otterburn (1388), Nisbet (1402), Homildon (1402), Piperden (1435), Hedgeley Moor (1464), Flodden (1513), Solway Moss (1542), and Ancrum Moor (1544), in addition to many fights arising out of family feuds and raids fomented by the Armstrongs, Eliots, Grahams, Johnstones, Maxwells and other families, of which the most serious were the encounters at Arkenholme (Langholm) in 1455, the Raid of Reidswire (1575), and the bloody combat at Dryfe Sands (1593). The English expeditions of 1544 and 1545 were exceptionally disastrous, since they involved the destruction of the four Scottish border abbeys, the sack of many towns, and the obliteration of Roxburgh. The only other important conflict belongs to the Covenanters’ time, when the marquess of Montrose was defeated at Philiphaugh in 1645. Partly for the defence of the kingdoms and partly to overawe the freebooters and mosstroopers who were a perpetual menace to the peace until they were suppressed in the 17th century, castles were erected at various points on both sides of the border.

Even during the period when relations between England and Scotland were strained, the sovereigns of both countries recognized it to be their duty to protect property and regulate the lawlessness of the borders. The frontier was divided into the East, Middle and West Marches, each under the control of an English and a Scots warden. The posts were generally filled by eminent and capable men who had to keep the peace, enforce punishment for breach of the law, and take care that neither country encroached on the boundary of the other. The wardens usually conferred once a year on matters of common interest, and as a rule their meetings were conducted in a friendly spirit, though in 1575 a display of temper led to the affair of the Raid of Reidswire. The appointment was not only one of the most important in this quarter of the kingdom, but lucrative as well, part of the fines and forfeits falling to the warden, who was also entitled to ration and forage for his retinue. On the occasion of his first public progress to London, James I. of England attended service in Berwick church (March 27, 1603) “to return thanks for his peaceful entry into his new dominions.” Anxious to blot out all memory of the bitter past, he forbade the use of the word “Borders,” hoping that the designation “Middle Shires” might take its place. Frontier fortresses were also to be dismantled and their garrisons reduced to nominal strength. In course of time this policy had the desired effect, though the expression “Borders” proved too convenient geographically to be dropped, the king’s proposed amendment being in point of fact merely sentimental and, in the relative positions then and now of England and Scotland, meaningless. Some English strongholds, such as Alnwick, Chillingham, Ford and Naworth, have been modernized; others, like Norham, Wark and Warkworth, are picturesque ruins; but most of the Scottish fortresses have been demolished and their sites built over, or are now represented by grass-grown mounds. Another familiar feature in the landscape is the chain of peel towers crossing the country from coast to coast. Many were homes of marauding chiefs, and nearly all were used as beacon-stations to give alarm of foray or invasion. Early in the 18th century the Scottish gipsies found a congenial home on the Roxburghshire side of the Cheviots; and at a later period the Scottish border became notorious for a hundred years as offering hospitality to runaway couples who were clandestinely married at Gretna Green, Coldstream or Lamberton. The toll-house of Lamberton displayed the following intimation—“Ginger-beer sold here and marriages performed on the most reasonable terms.”

Border ballads occupy a distinctive place in English literature. Many of them were rescued from oblivion by Sir Walter Scott, who ransacked the district for materials for hisMinstrelsy of the Scottish Border, which appeared in 1802 and 1803. Border traditions and folklore, and the picturesque, pathetic and stirring incidents of which the country was so often the scene, appealed strongly to James Hogg (“the Ettrick Shepherd”), John Wilson (“Christopher North”), and John Mackay Wilson (1804-1835), whoseTales of the Borders, published in 1835, long enjoyed popular favour.

Besides the works just mentioned see Sir Herbert Maxwell,History of Dumfries and Galloway(1896); George Ridpath,Border History of England and Scotland(1776); Professor John Veitch,History and Poetry of the Scottish Border(1877); Sir George Douglas,History of the Border Counties(Scots), (1890): W.S. Crockett,The Scott Country(1902).

