Chapter 8

(M. J. de G.)

1Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and places appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents or other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles on these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in such cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration adopted, are there given in addition.2See Noldeke,Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber(1864), pp. 89 seq.3De Goeje,Mémoires d’hist. et de géog. orient.No. 2 (2nd ed., Leiden, 1864); Nöldeke,D.M.Z., 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Balādhurī 137.4The accounts differ; see Balādhurī 305. The chronology of the conquests is in many points uncertain.5Balādhurī 315 sq.; Tabarī. i. 1068.6He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God; the Arabs were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden to acquire landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was either made state property or was restored to the old owners subject to a perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for the army.7Nöldeke,Tabari, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment of the Era of the Flight (Hegira).8Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, and distinguished from the men of Medina.9It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred cities against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the elevation of the Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage was as apparent in Ali’s hostilities against Zobair and Ṭalḥa, as in that of the Abbasids against the followers af Ali.10Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to ‘Abdallah b. abī Sarḥ seems to have been a trick played on the caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it.11Ma‘ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Moḍar and the Rab‘īa tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Moḍar.12The Arabs always call them Rūm,i.e.Romans.13A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazān, says that he was a legitimate son of Abu Sofiān, and that his mother was Asmā, daughter of A’war. But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to have been a slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofiān, and who became later also the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out whether Abu Sofiān acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later period, the Abbasid caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyād and his descendants struck off the rolls of the Koreish; but, after his death, the persons concerned gained over the chief of the rolls office, and had their names replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479).14Aghāni xx. p. 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118.15Tabari ii. p. 82.16See Chodzko,Théâtre persan(Paris, 1878).17Dozy tookcommunisfor a gloss tociviliter18Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria; it lies a day’s march west from Haleb (Aleppo).19This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in hisEstudio sobre la Invasion de los Arabes en España(Madrid, 1892). Some of the details, however,e.g.the battle near Tamames and the part played by the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but on probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa and Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir,Caliphate(London, 1891), pp. 368-9.20Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to be found in theKitāb al-Oyūn, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138.21Seyid Ameer Ali,A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mahomet, pp. 341-343.22Cf. Van Vloten,Recherches sur la domination arabe, le Chiitisme et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des Omayades(Amsterdam, 1894), p. 63 seq.23Cf. Wellhausen,Die Kampfe der Araber mit den Rom. in der Zeit der Umaijiden(Göttingen, 1901), p. 31.24Bayān i. p. 42; Dozy,Histoire des musulmans d’Espagne, i. p. 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist Nauam.25Dozy i. p. 268.26Merwan has been nicknamedal-Ja‘diandal-Ḥimār(the Ass). As more than one false interpretation of these names has been given, it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarānī (ed. de Jong, p. 31), who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja‘d b. Durham, killed under the reign of Hishām for heretical opinions, had followers in Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khorasanians called him a Ja‘d, pretending that all’Ja‘d had been his teacher. As to al-Ḥimār this was substituted also by the Khorasanians for his usual title, al-Faras, “the race-horse.”27The Arabic word for “shedder of blood,”as-Saffāh, which by that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. At the same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abū‘l-Abbas finally established his power.28The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent princes (see MOROCCO,History).29This Hāshimīya near Kufa is not to be confused with that founded by Abu‘l-Abbas near Anbar.30Cf. G. le Strange,Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate(Oxford, 1900).31Tabari iii. p. 443 seq.32The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called Anṣār (“helpers”).33On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard in theJournal Asiatiquefor March-April, 1869.34Cf. W.M. Patton,Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna(Leiden, 1897); and articleMahommedan Religion.35See M.J. de Goeje,Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes travers l’Asie(Leiden, 1903); alsoGipsies.36See M.J. de Goeje, “De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze,”Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Letterk.4eReeks, iii., 1900.37See M.J. de Goeje, “De muur van Gog en Magog,”Versl. en Meded.3eReeks, v., 1888.38“Dinars” in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error for “dirhems.”39This Boghā was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Waṣīf, a man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor.40See Nöldeke,Orientalische Skizzen, pp. 155 seq.41For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under FATIMITES.42M.J. de Goeje,Mémoire sur les Carmathes du Bahraïn et les Fatimides(Leiden, 1886).43See Defrémery,Mémoire sur les Emirs al-Omara(Paris, 1848).44Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the Seljuk princes (seeSeljuks).

