Chapter 10

For the Roman inscriptions seeC.I.L.cit., Nos. 7552-7807.

(T. As.)

CARAN D’ACHE,the pseudonym (meaning “lead-pencil”) of Emmanuel Poiré (1858-1909), French artist and illustrator, who was born and educated at Moscow, being the grandson of one of Napoleon’s officers who had settled in Russia. He determined to be a military painter, and when he arrived in Paris from Russia he found an artistic adviser in Detaille. He served five years in the army, where the principal work allotted to him was the drawing of uniforms for the ministry of war. He embellished a short-lived journal,La Vie militaire, with a series of illustrations, among them being some good-tempered caricatures of the German army, which showed how accurately he was acquainted with military detail. His special gift lay in pictorial anecdote, the story being represented at its different stages with irresistible effect, in the artist’s own mannered simplicity. Much of his work was contributed toLa Vie parisienne,Le Figaro illustré,La Caricature,Le Chat noir, and he also issued various albums of sketches, theCarnet de chèques, illustrating the Panama scandals,Album de croquis militaires et d’histoire sans légendes,Histoire de Marlborough, &c., besides illustrating a good many books, notably thePrince Kozakokoffof Bemadaky. He died on the 26th of February 1909.

A collection of his work was exhibited at the Fine Art Society’s rooms in London in 1898. The catalogue contained a prefatory note by M.H. Spielmann.

CARAPACE(a Fr. word, from the Span,carapacho, a shield or armour), the upper shell of a crustacean, tortoise or turtle. The covering of the armadillo is called a carapace, as is also the hard case in which certain of the Infusoria are enclosed.

CARAPEGUA,an interior town of Paraguay, 37 m. S.E. of Asunción on the old route between that city and the missions. Pop. (est.) 13,000 (probably the population of the large rural district about the town is included in this estimate). The town (founded in 1725) is situated in a fertile country producing cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, sugar-cane and mandioca. It has two schools, a church and modern public buildings.

CARAT(Arab.Qīrāt, weight of four grains; Gr.κεράτιον,little horn, the fruit of the carob or locust tree), a small weight (originally in the form of a seed) used for diamonds and precious stones, and a measure for determining the fineness of gold. The exact weight of the carat, in practice, now varies slightly in different places. In 1877 a syndicate of London, Paris and Amsterdam jewellers fixed the weight at 205 milligrammes (3.163 troy grains). The South African carat, according to Gardner Williams (general manager of the De Beers mines), is equal to 3.174 grains (The Diamond Mines of South Africa, 1902). The fineness of gold is measured by a ratio with 24 carats as a standard; thus 2 parts of alloy make it 22-carat gold, and so on.

CARAUSIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS,tyrant or usurper in Britain,a.d.286-293, was a Menapian from Belgic Gaul, a man of humble origin, who in his early days had been a pilot. Having entered the Roman army, he rapidly obtained promotion, and was stationed by the emperor Maximian at Gessoriacum (Bononia,Boulogne) to protect the coasts and channel from Frankish and Saxon pirates. He at first acted energetically, but was subsequently accused of having entered into partnership with the barbarians and was sentenced to death by the emperor. Carausius thereupon crossed over to Britain and proclaimed himself an independent ruler. The legions at once joined him; numbers of Franks enlisted in his service; an increased and well-equipped fleet secured him the command of the neighbouring seas. In 289 Maximian attempted to recover the island, but his fleet was damaged by a storm and he was defeated. Maximian and Diocletian were compelled to acknowledge the rule of Carausius in Britain; numerous coins are extant with the heads of Carausius, Diocletian and Maximian, bearing the legend “Carausius et fratres sui.” In 292 Constantius Chlorus besieged and captured Gessoriacum (hitherto in possession of Carausius), together with part of his fleet and naval stores. Constantius then made extensive preparations to ensure the reconquest of Britain, but before they were completed Carausius was murdered by Allectus, his praefect of the guards (Aurelius Victor,Caesares, 39; Eutropius ix. 21, 22; Eumenius,Panegyriciii. 12, v. 12). A Roman mile-stone found near Carlisle (1895) bears the inscription IMP. C[aes] M. AUR[elius] MAUS. The meaning of MAUS is doubtful, but it may be an anticipation of ARAUS (see F.J. Haverfield inCumberland and Westmoreland Antiquarian Soc. Transactions, 1895, p. 437).

A copper coin found at Richborough, inscribedDomino Carausio Ces., must be ascribed to a Carausius of later date, since the type of the reverse is not found until the middle of the 4th century at the earliest. Nothing is known of this Carausius (A.J. Evans inNumismatic Chronicle, 1887, “On a coin of a second Carausius Caesar in Britain in the Fifth Century”).

See J. Watts de Peyster,The History of Carausius, the Dutch Augustus(1858); P.H. Webb,The Reign and Coinage of Carausius(1908).

CARAVACA,a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia; near the left bank of the river Caravaca, a tributary of the Segura. Pop. (1900) 15,846. Caravaca is dominated by the medieval castle of Santa Cruz, and contains several convents and a fine parish church, with a miraculous cross celebrated for its healing power, in honour of which a yearly festival is held on the 3rd of May. The hills which extend to the north are rich in marble and iron. Despite the lack of railway communication, the town is a considerable industrial centre, with large iron-works, tanneries and manufactories of paper, chocolate and oil.