BORDIGHERA,a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Porto Maurizio, 91 m. S.W. of Genoa by rail, and 3 m. E.N.E. of Ventimiglia. Pop. (1901) 4673. It is a favourite winter resort, especially for visitors from England, and is situated in beautiful coast scenery. It has fine gardens, and its flowers and palms are especially famous: the former are largely exported, while the latter serve for the supply of palm branches for St Peter’s at Rome and other churches on Palm Sunday. The new museum contains a unique collection of the flora of the Riviera. From 1682 until the Napoleonic period, Bordighera was the capital of a small republic of the villages of the neighbouring valleys.

BORDONE, PARIS(1495-1570), Venetian painter, was born at Treviso, and entered thebottegaof Titian in 1509. Vasari, to whom we are indebted for nearly all the facts of Bordone’s life—later research has not added much to our knowledge—holds that he did not spend many years with Titian and set himself to imitate the manner of Giorgione to the utmost of his power. As a matter of fact, the Giorgionesque traits in Bordone’s earlier works are derived entirely from Titian, whom he imitated so closely that to this day some of his paintings pass under Titian’s name. Crowe and Cavalcaselle and Dr Bode ascribe to Bordone the “Baptism of Christ” in the Capitoline gallery, but Morelli sees in it an early work of Titian. Paris Bordone subsequently executed many important mural paintings in Venice, Treviso and Vicenza, all of which have perished. In 1538 he was invited to France by Francis I., at whose court he painted many portraits, though no trace of them is to be found in French collections, the two portraits at the Louvre being later acquisitions. On his return journey he undertook works of great importance for the Fugger palace at Augsburg, which again have been lost sight of. Bordone’s pictures are of very unequal merit. They have a certain nobility of style, and that golden harmony of colour which he derived from Titian, together with the realistic conception of the human figure and the dignified character of his portraiture. On the other hand, his nudes are a little coarse in form, and the action of his figures is frequently unnatural and affected. A true child of the Renaissance, he also painted a number of religious pictures, numerous mythological scenes, allegories, nymphs, cupids and subjects from Ovid’s fables, but he excelled as a portraitist. His principal surviving work is the “Fisherman and Doge” at the Venice Academy. The National Gallery, London, has a “Daphnis and Chloe” and a portrait of a lady, whilst a “Holy Family” from his brush is at Bridgwater House. Other important works ofhis are the “Madonna” in the Tadini collection at Lovere, the paintings in the Duomo of Treviso, two mythological pictures at the Villa Borghese and the Doria palace in Rome, the “Chess Players” in Berlin, a very little-known portrait of superb quality in the possession of the landgrave of Hesse at Kronberg, and a “Baptism of Christ” in Philadelphia. Besides these, there are examples of his art in Bergamo, Milan, Genoa, Padua, Siena, Venice, Florence, Munich, Dresden and Vienna.

Beyond some references in general works on Italian painting, very little has been written on Paris Bordone since the days of Vasari. In 1900 the committee of the fourth centenary of Paris Bordone, Treviso, published L. Barlo and G. Biscaro’sDella Vita e delle Opere di Paris Bordone; and theNuova Antologia(November 16, 1900) contains a sixteen-page paper on Paris Bordone by P.G. Molmenti.

(P. G. K.)

BORE,a high tidal wave rushing up a narrow estuary or tidal river. The bore of the Severn is produced by a tide that rises 18 ft. in an hour and a half. This body of water becomes compressed in the narrowing funnel-shaped estuary, and heaped up into an advancing wave extending from bank to bank. The phenomenon is also particularly well illustrated in the Bay of Fundy. The origin of this word is doubtful, but it is usually referred to a Scandinavian wordbāra, a wave, billow. The other name by which the phenomenon is known, “eagre,” is also of unknown origin. There is, of course, no connexion with “bore,” to make a hole by piercing or drilling, which is a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger.bohren, the Indo-European root being seen in Lat.forare, to pierce, Gr.φάρος, plough. For the making of deep holes for shafts, wells, &c., seeBoring. The substantival use of this word is generally confined to the circular cavity of objects of tubular shape, particularly of a gun, hence the internal diameter of a gun, its “calibre” (seeGun). A “bore” is also a tiresome, wearying person, particularly one who persistently harps on one subject, in or out of season, whatever interest his audience may take in it. This has generally been taken to be merely a metaphorical use of “bore,” to pierce. The earliest sense, however, in which it is found in English (1766, in certain letters printed in Jesse’sLife of George Selwyn) is that ofennui, and a French origin is suggested. TheNew English Dictionaryconjectures a possible source in Fr.bourrer, to stuff, satiate.