2See Noldeke,Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber(1864), pp. 89 seq.

3De Goeje,Mémoires d’hist. et de géog. orient.No. 2 (2nd ed., Leiden, 1864); Nöldeke,D.M.Z., 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Balādhurī 137.

4The accounts differ; see Balādhurī 305. The chronology of the conquests is in many points uncertain.

5Balādhurī 315 sq.; Tabarī. i. 1068.

6He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God; the Arabs were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden to acquire landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was either made state property or was restored to the old owners subject to a perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for the army.

7Nöldeke,Tabari, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment of the Era of the Flight (Hegira).

8Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, and distinguished from the men of Medina.

9It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred cities against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the elevation of the Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage was as apparent in Ali’s hostilities against Zobair and Ṭalḥa, as in that of the Abbasids against the followers af Ali.

10Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to ‘Abdallah b. abī Sarḥ seems to have been a trick played on the caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it.

11Ma‘ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Moḍar and the Rab‘īa tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Moḍar.

12The Arabs always call them Rūm,i.e.Romans.

13A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazān, says that he was a legitimate son of Abu Sofiān, and that his mother was Asmā, daughter of A’war. But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to have been a slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofiān, and who became later also the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out whether Abu Sofiān acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later period, the Abbasid caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyād and his descendants struck off the rolls of the Koreish; but, after his death, the persons concerned gained over the chief of the rolls office, and had their names replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479).

14Aghāni xx. p. 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118.

15Tabari ii. p. 82.

16See Chodzko,Théâtre persan(Paris, 1878).

17Dozy tookcommunisfor a gloss tociviliter

18Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria; it lies a day’s march west from Haleb (Aleppo).

19This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in hisEstudio sobre la Invasion de los Arabes en España(Madrid, 1892). Some of the details, however,e.g.the battle near Tamames and the part played by the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but on probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa and Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir,Caliphate(London, 1891), pp. 368-9.

20Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to be found in theKitāb al-Oyūn, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138.

21Seyid Ameer Ali,A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mahomet, pp. 341-343.

22Cf. Van Vloten,Recherches sur la domination arabe, le Chiitisme et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des Omayades(Amsterdam, 1894), p. 63 seq.

23Cf. Wellhausen,Die Kampfe der Araber mit den Rom. in der Zeit der Umaijiden(Göttingen, 1901), p. 31.

24Bayān i. p. 42; Dozy,Histoire des musulmans d’Espagne, i. p. 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist Nauam.

25Dozy i. p. 268.

26Merwan has been nicknamedal-Ja‘diandal-Ḥimār(the Ass). As more than one false interpretation of these names has been given, it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarānī (ed. de Jong, p. 31), who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja‘d b. Durham, killed under the reign of Hishām for heretical opinions, had followers in Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khorasanians called him a Ja‘d, pretending that all’Ja‘d had been his teacher. As to al-Ḥimār this was substituted also by the Khorasanians for his usual title, al-Faras, “the race-horse.”

27The Arabic word for “shedder of blood,”as-Saffāh, which by that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. At the same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abū‘l-Abbas finally established his power.

28The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent princes (see MOROCCO,History).

29This Hāshimīya near Kufa is not to be confused with that founded by Abu‘l-Abbas near Anbar.

30Cf. G. le Strange,Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate(Oxford, 1900).

31Tabari iii. p. 443 seq.

32The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called Anṣār (“helpers”).

33On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard in theJournal Asiatiquefor March-April, 1869.

34Cf. W.M. Patton,Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna(Leiden, 1897); and articleMahommedan Religion.

35See M.J. de Goeje,Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes travers l’Asie(Leiden, 1903); alsoGipsies.

36See M.J. de Goeje, “De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze,”Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Letterk.4eReeks, iii., 1900.