CARAVAGGIO, MICHELANGELO AMERIGHI(orMerigi)DA(1569-1609), Italian painter, was born in the village of Caravaggio, in Lombardy, from which he received his name. He was originally a mason’s labourer, but his powerful genius directed him to painting, at which he worked with immitigable energy and amazing force. He despised every sort of idealism whether noble or emasculate, became the head of the Naturalisti (unmodified imitators of ordinary nature) in painting, and adopted a style of potent contrasts of light and shadow, laid on with a sort of fury, indicative of that fierce temper which led the artist to commit a homicide in a gambling quarrel at Rome. To avoid the consequences of his crime he fled to Naples and to Malta, where he was imprisoned for another attempt to avenge a quarrel. Escaping to Sicily, he was attacked by a party sent in pursuit of him, and severely wounded. Being pardoned, he set out for Rome; but having been arrested by mistake before his arrival, and afterwards released, and left to shift for himself in excessive heat, and still suffering from wounds and hardships,he died of fever on the beach at Pontercole in 1609. His best pictures are the “Entombment of Christ,” now in the Vatican; “St Sebastian,” in the Roman Capitol; a magnificent whole-length portrait of a grand-master of the Knights of Malta, Alof de Vignacourt, and his page, in the Louvre; and the Borghese “Supper at Emmaus.”

CARAVAGGIO, POLIDORO CALDARA DA(1495 or 1492-1543), a celebrated painter of frieze and other decorations in the Vatican. His merits were such that, while a mere mortar-carrier to the artists engaged in that work, he attracted the admiration of Raphael, then employed on his great pictures in the Loggie of the palace. Polidoro’s works, as well as those of his master, Maturino of Florence, have mostly perished, but are well known by the fine etchings of P.S. Bartoli, C. Alberti, &c. On the sack of Rome by the army of the Constable de Bourbon in 1527, Polidoro fled to Naples. Thence he went to Messina, where he was much employed, and gained a considerable fortune, with which he was about to return to the mainland of Italy when he was robbed and murdered by an assistant, Tonno Calabrese, in 1543. Two of his principal paintings are a Crucifixion, painted in Messina, and “Christ bearing the Cross” in the Naples gallery.

CARAVAN(more correctlyKarwan), a Persian word, adopted into the later Arabic vocabulary, and denoting, throughout Asiatic Turkey and Persia,1a body of traders travelling together for greater security against robbers (and in particular against Bedouins, Kurds, Tatars and the like, whose grazing-grounds the proposed route may traverse) and for mutual assistance in the matter of provisions, water and so forth. These precautions are due to the absence of settled government, inns and roads. These conditions having existed from time immemorial in the major part of western Asia, and still existing, caravans always have been the principal means for the transfer of merchandise. In these companies camels are generally employed for the transport of heavy goods, especially where the track, like that between Damascus and Bagdad, for example, lies across level, sandy and arid districts. The camels are harnessed in strings of fifty or more at a time, a hair-rope connecting the rear of one beast with the head of another; the leader is gaily decorated with parti-coloured trappings, tassels and bells; an unladen ass precedes the file, for luck, say some, for guidance, say others. Where the route is rocky and steep, as that between Damascus and Aleppo, mules, or even asses, are used for burdens. The wealthier members ride, where possible, on horseback. Every man carries arms; but these are in truth more for show than for use, and are commonly flung away in the presence of any serious robber attack. Should greater peril than ordinary be anticipated, the protection of a company of soldiers is habitually pre-engaged,—an expensive, and ordinarily a useless adjunct. A leader or director, calledKarawan-Bashi(headman), or, out of compliment,Karawan-Seraskier(general), but most often simply designatedRaïs(chief), is before starting appointed by common consent. His duties are those of general manager, spokesman, arbitrator and so forth; his remuneration is indefinite. But in the matter of sales or purchases, either on the way or at the destination, each member of the caravan acts for himself.

The number of camels or mules in a single caravan varies from forty or so up to six hundred and more; sometimes, as on the reopening of a long-closed route, it reaches a thousand. The ordinary caravan seasons are the months of spring, early summer and later autumn. Friday, in accordance with a recommendation made in the Koran itself, is the favourite day for setting out, the most auspicious hour being that immediately following noonday prayer. The first day’s march never does more than just clear the starting-point. Subsequently each day’s route is divided into two stages,—from 3 or 4 A.M. to about 10 in the forenoon, and from between 2 and 3 P.M. till 6 or even 8 in the evening. Thus the time passed daily on the road averages from ten to twelve hours, and, as the ordinary pace of a laden camel does not exceed 2 m. an hour, that of a mule being 23⁄4, a distance varying from 23 to 28 m. is gone over every marching day. But prolonged halts of two, three, four and even more days often occur. The hours of halt, start and movement, the precise lines of route, and the selection or avoidance of particular localities are determined by common consent. But if, as sometimes happens, the services of a professional guide, or those of a military officer have been engaged, his decisions are final. While the caravan is on its way, the five stated daily prayers are, within certain limits, anticipated, deferred or curtailed, so as the better to coincide with the regular and necessary halts,—a practice authorized by orthodox Mahommedan custom and tradition.

Two caravans are mentioned in Genesis xxxvii.; the route on which they were passing seems to have coincided with that nowadays travelled by Syrian caravans on their way to Egypt. Other allusions to caravans may be found in Job, in Isaiah and in the Psalms. Eastern literature is full of such references.

The yearly pilgrim-bands, bound from various quarters of the Mahommedan world to their common destination, Mecca, are sometimes, but inaccurately, styled by European writers caravans; their proper designation isHajj, a collective word for pilgrimages and pilgrims. The two principal pilgrim-caravans start yearly, the one from Damascus, or, to speak more exactly, from Mozarib, a village station three days’ journey to the south of the Syrian capital, the other from Cairo in Egypt.2This latter was formerly joined on its route, near Akaba of the Red Sea, by the North African Hajj, which, however, now goes from Egypt by sea from Suez; the former gathers up bands from Anatolia, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia and Syria. Besides these a third, but smaller Hajj of Persians, chiefly sets out from Suk-esh-Sheiukh, in the neighbourhood of Meshed Ali, on the lower Euphrates; a fourth of negroes, Nubians, etc., unites at Yambu on the Hejaz coast, whither they have crossed from Kosseir in Upper Egypt; a fifth of Indians and Malays, centres at Jidda; a sixth and seventh, of southern or eastern Arabs arrive, the former from Yemen, the latter from Nejd.