BOREAS,in Greek mythology, a personification of the north wind. He was described as the son of Astraeus and Eos, brother of Hesperus, Notus and Zephyrus. His dwelling-place was on Mount Haemus in Thrace, or at Salmydessus, near the country of the Hyperboreans. He was said to have carried off the beautiful Oreithyia, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens, when he found her leading the dance at a festival, or gathering flowers on the banks of the Ilissus or some other spot in the neighbourhood of Athens. He had before wooed her in vain, and now carried her off to Mount Haemus, where they lived as king and queen of the winds, and had two sons, Zetes and Calaïs, and two daughters, Cleopatra and Chione (Apollodorus iii. 15; Ovid,Metam.vi. 677). For the loss of Oreithyia the Athenians in after times counted on Boreas’s friendliness, and were assured of it when he sent storms which wrecked the Persian fleet at Athos and at Sepias (Herodotus vii. 189). For this they erected to him a sanctuary or altar near the Ilissus, and held a festival (Boreasmos) in his honour. Thurii also, which was a colony of Athens, offered sacrifice to him as Euergetes every year, because he had destroyed the hostile fleet of Dionysius the elder (Aelian,Var. Hist.xii. 61). In works of art Boreas was represented as bearded, powerful, draped against cold, and winged. On the Tower of the Winds at Athens he is figured holding a shell, such as is blown by Tritons. Boreas carrying off Oreithyia is the subject of a beautiful bronze relief in the British Museum, found in the island of Calymna. The same subject occurs frequently on painted Greek vases.

BOREL, PETRUS,whose full name wasPierre Joseph Borel d’Hauterive(1809-1859), French writer, was born at Lyons on the 26th of June 1809. His father had been ruined by taking part in the resistance offered by the Lyonnese royalists against the Convention, and Petrus Borel was educated in Paris to be an architect. He soon abandoned his profession to become one of the most violent partisans of the Romantic movement. His extravagant sentiments were illustrated in various volumes:Rhapsodies(1832), poems;Champavert, contes immoraux(1833);Madame Putiphar(1839), &c. His works did not rescue him from poverty, but through the kindness of Théophile Gautier and Mme de Girardin he obtained a small place in the civil service. He died at Mostaganem in Algeria on the 14th of July 1859.

See Jules Clarétie,Petrus Borel, le Lycanthrope(1865); and Ch. Asselineau,Bibliographie romantique(1872).

BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO(1608-1679), Italian physiologist and physicist, was born at Naples on the 28th of January 1608. He was appointed professor of mathematics at Messina in 1649 and at Pisa in 1656. In 1667 he returned to Messina, but in 1674 was obliged to retire to Rome, where he lived under the protection of Christina, queen of Sweden, and died on the 31st of December 1679. His best-known work isDe motu animalium(Rome, 1680-1681), in which he sought to explain the movements of the animal body on mechanical principles; he thus ranks as the founder of the iatrophysical school. In a letter,Del movimento della cometa apparsa il mese di decembre 1664, published in 1665 under the pseudonym Pier Maria Mutoli, he was the first to suggest the idea of a parabolic path; and another of his astronomical works wasTheorica mediceorum planetarum ex causis physicis deducta(Florence, 1666), in which he considered the influence of attraction on the satellites of Jupiter. He also wrote:Della Causa delle Febbri maligni(Pisa, 1658);De Renum usu Judicium(Strassburg, 1664);Euclides Restitutus(Pisa, 1658);Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri v., vi. et vii.(Florence, 1661);De vi percussionis(Bologna, 1667);Meteorologia Aetnea(Reggio, 1669); andDe motionibus naturalibus a gravitate pendentibus(Bologna, 1670).