37See M.J. de Goeje, “De muur van Gog en Magog,”Versl. en Meded.3eReeks, v., 1888.

38“Dinars” in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error for “dirhems.”

39This Boghā was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Waṣīf, a man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor.

40See Nöldeke,Orientalische Skizzen, pp. 155 seq.

41For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under FATIMITES.

42M.J. de Goeje,Mémoire sur les Carmathes du Bahraïn et les Fatimides(Leiden, 1886).

43See Defrémery,Mémoire sur les Emirs al-Omara(Paris, 1848).

44Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the Seljuk princes (seeSeljuks).

CALIVER,a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is an English corruption of “calibre,” and arises from the “arquebus of calibre,” that is, of standard bore, which replaced the older arquebus. “Caliver,” therefore, is practically synonymous with “arquebus.” The heavier musket, fired from a rest, replaced the caliver or arquebus towards the close of the century.

CALIXTUS,orCallistus, the name of three popes.

Calixtus I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before the discovery of the book of thePhilosophumena. From this work, which is in part a pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a slave and engaged in banking. Falling on evil times, he was brought into collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured his exile to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the government of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus (217) he was elected in his place and occupied the papal chair for five years. His theological adversary Hippolytus, the author of thePhilosophumena, accused him of having favoured the medalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and after his election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him also of certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus reduced the penitential severities applied until his time to those guilty of adultery and other analogous sins. Under Calixtus and his two immediate successors, Hippolytus was the leader of a schismatic group, organized by way of protest against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in 222, in circumstances obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr popes.

(L. D.*)

Calixtus II. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, a member of a noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop of Vienne about 1088, and belonged to the party which favoured reform in the Church. In September 1112, after Pope Paschal II. had made a surrender to the emperor Henry V., Guido called a council at Vienne, which declared against lay investiture, and excommunicated Henry. In February 1119 he was chosen pope at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his consecration he opened negotiations with the emperor with a view to settling the dispute over investiture. Terms of peace were arranged, but at the last moment difficulties arose and the treaty was abandoned; and in October 1119 both emperor and anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal march. He was received with great enthusiasm in the city, while Gregory, having fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands and treated with great ignominy. Through the efforts of some German princes negotiations between pope and emperor were renewed, and the important Concordat of Worms made in September 1122 was the result. This treaty, made possible by concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy, and was confirmed by the Lateran council of March 1123. During his short reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the city of Rome. During preparations for a crusade he died in Rome on the 13th or 14th of December 1124.

See M. Maurer,Pabst Calixt II.(Munich, 1889); U. Robert,Hisloire du pape Calixte II.(Paris, 1891); and A. Hauck’sRealencyklopädie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).

Calixtus III. (c.1378-1458), pope from 1455 to 1458, was a Spaniard named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of Xativa, he gained a great reputation as a jurist, becoming professor at Lerida; in 1429 he was made bishop of Valencia, and in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion mainly to his close friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily. Chosen pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a crusade against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions, succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the people of Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause, and very little result came from the pope’s exertions. During his papacy Calixtus became involved in a quarrel with his former friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now also king of Naples, and after the king’s death in June 1458 he refused to recognize his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, asserting that this kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was notorious for nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew, Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He died on the 6th of August 1458.

See A. Hauck’sRealencyklopädie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).

CALIXTUS, GEORG(1586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born at Medelby, a village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying philology, philosophy and theology at Helmstädt, Jena, Giessen, Tübingen and Heidelberg, he travelled through Holland, France and England, where he became acquainted with the leading Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was appointed professor of theology at Helmstädt by the duke of Brunswick, who had admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a book,Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus, which provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he published hisEpitome theologiae, and some years later hisTheologia Moralis(1634) andDe Arte Nova Nihusii. Roman Catholics felt them to be aimed at their own system, but they gave so great offence to Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher to charge the author with a secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely had he refuted the accusation of Buscher, when, on account ofhis intimacy with the Reformed divines at the conference of Thorn (1645), and his desire to effect a reconciliation between them and the Lutherans, a new charge was preferred against him, principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius (1612-1686), of a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim of his life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise, known in the Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran church, till a new controversy arose with P.J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656.