The Syrian Hajj is headed by the pasha of Damascus, either in person or by a vicarious official of high rank, and is further accompanied by theSorrah Amiror “Guardian of the Purse,” a Turkish officer from Constantinople. The Egyptian company is commanded by an amir or ruler, appointed by the Cairene government, and is accompanied by the famous “Maḥmal,” or sacred pavilion. The other bands above mentioned have each their own amir, besides theirmekowwamsor agents, whose business it is to see after provisions, water and the like, and are not seldom encumbered with a numerous retinue of servants and other attendants. Lastly, a considerable force of soldiery accompanies both the Syrian and the Egyptian Hajj.

No guides properly so-called attend these pilgrim-caravans, the routes followed being invariably the same, and well known. But Bedouin bands generally offer themselves by way of escort, and not seldom designedly lead their clients into the dangers from which they bargain to keep them safe. This they are the readier to do because, in addition to the personal luxuries with which many of the pilgrims provide themselves for the journey, a large amount of wealth, both in merchandise and coins, is habitually to be found among the travellers, who, in accordance with Mahommedan tradition, consider it not merely lawful but praiseworthy to unite mercantile speculation with religious duty. Nor has any one, the pasha himself or the amir and the military, when present, excepted, any acknowledged authority or general control in the pilgrim-caravans; nor is there any orderly subdivision of management or service. The pilgrims do, indeed, often coalesce in companies among themselves for mutual help, but necessity, circumstance or caprice governs all details, and thus it happens that numbers, sometimes as many as a third of the entire Hajj, yearly perish by their own negligence or by misfortune,—dying, some of thirst, others of fatigue and sickness, others at the hand of robbers on the way. In fact the principalroutes are in many places lined for miles together with the bones of camels and men.

The numbers which compose these pilgrim caravans are much exaggerated by popular rumour; yet it is certain that the Syrian and Egyptian sometimes amount to 5000 each, with 25,000 or 30,000 camels in train. Large supplies of food and water have to be carried, the more so at times that the pilgrim season, following as it does the Mahommedan calendar, which is lunar, falls for years together in the very hottest season. Hence, too, the journey is usually accomplished by night marches, the hours being from 3 to 4 P.M. to 6 or 7 A.M. of the following day. Torches are lighted on the road, the pace is slower than that of an ordinary caravan, and does not exceed 2 m. an hour.

SeeMeccaandMahommedan Religion.

1In Arabia proper it is rarely employed in speech and never in writing, strictly Arabic words such asRikb(“assembled riders”) orQāfila(“wayfaring band”) being in ordinary use.2The Syrian and Egyptian haj; have been able, since 1908, to travel by the railway from Damascus to the Hejaz.

1In Arabia proper it is rarely employed in speech and never in writing, strictly Arabic words such asRikb(“assembled riders”) orQāfila(“wayfaring band”) being in ordinary use.

2The Syrian and Egyptian haj; have been able, since 1908, to travel by the railway from Damascus to the Hejaz.

CARAVANSERAI,a public building, for the shelter of a caravan (q.v.) and of wayfarers generally in Asiatic Turkey. It is commonly constructed in the neighbourhood, but not within the walls, of a town or village. It is quadrangular in form, with a dead wall outside; this wall has small windows high up, but in the lower parts merely a few narrow air-holes. Inside a cloister-like arcade, surrounded by cellular store-rooms, forms the ground floor, and a somewhat lighter arcade, giving access to little dwelling-rooms, runs round it above. Broad open flights of stone steps connect the storeys. The central court is open to the sky, and generally has in its centre a well with a fountain-basin beside it. A spacious gateway, high and wide enough to admit the passage of a loaded camel, forms the sole entrance, which is furnished with heavy doors, and is further guarded within by massive iron chains, drawn across at night. The entry is paved with flagstones, and there are stone seats on each side. The court itself is generally paved, and large enough to admit of three or four hundred crouching camels or tethered mules; the bales of merchandise are piled away under the lower arcade, or stored up in the cellars behind it. The upstairs apartments are for human lodging; cooking is usually carried on in one or more corners of the quadrangle below. Should the caravanserai be a small one, the merchants and their goods alone find place within, the beasts of burden being left outside. A porter, appointed by the municipal authority of the place, is always present, lodged just within the gate, and sometimes one or more assistants. These form a guard of the building and of the goods and persons in it, and have the right to maintain order and, within certain limits, decorum; but they have no further control over the temporary occupants of the place, which is always kept open for all arrivals from prayer-time at early dawn till late in the evening. A small gratuity is expected by the porter, but he has no legal claim for payment, his maintenance being provided for out of the funds of the institution. Neither food nor provender is supplied.

Many caravanserais in Syria, Mesopotamia and Anatolia have considerable architectural merit; their style of construction is in general that known as Saracenic; their massive walls are of hewn stone; their proportions apt and grand. The portals especially are often decorated with intricate carving; so also is the prayer-niche within. These buildings, with their belongings, are works of charity, and are supported, repaired and so forth out of funds derived from pious legacies, most often of land or rentals. Sometimes a municipality takes on itself to construct and maintain a caravanserai; but in any case the institution is tax-free, and its revenues are inalienable. When, as sometimes happens, those revenues have been dissipated by peculation, neglect or change of times, the caravanserai passes through downward stages of dilapidation to total ruin (of which only too many examples may be seen) unless some new charity intervene to repair and renew it.

Khans, i.e.places analogous to inns and hotels, where not lodging only, but often food and other necessaries or comforts may be had for payment, are sometimes by inaccurate writers confounded with caravanserais. They are generally to be found within the town or village precincts, and are of much smaller dimensions than caravanserais. The khan of Asad Pasha at Damascus is a model of constructive skill and architectural beauty.