BORGÅ(FinnishPorvoo), a seaport in the province of Nyland, grand duchy of Finland, situated at the entrance of the river Borgå into the Gulf of Finland, about 33 m. by rail N.W. of Helsingfors. Pop. (1810) 1693; (1870) 3478; (1904) 5255. It is the seat of a Lutheran bishopric which extends over the provinces of Viborg and St Michel with portions of Tavastehus and Nyland; it possesses a beautiful cathedral, and a high school (where the well-known Finnish poet Runeberg lectured for many years), and is the seat of a court of appeal. The weaving of sail-cloth and the manufacture of tobacco are the principal industries, and the chief articles of trade are wood, butter and furs. Borgå was once a city of great dignity and importance, but the rapid growth of Helsingfors has somewhat eclipsed it. In 1809, when the estates of Finland were summoned to a special diet to decide the future of the country, Borgå was the place of meeting, and it was in the cathedral that the emperor Alexander I. pledged himself as grand duke of Finland to maintain the constitution and liberties of the grand duchy.

BORGHESE,a noble Italian family of Sienese origin, first mentioned in 1238, a member of which, Marcantonio Borghese, settled in Rome and was the father of Camillo Borghese (1550-1620), elected pope under the title of Paul V. (1605). Paul created his nephew prince of Vivero on the 17th of November 1609, and Philip III. of Spain conferred the title of prince of Sulmona on him in 1610. The family took its place among the higher Roman nobility by the marriage of the prince’s son Paolo with Olimpia, heiress of the Aldobrandini family, in 1614. In 1803 Camillo Filippo Ludovico, Prince Borghese (b. 1775), married Pauline, sister of the emperor Napoleon, and widow of General Leclerc. In 1806 he was made duke of Guastalla, and for some years acted as governor of the Piedmontese and Genoese provinces. After the fall of Napoleon he fixed his residence at Florence, where he died in 1832. The Borghese palace at Rome is one of the most magnificent buildings in the city, and contained a splendid gallery of pictures, most of which have been transferred to the Villa Borghese outside the Porto del Popolo, now Villa Umberto I., the property of the Italian government.

See A. von Reumont,Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 605, 609 617, &c.;Almanach de Gotha(Gotha, 1902); J.H. Douglas,The Principal Noble Families of Rome(Rome, 1905).

BORGHESI, BARTOLOMMEO(1781-1860), Italian antiquarian, was born at Savignano, near Rimini, on the 11th of July 1781. He studied at Bologna and Rome. Having weakened his eyesight by the study of documents of the middle ages, he turned his attention to epigraphy and numismatics. At Rome he arranged and catalogued several collections of coins, amongst them those of the Vatican, a task which he undertook for Pius VII. In consequence of the disturbances of 1821, Borghesi retired to San Marino, where he died on the 16th of April 1860. Although mainly an enthusiastic student, he was for some time podestà of the little republic. His monumental work,Nuovi Frammenti dei Fasti Consolari Capitolini(1818-1820), attracted the attention of the learned world as furnishing positive bases for the chronology of Roman history, while his contributions to Italian archaeological journals established his reputation as a numismatist and antiquarian. Before his death, Borghesi conceived the design of publishing a collection of all the Latin inscriptions of the Roman world. The work was taken up by the Academy of Berlin under the auspices of Mommsen, and the result was theCorpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Napoleon III. ordered the publication of a complete edition of the works of Borghesi. This edition, in ten volumes, of which the first appeared in 1862, was not completed until 1897.