There is a monograph on Calixtus by E.L.T. Henke (2 vols., 1853-1856); see also Isaak Dorner,Gesch. d. protest. Theol.pp. 606-624; and especially Herzog-Hauck,Realencyklopädie.

CALL(from Anglo-Saxonceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutchkallen, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and particularly to attract some one’s attention by a loud utterance. Hence its use for a visit at a house, where the name of the occupier, to whom the visit was made, was called aloud, in early times, to indicate the presence of the visitor. It is thus transferred to a short stay at a place, but usually with the idea of a specific purpose, as in “port of call,” where ships stop in passing. Connected with the idea of summoning by name are such uses as “roll-call” or “call-over,” where names are called over and answered by those present; similar uses are the “call to the bar,” the summoning at an Inn of Court of those students qualified to practise as barristers, and the “call within the bar” to the appointment of king’s counsel. In the first case the “bar” is that which separates the benchers from the rest of the body of members of the Inn, in the other the place in a court of law within which only king’s counsel, and formerly serjeants-at-law, are allowed to plead. “Call” is also used with a particular reference to a divine summons, as of the calling of the apostles. It is thus used in nonconformist churches of the invitation to serve as minister a particular congregation or chapel. It is from this sense of avocatioor summons that the word “calling” is used, not only of the divine vocation, but of a man’s ordinary profession, occupation or business. In card games “call” is used, in poker, of the demand that the hand of the highest bettor be exposed or seen, exercised by that player who equals his bet; in whist or bridge, of a certain method of play, the “call” for a suit or for trumps on the part of one partner, to which the other is expected to respond; and in many card games for the naming of a card, irregularly exposed, which is laid face up on the table, and may be thus “called” for, at any point the opponent may choose.

“Call” is also a term on the English and American stock exchanges for a contract by which, in consideration of a certain sum, an “option” is given by the person making or signing the agreement to another named therein or his order or to bearer, to “call” for a specified amount of stock at a certain day for a certain price. A “put,” which is the reverse of a “call,” is the option of selling (putting) stock at a certain day for a certain price. A combined option of either calling or putting is termed a “straddle,” and sometimes on the American stock exchange a “spread-eagle.” (See furtherStock Exchange.) The word is also used, in connexion with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company has not been demanded or “called” up at once. (SeeCompany.)

CALLANDER,a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 16 m. north-west of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 1458. Situated on the north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a three-arched bridge, and sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is in growing repute as a health resort. A mile and a half north-east are the Falls of Bracklinn (Gaelic, “white-foaming pool”), formed by the Keltie, which takes a leap of 50 ft. down the red sandstone gorge on its way to the Teith. Two miles north-west of Callander is the Pass of Leny, “the gate of the Highlands,” and farther in the same direction is Loch Lubnaig, on the shores of which stand the ruins of St Bride’s chapel. Callander owes much of its prosperity to the fact that it is the centre from which the Trossachs is usually visited, the route being that described in Scott’sLady of the Lake. The ascent of Ben Ledi is commonly made from the town.