CARAVEL,orCarvel(from the Gr.κάραβος, a light ship, through the Ital.carabellaand the Span.carabas), a name applied at different times and in different countries to ships of very varying appearance and build, as in Turkey to a ship of war, and in France to a small boat used in the herring fishery. In the 15th and 16th centuries, caravels were much used by the Portuguese and Spanish for long voyages. They were roundish ships, with a double tower at the stern, and a single one in the bows, and were galley rigged. Two out of the three vessels in which Columbus sailed on his voyage of discovery to America were “caravels.” Carvel, the older English form, is now used only in the term “carvel-built,” for a boat in which the planking is flush with the edges laid side to side, in distinction from “clinker-built,” where the edges overlap.

CARAVELLAS,a small seaport of southern Bahia, Brazil, on the Caravellas river a few miles above its mouth, which is dangerously obstructed by sandbars. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 5482, about one-half of whom lived in the town. Caravellas was once the centre of a flourishing whale fishery, but has since fallen into decay. It is the port of the Bahia & Minas railway, whose traffic is comparatively unimportant.

CARAWAY,the fruit, or so-called seed, ofCarum Carui,an umbelliferous plant growing throughout the northern and central parts of Europe and Asia, and naturalized in waste places in England. The plant has finely-cut leaves and compound umbels of small white flowers. The fruits are laterally compressed and ovate, the mericarps (the two portions into which the ripe fruit splits) being subcylindrical, slightly arched, and marked with five distinct pale ridges. Caraways evolve a pleasant aromatic odour when bruised, and they have an agreeable spicy taste. They yield from 3 to 6% of a volatile oil, the chief constituent of which is cymene aldehyde. Cymene itself is present, having the formula CH3C6H4CH(CH3)2; also carvone C10H14O, and limonene, a terpene. The dose of the oil is ½-3 minims. The plant is cultivated in north and central Europe, and Morocco, as well as in the south of England, the produce of more northerly latitudes being richer in essential oil than that grown in southern regions. The essential oil is largely obtained by distillation for use in medicine as an aromatic stimulant and carminative, and as a flavouring material in cookery and in liqueurs for drinking. Caraways are, however, more extensively consumed entire in certain kinds of cheese, cakes and bread, and they form the basis of a popular article of confectionery known as caraway comfits.

CARBALLO,a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Corunna; on the right bank of the river Allones, 20 m. S.W. of the city of Corunna. Pop. (1900) 13,032. Carballo is the central market of a thriving agricultural district. At San Juan de Carballo, on the opposite bank of the Allones, there are hot sulphurous springs.

CARBAZOL,C12H9N, a chemical constituent of coal-tar and crude anthracene. From the latter it may be obtained by fusion with caustic potash when it is converted into carbazol-potassium, which can be easily separated by distilling off the anthracene. It may be prepared synthetically by passing the vapours of diphenylamine or aniline through a red-hot tube; by heating diorthodiaminodiphenyl with 25% sulphuric acid to 200° C. for 15 hours; by heating orthoaminodiphenyl with lime; or by heating thiodiphenylamine with copper powder. It is also obtained as a decomposition product of brucine or strychnine, when these alkaloids are distilled with zinc dust. It is easily soluble in the common organic solvents, and crystallizes in plates or tables melting at 238° C. It is a very stable compound, possessing feebly basic properties and characterized by its ready sublimation. It distils unchanged, even when the operation is carried out in the presence of zinc dust. On being heated with caustic potash in a current of carbonic acid, it gives carbazol carbonic acid C12H8N·COOH; melted with oxalic acid it gives carbazol blue. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid to a clear yellow solution. The potassium salt reacts with the alkyl iodides to give N-substituted alkyl derivatives. It gives the pine-shaving reaction, in this respect resembling pyrrol (q.v.).

CARBIDE,in chemistry, a compound of carbon with another element. The introduction of the electric furnace into practical chemistry was followed by the preparation of many metallic carbides previously unknown, some of which, especially calcium carbide, are now of great commercial importance. Carbides of the following general formulae have been obtained by H. Moissan (M denotes an atom of metal and C of carbon):—

M3C = manganese, iron; M2C = molybdenum; M3C2= chromium; MC = zirconium; M4C3= beryllium, aluminium; M2C3= uranium; MC2= barium, calcium, strontium, lithium, thorium, &c.; MC4= chromium.

The principal methods for the preparation of carbides may be classified as follows:—(1) direct union at a high temperature,e.g.lithium, iron, chromium, tungsten, &c.; (2) by the reduction of oxides with carbon at high temperatures,e.g.calcium, barium, strontium, manganese, chromium, &c.; (3) by the reduction of carbonates with magnesium in the presence of carbon,e.g.calcium, lithium; (4) by the action of metals on acetylene or metallic derivatives of acetylene,e.g., sodium, potassium. The metallic carbides are crystalline solids, the greater number being decomposed by water into a metallic hydrate and a hydrocarbon; sometimes hydrogen is also evolved. Calcium carbide owes its industrial importance to its decomposition into acetylene; lithium carbide behaves similarly. Methane is yielded by aluminium and beryllium carbides, and, mixed with hydrogen, by manganese carbide. The important carbides are mentioned in the separate articles on the various metals. The commercial aspect of calcium carbide is treated in the articleAcetylene.

CARBINE(Fr.carabine, Ger.Karabiner), a word which came into use towards the end of the 16th century to denote a form of small fire-arm, shorter than the musket and chiefly used by mounted men. It has retained this significance, through all subsequent modifications of small-arm design, to the present day, and is now as a rule a shortened and otherwise slightly modified form of the ordinary rifle (q.v.).

CARBO,the name of a Roman plebeian family of the gens Papiria. The following are the most important members in Roman history:—

1.Gaius Papirius Carbo, statesman and orator. He was associated with C. Gracchus in carrying out the provisions of the agrarian law of Tiberius Gracchus (seeGracchus). When tribune of the people (131b.c.) he carried a law extending voting by ballot to the enactment and repeal of laws; another proposal, that the tribunes should be allowed to become candidates for the same office in the year immediately following, was defeated by the younger Scipio Africanus. Carbo was suspected of having been concerned in the sudden death of Scipio (129), if not his actual murderer. He subsequently went over to the optimates, and (when consul in 120) successfully defended Lucius Opimius, the murderer of Gaius Gracchus, when he was impeached for the murder of citizens without a trial, and even went so far as to say that Gracchus had been justly slain. But the optimates did not trust Carbo. He was impeached by Licinius Crassus on a similar charge, and, feeling that he had nothing to hope for from the optimates and that his condemnation was certain, he committed suicide.