BORGIA, CESARE,duke of Valentinois and Romagna (1476-1507) was the son of Pope Alexander VI. by Vanozza dei Cattanei. He was born at Rome while his father was cardinal, and on the latter’s elevation to the papacy (1492) he was created archbishop of Valencia, and a year later cardinal. Cesare was Alexander’s favourite son, and it was for him that the pope’s notorious nepotism was most extensively practised. In the early years of his father’s pontificate he led a profligate life at the Vatican. When Charles VIII. left Rome for the conquest of Naples (January 25, 1495), Cesare accompanied him as a hostage for the pope’s good behaviour, but he escaped at Velletri and returned to Rome. He soon began to give proofs of the violence for which he afterwards became notorious; when in 1497 his brother Giovanni, duke of Gandia, was murdered, the deed was attributed, in all probability with reason, to Cesare. It was suggested that the motive of the murder was the brothers’ rivalry in the affection of Donna Sancha, wife of Giuffrè, the pope’s youngest son, while there were yet darker hints at incestuous relations of Cesare and the duke with their sister Lucrezia. But it is more probable that Cesare, who contemplated exchanging his ecclesiastical dignities for a secular career, regarded his brother’s splendid position with envy, and was determined to enjoy the whole of his father’s favours.

In July 1497 Cesare went to Naples as papal legate and crowned Frederick of Aragon king. Now that the duke of Gandia was dead, the pope needed Cesare to carry out his political schemes, and tried to arrange a wealthy marriage for him. Cesare wished to marry Carlotta, the daughter of the king of Naples, but both she and her father resolutely refused an alliance with “a priest, the bastard of a priest.” In August 1498, Cesare in the consistory asked for the permission of the cardinals and the pope to renounce the priesthood, and the latter granted it “for the good of his soul.” On the 1st of October he set forth for France with a magnificent retinue as papal legate to Louis XII., to bring him the pope’s bull annulling his marriage with Jeanne of France (Louis wished to marry Anne of Brittany). In exchange he received the duchy of Valentinois, as well as military assistance for his own enterprises. He found Carlotta of Naples in France, and having again tried to win her over in vain, he had to content himself with Charlotte d’Albret, sister of the king of Navarre (May 1499). Alexander now contemplated sending Cesare to Romagna to subdue the turbulent local despots, and with the help of the French king carve a principality for himself out of those territories owing nominal allegiance to the pope. Cesare made Cesena his headquarters, and with an army consisting of 300 French lances, 4000 Gascons and Swiss, besides Italian troops, he attacked Imola, which surrendered at once, and then besieged Forli, held by Caterina Sforza (q.v.), the widow of Girolamo Riario. She held out gallantly, but was at last forced to surrender on the 22nd of January 1500; Cesare treated her with consideration, and she ended her days in a convent. The Sforzas having expelled the French from Milan, Cesare returned to Rome in February, his schemes checked for the moment; his father rewarded him for his successes by making himgonfaloniereof the church and conferring many honours on him; he remained in Rome and took part in bull fights and other carnival festivities. In July occurred the murder of the duke of Bisceglie, Lucrezia Borgia’s third husband. He was attacked by assassins on the steps of St Peter’s and badly wounded; attendants carried him to a cardinal’s house, and, fearing poison, he was nursed only by his wife and Sancha, his sister-in-law. Again Cesare was suspected as the instigator of the deed, and in fact he almost admitted it himself. Bisceglie was related to the Neapolitan dynasty, with whose enemies the pope was allied, and he had had a quarrel with Cesare. When it appeared that he was recovering from his wounds, Cesare had him murdered, but not apparently without provocation, for, according to the Venetian ambassador Cappello, the duke had tried to murder Cesare first.

In October 1500 Cesare again set out for the Romagna, on the strength of Venetian friendship, with an army of 10,000 men. Pandolfo Malatesta of Rimini and Giovanni Sforza of Pesaro fled, and those cities opened their gates to Cesare. Faenza held out, for the people were devoted to their lord, Astorre Manfredi, a handsome and virtuous youth of eighteen. Manfredi surrendered in April 1501, on the promise that his life should be spared; but Cesare broke his word, and sent him a prisoner to Rome, where he was afterwards foully outraged and put to death. After taking Castel Bolognese he returned to Rome in June, to take part in the Franco-Spanish intrigues for the partition of Naples. He was now lord of an extensive territory, and the pope created him duke of Romagna. His cruelty, his utter want of scruple, and his good fortune made him a terror to all Italy. His avidity was insatiable and he could brook no opposition; but, unlike his father, he was morose, silent and unsympathetic. His next conquests were Camerino and Urbino, but his power was now greatly shaken by the conspiracy of La Magione (a castle near Perugia where the plotters met). Several of the princes deposed by him, the Orsinis, and some of his own captains, such as Vitellozzo Vitelli (q.v.), Oliverotto da Fermo, and G.P. Baglioni, who had been given estates but feared to lose them, joined forces to conspire against the Borgias. Risings broke out at Urbino and in Romagna, and the papal troops were defeated; Cesare could find no allies, and it seemed as though all Italy was about to turn against the hated family, when the French king promised help, and this was enough to frighten the confederates into coming to terms. Most of them had shown very little political or military skill, and several were ready to betray each other. But Cesare, while trusting no one, proved a match for them all. During his operations in northern Romagna, Vitelli, Oliverotto, Paolo Orsini, and the duke of Gravina, to show their repentance, seized Senigallia, which still held for the duke of Urbino, in his name. Cesare arrived at that town, decoyed the unsuspectingcondottieriinto his house, had them all arrested, and two of them, Vitelli and Oliverotto, strangled (December 31, 1502).