CALLAO,a city, port and coast department of Peru, 8½ m. west of Lima, in 12° 04′ S., 77° 13′ W. Pop. (1905) 31,128, of whom 3349 were foreigners. The department includes the city and its environs, Bellavista and La Punta, and the neighbouring islands, San Lorenzo, Fronton, the Palominos, &c., and covers an area of 14½ sq. m. Callao is the principal port of the republic, its harbour being a large bay sheltered by a tongue of land on the south called La Punta, and by the islands of San Lorenzo and Fronton. The anchorage is good and safe, and the harbour is one of the best on the Pacific coast of South America. The city stands on the south side of the bay, and is built on a flat point of land only 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are for the most part low and cheaply built, and the streets are narrow, badly paved, irregular and dirty. The climate is good and the coast is swept by cool ocean breezes, the average temperatures ranging from 65° to 77° F., but notwithstanding this, Callao has a bad reputation for fevers and contagious diseases, chiefly because of its insanitary condition. Its noteworthy public buildings are the custom-house and its storehouses which occupy the old quadrangular fortress built by the Spanish government between 1770 and 1775, and cover 15 acres, the prefecture, the military and naval offices and barracks, the post-office, three Catholic churches, a hospital, market, three clubs and some modern commercial houses. The present city is half a mile north of the site of the old town, which was destroyed by an earthquake and tidal wave in 1746. For a short time the commercial interests of the stricken city centred at Bellavista, 1¼ m. east, where wheat granaries were built and still remain, but later the greater convenience of a waterside site drew the merchants and population back to the vicinity of the submerged town. The importance of Callao in colonial times, when it was the only open port south of Panama, did not continue under the new political order, because of the unsettled state of public affairs and the loss of its monopoly. This decline in its prosperity was checked, and the modern development of the port began, when a railway was built from Callao into the heart of the Andes, and Callao is now an important factor in the development of copper-mining. The port is connected with Lima by two railways and an electric tramway, with Oroya by railway 138 m. long, and with Cerro de Pasco by railway 221 m. A short railway also runs from the port to the Bellavista storehouses. The port is provided with modern harbour improvements, consisting of sea-walls of concrete blocks, two fine docks with berthing spaces for 30 large vessels, and a large floating-dock (300 ft. long on the blocks and capable of receiving vessels up to 21 ft. draught and 5000 tons weight), which was built in Glasgow and was sent out to Callao in 1863. The docks are provided with gas and electric lights, 18 steam cranes for loading and discharging vessels, a triple line of railway and a supply of fresh water. Callao was formerly the headquarters in South America of the Pacific Steam Navigation Co., Ltd. (incorporated 1840), but Valparaiso now occupies that position. There are, owing perhaps to the proximity of Lima, few industrial establishments in the city; among them are a large sugar refinery, some flour-mills, a brewery, a factory for making effervescent drinks, and a number of foundries and repair shops. Being a port of the first class, Callao is an important distributing centre for the coasting trade, in which a large number of small vessels are engaged. The foreign steamship companies making it a regular port of call are the Pacific Steam Navigation Co. (British), the Compañia Sud-America (Chilean), the Kosmos and Roland lines (German), the Merchants line (New York), and a Japanese line from the ports of Japan and China. A subsidized Peruvian line is also contemplated to ply between the Pacific ports of South America with an eventual extension of the service to Europe. The arrivals from and clearances for foreign ports in 1907 were as follows:—

The exports from Callao are guano, sugar, cotton, wool, hides, silver, copper, gold and forest products, and the imports include timber and other building materials, cotton and other textiles, general merchandise for personal, household and industrial uses, railway material, coal, kerosene, wheat, flour and other food stuffs. The maintenance of peace and order, and the mining development of the interior, have added to the trade and prosperity of the port.

The history of Callao has been exceptionally eventful. It was founded in 1537, two years after Pizarro had founded Lima. As the port of that capital and the only open port below Panama it grew rapidly in importance and wealth. It was raised to the dignity of a city in 1671. The appearance of Sir Francis Drake in the bay in 1578 led to the fortification of the port, which proved strong enough to repel an attack by the Dutch in 1624. The city was completely destroyed and partly submerged by the great earthquake of the 28th of October 1746, in which about 6000 persons perished. The new city was strongly fortified and figured prominently in the struggle for independence, and also in the various revolutions which have convulsed the republic. Its political autonomy dates from 1836, when it was made a coast department. The Callao fortifications were bombarded by a Spanish fleet under Admiral Mendez Nuñez on the 2nd of May 1866, when there were heavy losses both in lives and material. Again, in 1880, the city was bombarded by the Chileans, though it was almost defenceless, and fell into the possession of the invaders after the capture of Lima in the following year. Before the surrender all the Peruvian naval vessels in the harbour were sunk, to prevent their falling into the possession of the enemy.

CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL(1779-1844), English landscape painter, was born at Kensington in 1779 and died there in 1844. His first study was music; and he sang for several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. But at the age of twenty he had determined to give up music, and had exhibited his first painting at the Royal Academy. He gradually rose to distinction, and was elected an associate in 1807 and an academician in 1810. In 1827 he received the honour of knighthood; and, seven years later, was appointed surveyor of the royal pictures. His two principal subject pictures—“Raphael and the Fornarina,” and “Milton dictating to his Daughters,” are much inferior to his landscapes, which are placed in the highest class by their refined taste and quiet beauty.

His wife,Maria, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married in 1827, was a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. (d. 1822). With her first husband she travelled in India, South Africa and South America, where she acted for some time as teacher of Donna Maria, who became queen of Portugal in 1826; and in the company of her second husband she spent much time in the south of Europe. She published accounts of her visits to India (1812), and to the environs of Rome (1820);Memoirs of Poussin(1820); aHistory of France; aHistory of Spain(1828);Essays toward a History of Painting(1836);Little Arthur’s History of England(1836); and theScripture Herbal(1842).

CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL(1766-1821), English musician, brother of Sir Augustus Callcott, was born at Kensington on the 20th of November 1766. At the age of seven he was sent to a neighbouring day-school, where he continued for five years, studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this time he frequently went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which his father was employed, and the impression he received on hearing the organ of that church seems to have roused his love for music. The organist at that time was Henry Whitney, from whom Callcott received his first musical instruction. He did not, however, choose music as a profession, as he wished to become a surgeon. But on witnessing a surgical operation he found his nervous system so seriously affected by the sight, that he determined to devote himself to music. His intimacy with Dr Arnold and other leading musicians of the day procured him access to artistic circles; he was deputy organist at St George the Martyr, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, from 1783 to 1785, in which year his successful competition for three out of the four prize medals offered by the “Catch Club” soon spread his reputation as composer of glees, catches, canons and other pieces of concerted vocal music. The compositions with which he won these medals were—the catch “O beauteous fair,” the canon “Blessed is he,” and the glee “Dull repining sons of care.” In these and other similar compositions he displays considerable skill and talent, and some of his glees retain their popularity at the present day. In 1787 Callcott helped Dr Arnold and others to form the “Glee Club.” In 1789 he became one of the two organists at St Paul’s, Covent Garden, and from 1793 to 1802 he was organist to the Asylum for Female Orphans. As an instrumental composer Callcott never succeeded, not even after he had taken lessons from Haydn. But of far greater importance than his compositions are his theoretical writings. HisMusical Grammar, published in 1806 (3rd ed., 1817), was long considered the standard English work of musical instruction, and in spite of its being antiquated when compared with modern standards, it remains a scholarly and lucid treatment of the rudiments of the art. Callcott was a much-esteemed teacher of music for many years. In 1800 he took his degree of Mus.D. at Oxford, where fifteen years earlier he had received his degree of bachelor of music, and in 1805 he succeeded Dr Crotch as musical lecturer at the Royal Institution. Towards the end of his life his artistic career was twice interrupted by the failure of his mental powers. He died at Bristol after much suffering on the 15th of May 1821. A posthumous collection of his most favourite vocal pieces was published in 1824 with a memoir of his life by his son-in-law, William Horsley, himself a composer of note.

Callcott’s son,William Hutchins Callcott(1807-1882), inherited to a large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song, “The last man,” and his anthem, “Give peace in our time, O Lord,” were his best-known compositions.

CALLIAS,tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea. With the assistance of Philip II. of Macedon, which he hoped to obtain, he contemplated the subjugation of the whole island. But finding that Philip was unwilling to help him, Callias had recourse to the Athenians, although he had previously (350b.c.) been engaged in hostilities with them. With the support of Demosthenes, he was enabled to conclude an alliance with Athens, and the tribute formerly paid by Eretria and Oreus to Athens was handed over to him. But his plan of uniting the whole of Euboea under his rule, with Chalcis as capital, was frustrated by Philip, who set up tyrants chosen by himself at Eretria and Oreus. Subsequently, when Philip’s attention was engaged upon Thrace, the Athenians in conjunction with Callias drove out these tyrants, and Callias thus became master of the island (Demosthenes,De Pace, p. 58;Epistola Philippi, p. 159; Diod. Sic. xvi. 74). At the end of his life he appears to have lived at Athens, and Demosthenes proposed to confer the citizenship upon him (Aeschines,Contra Ctesiphontem, 85, 87).