See Livy,Epit.59; Appian,Bell. Civ.i. 18: Vell. Pat. ii. 4; Val. Max. iii. 7. 6; A.H.J. Greenidge,History of Rome(1904).

2. His son,Gaius Papirius Carbo, surnamed Arvina, was a staunch supporter of the aristocracy, and was put to death by the Marian party in 82. He is known chiefly for the law (Plautia Papiria) carried by him and M. Plautius Silvanus when tribunes of the people in 90 (or 89), whereby the Roman franchise was offered to every Italian ally domiciled in Italy at the time when the law was enacted, provided he made application personally within sixty days to the praetor at Rome (seeRome:History, II. “The Republic,” Period C.). The object of the law was to conciliate the states at war with Rome and to secure the loyalty of the federate states. Like his father, Carbo was an orator of distinction.

See Cicero,Pro Archia, 4; Vell. Pat. ii. 26; Appian,Bell. Civ.i. 88.

3.Gnaeus Papirius Carbo(c.130-82b.c.), nephew of (1). He was a strong supporter of the Marian party, and took part in the blockade of Rome (87). In 85 he was chosen by Cinna as his colleague in the consulship, and extensive preparations were made for carrying on war in Greece against Sulla, who had announced his intention of returning to Italy. Cinna and Carbo declared themselves consuls for the following year, and large bodies of troops were transported across the Adriatic; but when Cinna was murdered by his own soldiers, who refused to engage in civil war, Carbo was obliged to bring them back. In 82 Carbo, then consul for the third time with the younger Marius, fought an indecisive engagement with Sulla near Clusium, but was defeated with great loss in an attack on the camp of Sulla’s general, Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius [see underMetellus(6)] near Faventia. Although he still had a large army and the Samnites remained faithful to him, Carbo was so disheartened by his failure to relieve Praeneste, where the younger Marius had taken refuge, that he decided to leave Italy. He first fled to Africa, thence to the island of Cossyra (Pentellaria), where he was arrested, taken in chains before Pompey at Lilybaeum and put to death.

See Appian,Bell. Civ.i. 67-98; Livy,Epit.79, 84, 88, 89; Plutarch,Pompey, 5, 6, 10, andSulla, 28; Cicero,ad Fam.ix. 21; Eutropius, v. 8, 9; Orosius, v. 20; Valerius Maximus, v. 3. 5, ix. 13. 2; art.Sulla, L.Cornelius.

CARBOHYDRATE,in chemistry, the generic name for compounds empirically represented by the formula Cx(H2O)y. They are essentially vegetable products, and include the sugars, starches, gums and celluloses (q.v.).

CARBOLIC ACIDorPhenol(hydroxy-benzene), C6H5OH, an acid found in the urine of the herbivorae, and in small quantity incastoreum(F. Wöhler,Ann., 1848, 67, p. 360). Its principal commercial source is the fraction of coal-tar which distils between 150 and 200° C., in which it was discovered in 1834 by F. Runge. In order to obtain the phenol from this distillate, it is treated with caustic soda, which dissolves the phenol and its homologues together with a certain quantity of naphthalene and other hydrocarbons. The solution is diluted with water, and the hydrocarbons are thereby precipitated and separated. The solution is then acidified, and the phenols are liberated and form an oily layer on the surface of the acid. This layer is separated, and the phenol recovered by a process of fractional distillation. It may be synthetically prepared by fusing potassium benzene sulphonate with caustic alkalis (A. Kekulé, A. Wurtz); by the action of nitrous acid on aniline; by passing oxygen into boiling benzene containing aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J.M. Crafts,Ann. Chim. Phys., 1888 (6) 14, p. 435); by heating phenol carboxylic acids with baryta; and, in small quantities by the oxidation of benzene with hydrogen peroxide or nascent ozone (A.R. Leeds,Ber., 1881, 14, p. 976).

It crystallizes in rhombic needles, which melt at 42.5-43° C., and boil at 182-183° C.; its specific gravity is 1.0906 (0° C.). It has a characteristic smell, and a biting taste; it is poisonous, and acts as a powerful antiseptic. It dissolves in water, 15 parts of water dissolving about one part of phenol at 16-17° C., but it is miscible in all proportions at about 70° C.; it is volatile in steam, and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, benzene, carbon bisulphide, chloroform and glacial acetic acid. It is also readily soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, slightly soluble in aqueous ammonia solution, and almost insoluble in sodium carbonate solution. When exposed in the moist condition to the air it gradually acquires a red colour. With ferric chloride it gives a violet coloration, and with bromine water a white precipitate of tribrom-phenol.