He was back in Rome early in 1503, and took part in reducing the last rebel Orsinis. He was gathering troops for a new expedition in central Italy in the summer, when both he and his father were simultaneously seized with fever. The pope died on the 18th of August, while Cesare was still incapacitated, and this unfortunate coincidence proved his ruin; it was the one contingency for which he had not provided. On all sides his enemies rose up against him; in Romagna the deposed princes prepared to regain their own, and the Orsinis raised their heads once more in Rome. Cesare’s position was greatly shaken, and when he tried to browbeat the cardinals by means of Don Michelotto and his bravos, they refused to be intimidated; he had to leave Rome in September, trusting that the Spanish cardinals would elect a candidate friendly to his house. At the conclave Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini was elected as Pius III., and he showed every disposition to be peaceful and respectable, but he was oldand in bad health. Cesare’s dominion at once began to fall to pieces; Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino, returned to his duchy with Venetian help; and the lords of Piombino, Rimini and Pesaro soon regained their own; Cesena, defended by a governor faithful to Cesare, alone held out. Pius III. died on the 18th of October 1503, and a new conclave was held. Cesare, who could still count on the Spanish cardinals, wished to prevent the election of Giuliano della Rovere, the enemy of his house, but the latter’s chances were so greatly improved that it was necessary to come to terms with him. On the 1st of November he was elected, and assumed the name of Julius II. He showed no ill-will towards Cesare, but declared that the latter’s territories must be restored to the church, for “we desire the honour of recovering what our predecessors have wrongfully alienated.” Venice hoped to intervene in Romagna and establish her protectorate over the principalities, but this Julius was determined to prevent, and after trying in vain to use Cesare as a means of keeping out the Venetians, he had him arrested. Borgia’s power was now at an end, and he was obliged to surrender all his castles in Romagna save Cesena, Forli and Bettinoro, whose governors refused to accept an order of surrender from a master who was a prisoner. Finally, it was agreed that if Cesare were set at liberty he would surrender the castles; this having been accomplished, he departed for Naples, where the Spaniards were in possession. The Spanish governor, Gonzalo de Cordova, had given him a safe-conduct, and he was meditating fresh plans, when Gonzalo arrested him by the order of Ferdinand of Spain as a disturber of the peace of Italy (May 1504). In August he was sent to Spain, where he remained a prisoner for two years; in November 1506 he made his escape, and fled to the court of his brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, under whom he took service. While besieging the castle of Viana, held by the rebellious count of Lerin, he was killed (March 12, 1507).

Cesare Borgia was a type of the adventurers with which the Italy of the Renaissance swarmed, but he was cleverer and more unscrupulous than his rivals. His methods of conquest were ferocious and treacherous; but once the conquest was made he governed his subjects with firmness and justice, so that his rule was preferred to the anarchy of factions and local despots. But he was certainly not a man of genius, as has long been imagined, and his success was chiefly due to the support of the papacy; once his father was dead his career was at an end, and he could no longer play a prominent part in Italian affairs. His fall proved on how unsound a basis his system had been built up.