CALLIASandHIPPONICUS,two names borne alternately by the heads of a wealthy and distinguished Athenian family. During the 5th and 4th centuriesb.c.the office ofdaduchusor torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary privilege of the family till its extinction. The following members deserve mention.

1.Callias, the second of the name, fought at the battle of Marathon (490) in priestly attire. Some time after the death of Cimon, probably about 445b.c., he was sent to Susa to conclude with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, a treaty of peace afterwards misnamed the “peace of Cimon.” Cimon had nothing to do with it, and he was totally opposed to the idea of peace with Persia (seeCimon). At all events Callias’s mission does not seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason on his return to Athens and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents.

See Herodotus vii. 151; Diod. Sic. xii. 4; Demosthenes,De Falsa Legatione, p. 428; Grote recognizes the treaty as a historical fact,History of Greece, ch. xlv., while Curtius, bk. iii. ch. ii., denies the conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer,Forschungen, ii.; J.B. Bury inHermathena, xxiv. (1898).

2.Hipponicus, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon he commanded the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian territory (426b.c.) and was slain at the battle of Delium (424).His wife, whom he divorced, subsequently became the wife of Pericles; one of his daughters, Hipparete, married Alcibiades; another, the wife of Theodorus, was the mother of the orator Isocrates.

See Thucydides iii. 91; Diod. Sic. xii. 65; Andocides,Contra Alcibiadem, 13.

3.Callias, son of the above, the black sheep of the family, was notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed by the comic poets as an example of a degenerate Athenian (Aristophanes,Frogs, 429,Birds, 283, and schol. Andocides,De Mysteriis, 110-131). The scene of Xenophon’sSymposiumand Plato’sProtagoraswas laid at his house. He was reduced to a state of absolute poverty and, according to Aelian (Var. Hist.iv. 23), committed suicide, but there is no confirmation of this. In spite of his dissipated life he played a certain part in public affairs. In 392 he was in command of the Athenian hoplites at Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by Iphicrates. In 371 he was at the head of the embassy sent to make terms with Sparta. The peace which was the result was called after him the “peace of Callias.”

See Xenophon,Hellenica, iv. 5, vi. 3; andDelian League.

CALLIMACHUS,an Athenian sculptor of the second half of the 5th centuryb.c.Ancient critics associate him with Calamis, whose relative he may have been. He is given credit for two inventions, the Corinthian column and the running borer for drilling marble. The most certain facts in regard to him are that he sculptured some dancing Laconian maidens, and made a golden lamp for the Erechtheum (about 408b.c.); and that he used to spoil his works by over-refinement and excessive labour.

CALLIMACHUS,Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Cyrene and a descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadae, flourished about 250b.c.He opened a school in the suburbs of Alexandria, and some of the most distinguished grammarians and poets were his pupils. He was subsequently appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the Alexandrian library, which office he held till his death (about 240). HisPinakes(tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history of Greek literature. According to Suidas, he wrote about 800 works, in verse and prose; of these only six hymns, sixty-four epigrams and some fragments are extant; a considerable fragment of theHecale, an idyllic epic, has also been discovered in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon inClassical Review, November 1893). HisComa Berenicesis only known from the celebrated imitation of Catullus. HisAitia(causes) was a collection of elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the foundation of cities, religious ceremonies and other customs. According to Quintilian (Instit.x. i. 58) he was the chief of the elegiac poets; his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns are extremely learned, and written in a laboured and artificial style. The epigrams, some of the best specimens of their kind, have been incorporated in the Greek Anthology. Art and learning are his chief characteristics, unrelieved by any real poetic genius; in the words of Ovid (Amores, i. 15)—

“Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet.”Editions.—Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected by Bentley) by J.A. Ernesti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873) (with elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by A. Meineke (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (1897). SeeNeue Bruchstücke aus der Hekale des Kallimachus, by T. Gomperz (1893); also G. Knaack,Callimachea(1896); A. Bertrami,Gl’ Inni di Callimacho e il Nomo di Terpandro(1896); K. Kuiper,Studia Callimachea(1896); A. Hamette,Les Épigrammes de Callimaque: étude critique et litteraire(Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by W. Dodd (1755) and H.W. Tytler (1793); (prose) by J. Banks (1856). See also Sandys,Hist. of Class. Schol.i. (ed. 1906), p. 122.

“Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet.”

Editions.—Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected by Bentley) by J.A. Ernesti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873) (with elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by A. Meineke (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (1897). SeeNeue Bruchstücke aus der Hekale des Kallimachus, by T. Gomperz (1893); also G. Knaack,Callimachea(1896); A. Bertrami,Gl’ Inni di Callimacho e il Nomo di Terpandro(1896); K. Kuiper,Studia Callimachea(1896); A. Hamette,Les Épigrammes de Callimaque: étude critique et litteraire(Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by W. Dodd (1755) and H.W. Tytler (1793); (prose) by J. Banks (1856). See also Sandys,Hist. of Class. Schol.i. (ed. 1906), p. 122.

CALLINUSof Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac poets and the creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is supposed to have flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the Cimmerii and their expulsion by Alyattes (630-560b.c.). During his lifetime his own countrymen were also engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the Magnesians. These two events give the key to his poetry, in which he endeavours to rouse the indolent Ionians to a sense of patriotism. Only scanty fiagments of his poems remain; the longest of these (preserved in Stobaeus,Florilegium, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtaeus.

Edition of the fragments by N. Bach (1831), and in Bergk,Poetae Lyrici Graeci(1882). On the date of Callinus, see the histories of Greek literature by Mure and Müller; G.H. Bode,Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst, ii. pt. i. (1838); and G. Geiger,De Callini Aetate(1877), who places him earlier, about 642.

CALLIOPE,the muse of epic poetry, so named from the sweetness of her vioce (Gr.κάλλος, beauty;ὄψ, voice). In Hesiod she was the last of the nine sisters, but yet enjoyed a supremacy over the others. (See alsoMuses, The.)

CALLIRRHOE,in Greek legend, second daughter of the river-god Achelous and wife of Alcmaeon (q.v.). At her earnest request her husband induced Phegeus, king of Psophis in Arcadia, and the father of his first wife Arsinoë (or Alphesiboea), to hand over to him the necklace and peplus (robe) of Harmonia (q.v.), that he might dedicate them at Delphi to complete the cure of his madness. When Phegeus discovered that they were really meant for Callirrhoe, he gave orders for Alcmaeon to be waylaid and killed (Apollodorus iii. 7, 2. 5-7; Thucydides ii. 102). Callirrhoe now implored the gods that her two young sons might grow to manhood at once and avenge their father’s death. This was granted, and her sons Amphoterus and Acarnan slew Phegeus with his two sons, and returning with the necklace and peplus dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid,Metam.ix. 413).

CALLISTHENES(c.360-328b.c.), of Olynthus, Greek historian, a relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation he was appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. He censured Alexander’s adoption of oriental customs, inveighing especially against the servile ceremony of adoration. Having thereby greatly offended the king, he was accused of being privy to a treasonable conspiracy and thrown into prison, where he died from torture or disease. His melancholy end was commemorated in a special treatise (Καλλισθένης ἢ περὶ πένθους) by his friend Theophrastus, whose acquaintance he made during a visit to Athens. Callisthenes wrote an account of Alexander’s expedition, a history of Greece from the peace of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian war (357), a history of the Phocian war and other works, all of which have perished. The romantic life of Alexander, the basis of all the Alexander legends of the middle ages, originated during the time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form belongs to the 3rd centurya.d.Its author is usually known as pseudo-Callisthenes, although, in the Latin translation by Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is ascribed to a certain Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are also Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle ages (see Krumbacher,Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 1897, p. 849). Valerius’s translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, arch-priest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-calledHistoria de Preliis.

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