When phenol is passed through a red-hot tube a complex decomposition takes place, resulting in the formation of benzene, toluene, naphthalene, &c. (J.G. Kramers,Ann., 1877, 189, p. 129). Chromium oxychloride reacts violently on phenol, producing hydroquinone ether, O(C6H4OH)2; chromic acid gives phenoquinone, and potassium permanganate gives paradiphenol, oxalic acid, and some salicylic acid (R. Henriques,Ber., 1888, 21, p. 1620). In alkaline solution, potassium permanganate oxidizes it to inactive tartaric acid and carbon dioxide (O. Doebner,Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1755). When distilled over lead oxide, it forms diphenylene oxide, (C6H4)2O; andwhen heated with oxalic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, it forms aurin, C19H14O3. It condenses with aceto-acetic ester, in the presence of sulphuric acid, to β-methyl coumarin (H. v. Pechmann and J.B. Cohen,Ber., 1884, 17, p. 2188).The hydrogen of the hydroxyl group in phenol can be replaced by metals, by alkyl groups and by acid radicals. The metallic derivatives (phenolates, phenates or carbolates) of the alkali metals are obtained by dissolving phenol in a solution of a caustic alkali, in the absence of air. Potassium phenolate, C6H5OK, crystallizes in fine needles, is very hygroscopic and oxidizes rapidly on exposure. Other phenolates may be obtained from potassium phenolate by precipitation. The alkyl derivatives may be obtained by heating phenol with one molecular proportion of a caustic alkali and of an alkyl iodide. They are compounds which greatly resemble the mixed ethers of the aliphatic series. They are not decomposed by boiling alkalis, but on heating with hydriodic acid they split into their components.Anisol, phenyl methyl ether, C6H5·O·CH3, is prepared either by the above method or by the action of diazo-methane on phenol, C6H5OH + CH2N2= N2+ C6H5·O·CH3(H. v. Pechmann,Ber., 1895, 28, p. 857); by distilling anisic acid (para-methoxy benzoic acid) with baryta or by boiling phenyl diazonium chloride with methyl alcohol. It is a colourless pleasant-smelling liquid which boils at 154.3° C.Phenetol, phenyl ethyl ether, C6H5·O·C2H5, a liquid boiling at 172° C., may be obtained by similar methods. A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3337) has shown that in the action of alcohols on diazonium salts an increase in the molecular weight of the alcohol and an accumulation of negative groups in the aromatic nucleus lead to a diminution in the yield of the ether produced and to the production of a secondary reaction, resulting in the formation of a certain amount of an aromatic hydrocarbon.The acid esters of phenol are best obtained by the action of acid chlorides or anhydrides on phenol or its sodium or potassium salt, or by digesting phenol with an acid in the presence of phosphorus oxychloride (F. Rasinski,Jour. f. prak. Chem.,1882 [2], 26, p. 62). Phenyl acetate, C6H5·O·COCH3, a colourless liquid of boiling point 193° C., may be prepared by heating phenol with acetamide. When heated with aniline it yields phenol and acetanilide. Phenyl benzoate, C6H5·O·COC6H5, prepared from phenol and benzoyl chloride, crystallizes in monoclinic prisms, which melt at 68-69° C. and boil at 314° C.Phenol is characterized by the readiness with which it forms substitution products; chlorine and bromine, for example, react readily with phenol, forming ortho- and para- chlor- and -bromphenol, and, by further action, trichlor- and tribrom-phenol. Iodphenol is obtained by the action of iodine and iodic acid on phenol dissolved in a dilute solution of caustic potash. Nitro-phenols are readily obtained by the action of nitric acid on phenol. By the action of dilute nitric acid, ortho- and para-nitrophenols are obtained, the ortho-compound being separated from the para-compound by distillation in a current of steam. Ortho-nitrophenol, C6H4·OH·NO2(1·2), crystallizes in yellow needles which melt at 45° C. and boil at 214°C. Para-nitrophenol, C6H4·OH·NO2(1·4), crystallizes in long colourless needles which melt at 114°C. Meta-nitrophenol, C6H4·OH·NO2·(1·3), is prepared from meta-nitraniline by diazotizing the base and boiling the resulting diazonium salt with water. By nitrating phenol with concentrated nitric acid, no care being taken to keep the temperature of reaction down, trinitrophenol (picric acid) is obtained (seePicric Acid). By the reduction of nitro-phenols, the corresponding aminophenols are obtained, and of these, the meta- and para-derivatives are the most important. Para-aminophenol, C6H4·OH·NH2(1·4) melts at 148° C., with decomposition. Its most important derivative is phenacetin. Meta-aminophenol, C6H4·OH·NH2(1·3), and dimethyl meta-aminophenol, C6H4·OH·N(CH3)2(1·3), are extensively employed in the manufacture of the important dyestuffs known as the rhodamines. The aminophenols also find application as developers in photography, the more important of these developers being amidol, the hydrochloride of diaminophenol, ortol, the hydrochloride of para-methylaminophenol, C6H4·OH·NHCH3·HCl(1·4), rodinal, para-aminophenol, and metol, the sulphate of a methylaminophenol sulphonic acid. Meta-aminophenol is prepared by reducing meta-nitrophenol, or by heating resorcin with ammonium chloride and ammonia to 200° C. Dimethyl-meta-aminophenol is prepared by heating meta-aminophenol with methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid in an autoclave; by sulphonation of dimethylaniline, the sulphonic acid formed being finally fused with potash; or by nitrating dimethylaniline, in the presence of sulphuric, acid at 0° C. In the latter case a mixture of nitro-compounds is obtained which can be separated by the addition of sodium carbonate. The meta-nitro-compound, which is precipitated last, is then reduced, and the amino group so formed is replaced by the hydroxyl group by means of the Sandmeyer reaction. Dimethyl-meta-aminophenol crystallizes in small prisms which melt at 87° C. It condenses with phthalic anhydride to form rhodamine, and with succinic anhydride to rhodamine S.Phenol dissolves readily in concentrated sulphuric acid, a mixture of phenol-ortho- and -para-sulphonic acids being formed. These acids may be separated by conversion into their potassium salts, which are then fractionally crystallized, the potassium salt of the para-acid separating first. The ortho-acid, in the form of its aqueous solution, is sometimes used as an antiseptic, under the name of aseptol. Athiophenol, C6H5SH, is known, and is prepared by the action of phosphorus pentasulphide on phenol, or by distilling a mixture of sodium benzene sulphonate and potassium sulphydrate. It is a colourless liquid, which possesses a very disagreeable smell, and boils at 168° C.Various methods have been devised for the quantitative determination of phenol. J. Messinger and G. Vortmann (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2753) dissolve phenol in caustic alkali, make the solution up to known volume, take an aliquot part, warm it to 60° C., and add decinormal iodine solution until the liquid is of a deep yellow colour. The mixture is then cooled, acidified by means of sulphuric acid, and titrated with decinormal sodium thiosulphate solution. S.B. Schryver (Jour, of Soc. Chem. Industry, 1899, 18, p. 553) adds excess of sodamide to a solution of the phenol in a suitable solvent, absorbs the liberated ammonia in an excess of acid, and titrates the excess of acid. See also C.E. Smith,Amer. Jour. Pharm., 1898, 369.