The chief authorities for the life of Cesare Borgia are the same as those of Alexander VI., especially M. Creighton’sHistory of the Papacy, vol. v. (London, 1897); F. Gregorovius’sGeschichte der Stadt Rom, vol. vii. (Stuttgart, 1881); and P. Villari’sMachiavelli(London 1892); also C. Yriarte,César Borgia(Paris, 1889), an admirable piece of writing; Schubert-Soldern,Die Borgia und ihre Zeit(Dresden, 1902), which contains the latest discoveries on the subject; and E. Alvisi,Cesare Borgia, Duca di Romagna(Imola, 1878).

(L. V.*)

BORGIA, FRANCIS(1510-1572), Roman Catholic saint, duke of Gandia, and general of the order of Jesuits, was born at Gandia (Valencia) on the 10th of October 1510, and from boyhood was remarkable for his piety. Educated from his twelfth year at Saragossa under the charge of his uncle the archbishop, he had begun to show a strong inclination towards the monastic life, when his father sent him in 1528 to the court of Charles V. Here he distinguished himself, and on his marriage with Eleanor de Castro, a Portuguese lady of high rank, he was created marquis of Lombay, and was appointed master of the horse to the empress. He accompanied Charles on his African expedition in 1535, and also into Provence in 1536; and on the death of the empress in 1539 he was deputed to convoy the body to the burial-place in Granada. This sad duty confirmed his determination to leave the court, and also, should he survive his consort, to embrace the monastic life. On his return to Toledo, however, new honours were thrust upon him, much against his will; he was made viceroy of Catalonia and commander of the order of St James. At Barcelona, the seat of his government, he lived a life of great austerity, but discharged his official duties with energy and efficiency until 1543, when, having succeeded his father in the dukedom, he at length obtained permission to resign his viceroyalty and to retire to a more congenial mode of life at Gandia. Having already held some correspondence with Ignatius Loyola, he now powerfully encouraged the recently founded order of Jesus. One of his first cares at Gandia was to build a Jesuit college; and on the death of Eleanor in 1546, he resolved to become himself a member of the society. The difficulties arising from political and family circumstances were removed by a papal dispensation, which allowed him, in the interests of his young children, to retain his dignities and worldly possessions for four years after taking the vows. In 1550 he visited Rome, where he was received with every mark of distinction, and where he furnished the means for building the Collegium Romanum. Returning to Spain in the following year, he formally resigned his rank and estate in favour of his eldest son, assumed the Jesuit habit, was ordained priest, and entered upon a life of penance and prayer. At his own earnest request, seconded by Loyola, a proposal that he should be created a cardinal by Julius III. was departed from; and at the command of his superior he employed himself in the work of itinerant preaching. In 1554 he was appointed commissary-general of the order in Spain, Portugal and the Indies, in which capacity he showed great activity, and was successful in founding many new and thriving colleges. In 1556, shortly after Charles V. retired, Borgia had an interview with him, but would not yield to his inducements to transfer his allegiance to the older order of Hieronymites. Some time afterwards Borgia was employed by Charles to conduct negotiations with reference to a project which was to secure for Don Carlos of Spain the Portuguese succession in the event of the death of his cousin Don Sebastian. On the death of Lainez in 1565, Francis Borgia was chosen to succeed him as third general of the Jesuits. In this capacity he showed great zeal and administrative skill; and so great was the progress of the society under his government that he has sometimes been called “its second founder,” The peculiarities which are most characteristic of the order were, however, derived from Loyola and Lainez, rather than from Borgia, whose ideal was a simple monasticism rather than a life of manifold and influential contact with the world. He died at Rome on the 30th of September 1572. He was beatified by Urban VIII. in 1624, and canonized by Clement X. in 1671, his festival being afterwards (1683) fixed by Innocent XI. for the 10th of October.

Several works by St Francis Borgia have been published, the principal of these being a series ofExercisessimilar to theExercitia Spiritualiaof Loyola, and a treatiseRhetorica Concionandi. TheOpera Omniawere published at Brussels in 1675. His life was written by his confessor Pedro de Ribadeneira. See also A. Butler’sLives of the Saints, and theBreviarium Romanum(second nocturn for October 10).

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