The hydrogen of the hydroxyl group in phenol can be replaced by metals, by alkyl groups and by acid radicals. The metallic derivatives (phenolates, phenates or carbolates) of the alkali metals are obtained by dissolving phenol in a solution of a caustic alkali, in the absence of air. Potassium phenolate, C6H5OK, crystallizes in fine needles, is very hygroscopic and oxidizes rapidly on exposure. Other phenolates may be obtained from potassium phenolate by precipitation. The alkyl derivatives may be obtained by heating phenol with one molecular proportion of a caustic alkali and of an alkyl iodide. They are compounds which greatly resemble the mixed ethers of the aliphatic series. They are not decomposed by boiling alkalis, but on heating with hydriodic acid they split into their components.Anisol, phenyl methyl ether, C6H5·O·CH3, is prepared either by the above method or by the action of diazo-methane on phenol, C6H5OH + CH2N2= N2+ C6H5·O·CH3(H. v. Pechmann,Ber., 1895, 28, p. 857); by distilling anisic acid (para-methoxy benzoic acid) with baryta or by boiling phenyl diazonium chloride with methyl alcohol. It is a colourless pleasant-smelling liquid which boils at 154.3° C.Phenetol, phenyl ethyl ether, C6H5·O·C2H5, a liquid boiling at 172° C., may be obtained by similar methods. A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3337) has shown that in the action of alcohols on diazonium salts an increase in the molecular weight of the alcohol and an accumulation of negative groups in the aromatic nucleus lead to a diminution in the yield of the ether produced and to the production of a secondary reaction, resulting in the formation of a certain amount of an aromatic hydrocarbon.

The acid esters of phenol are best obtained by the action of acid chlorides or anhydrides on phenol or its sodium or potassium salt, or by digesting phenol with an acid in the presence of phosphorus oxychloride (F. Rasinski,Jour. f. prak. Chem.,1882 [2], 26, p. 62). Phenyl acetate, C6H5·O·COCH3, a colourless liquid of boiling point 193° C., may be prepared by heating phenol with acetamide. When heated with aniline it yields phenol and acetanilide. Phenyl benzoate, C6H5·O·COC6H5, prepared from phenol and benzoyl chloride, crystallizes in monoclinic prisms, which melt at 68-69° C. and boil at 314° C.

Phenol is characterized by the readiness with which it forms substitution products; chlorine and bromine, for example, react readily with phenol, forming ortho- and para- chlor- and -bromphenol, and, by further action, trichlor- and tribrom-phenol. Iodphenol is obtained by the action of iodine and iodic acid on phenol dissolved in a dilute solution of caustic potash. Nitro-phenols are readily obtained by the action of nitric acid on phenol. By the action of dilute nitric acid, ortho- and para-nitrophenols are obtained, the ortho-compound being separated from the para-compound by distillation in a current of steam. Ortho-nitrophenol, C6H4·OH·NO2(1·2), crystallizes in yellow needles which melt at 45° C. and boil at 214°C. Para-nitrophenol, C6H4·OH·NO2(1·4), crystallizes in long colourless needles which melt at 114°C. Meta-nitrophenol, C6H4·OH·NO2·(1·3), is prepared from meta-nitraniline by diazotizing the base and boiling the resulting diazonium salt with water. By nitrating phenol with concentrated nitric acid, no care being taken to keep the temperature of reaction down, trinitrophenol (picric acid) is obtained (seePicric Acid). By the reduction of nitro-phenols, the corresponding aminophenols are obtained, and of these, the meta- and para-derivatives are the most important. Para-aminophenol, C6H4·OH·NH2(1·4) melts at 148° C., with decomposition. Its most important derivative is phenacetin. Meta-aminophenol, C6H4·OH·NH2(1·3), and dimethyl meta-aminophenol, C6H4·OH·N(CH3)2(1·3), are extensively employed in the manufacture of the important dyestuffs known as the rhodamines. The aminophenols also find application as developers in photography, the more important of these developers being amidol, the hydrochloride of diaminophenol, ortol, the hydrochloride of para-methylaminophenol, C6H4·OH·NHCH3·HCl(1·4), rodinal, para-aminophenol, and metol, the sulphate of a methylaminophenol sulphonic acid. Meta-aminophenol is prepared by reducing meta-nitrophenol, or by heating resorcin with ammonium chloride and ammonia to 200° C. Dimethyl-meta-aminophenol is prepared by heating meta-aminophenol with methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid in an autoclave; by sulphonation of dimethylaniline, the sulphonic acid formed being finally fused with potash; or by nitrating dimethylaniline, in the presence of sulphuric, acid at 0° C. In the latter case a mixture of nitro-compounds is obtained which can be separated by the addition of sodium carbonate. The meta-nitro-compound, which is precipitated last, is then reduced, and the amino group so formed is replaced by the hydroxyl group by means of the Sandmeyer reaction. Dimethyl-meta-aminophenol crystallizes in small prisms which melt at 87° C. It condenses with phthalic anhydride to form rhodamine, and with succinic anhydride to rhodamine S.

Phenol dissolves readily in concentrated sulphuric acid, a mixture of phenol-ortho- and -para-sulphonic acids being formed. These acids may be separated by conversion into their potassium salts, which are then fractionally crystallized, the potassium salt of the para-acid separating first. The ortho-acid, in the form of its aqueous solution, is sometimes used as an antiseptic, under the name of aseptol. Athiophenol, C6H5SH, is known, and is prepared by the action of phosphorus pentasulphide on phenol, or by distilling a mixture of sodium benzene sulphonate and potassium sulphydrate. It is a colourless liquid, which possesses a very disagreeable smell, and boils at 168° C.

Various methods have been devised for the quantitative determination of phenol. J. Messinger and G. Vortmann (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2753) dissolve phenol in caustic alkali, make the solution up to known volume, take an aliquot part, warm it to 60° C., and add decinormal iodine solution until the liquid is of a deep yellow colour. The mixture is then cooled, acidified by means of sulphuric acid, and titrated with decinormal sodium thiosulphate solution. S.B. Schryver (Jour, of Soc. Chem. Industry, 1899, 18, p. 553) adds excess of sodamide to a solution of the phenol in a suitable solvent, absorbs the liberated ammonia in an excess of acid, and titrates the excess of acid. See also C.E. Smith,Amer. Jour. Pharm., 1898, 369.

Pharmacology and Therapeutics.—Carbolic acid is an efficient parasiticide, and is largely used in destroying the fungus of ringworm and of the skin disease known aspityriasis versicolor. When a solution of the strength of about 1 in 20 is applied to the skin it produces a local anaesthesia which lasts for many hours. If concentrated, however, it acts as a caustic. It never produces vesication. The drug is absorbed through the unbroken skin—a very valuable property in the treatment of such conditions as an incipient whitlow. A piece of cotton wool soaked in strong carbolic acid will relieve the pain of dental caries, but is useless in other forms of toothache. Taken internally, in doses of from one to three grains, carbolic acid will often relieve obstinate cases of vomiting and has some value as a gastric antiseptic.

Toxicology.—Carbolic acid is distinguished from all other acids so-called—except oxalic acid and hydrocyanic acid—in that it is a neurotic poison, having a marked action directly upon the nervous system. In all cases of carbolic acid poisoning the nervous influence is seen. If it be absorbed from a surgical dressing there are no irritant symptoms, but when the acid is swallowed in concentrated form, symptoms of gastro-intestinal irritation occur. The patient becomes collapsed, and the skin is cold and clammy. The breathing becomes shallow, the drug killing, like nearly all neurotic poisons (alcohol, morphia, prussic acid, &c.), by paralysis of the respiratory centre, and the patient dying in a state of coma. The condition of the urine is of the utmost importance, as it is often a clue to the diagnosis, and in surgical cases may be the first warning that absorption is occurring to an undue degree. The urine becomes dark green in colour owing to the formation of various oxidation products such as pyrocatechin. Fifteen grains constitute an exceedingly dangerous dose for an adult male of average weight. Other symptoms of undue absorption are vertigo, deafness, sounds in the ears, stupefaction, a subnormal temperature, nausea, vomiting and a weak pulse (Sir Thomas Fraser).

The antidote in cases of carbolic acid poisoning is any soluble sulphate. Carbolic acid and sulphates combine in the blood to form sulpho-carbolates, which are innocuous. The symptoms of nerve-poisoning are due to the carbolic acid (or its salts) which circulate in the blood after all the sulphates in the blood have been used up in the formation of sulpho-carbolates (hence, during administration of carbolic acid, the urine should frequently be tested for the presence of free sulphates; as long as these occur in the urine, they are present in the blood and there is no danger). The treatment is therefore to administer an ounce of sodium sulphate in water by the mouth, or to inject a similar quantity of the salt in solution directly into a vein or into the subcutaneous tissues. Magnesium sulphate may be given by the mouth, but is poisonous if injected intravenously. If the acid has been swallowed, wash out the stomach and give chalk, the carbolate of calcium being insoluble. Alkalis which form soluble carbolates are useless. Give ether and brandy subcutaneously and apply hot water-bottles and blankets if there are signs of collapse.

CARBON(symbol C, atomic weight 12), one of the chemical non-metallic elements. It is found native as the diamond (q.v.), graphite (q.v.), as a constituent of all animal and vegetable tissues and of coal and petroleum. It also enters (as carbonates) into the composition of many minerals, such as chalk, dolomite,calcite, witherite, calamine and spathic iron ore. In combination with oxygen (as carbon dioxide) it is also found to a small extent in the atmosphere. It is a solid substance which occurs in several modifications, differing very much in their physical properties.Amorphous carbonis obtained by the destructive distillation of many carbon compounds, the various kinds differing very greatly as regards physical characters and purity, according to the substance used for their preparation. The most common varieties met with are lampblack, gas carbon, wood charcoal, animal charcoal and coke.Lampblackis prepared by burning tar, resin, turpentine and other substances rich in carbon, with a limited supply of air; the products of combustion being conducted into condensing chambers in which cloths are suspended, on which the carbon collects. It is further purified by heating in closed vessels, but even then it still contains a certain amount of mineral matter and more or less hydrocarbons. It is used in the manufacture of printer’s ink, in the preparation of black paint and in calico printing.Gas carbonis produced by the destructive distillation of coal in the manufacture of illuminating gas (seeGas:Manufacture), being probably formed by the decomposition of gaseous hydrocarbons. It is a very dense form of carbon, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is used in the manufacture of carbon rods for arc lights, and for the negative element in the Bunsen battery.

Charcoalis a porous form of carbon; several varieties exist.Sugar charcoalis obtained by the carbonization of sugar. It is purified by boiling with acids, to remove any mineral matter, and is then ignited for a long time in a current of chlorine in order to remove the last traces of hydrogen.Animal charcoal(bone black) is prepared by charring bones in iron retorts. It is a very impure form of carbon, containing on the average about 80% of calcium phosphate. It possesses a much greater decolorizing and absorbing power than wood charcoal. A variety of animal charcoal is sometimes prepared by calcining fresh blood with potassium carbonate in large cylinders, the mass being purified by boiling out with dilute hydrochloric acid and subsequent reheating.Wood charcoalis a hard and brittle black substance, which retains the external structure of the wood from which it is made. It is prepared (where wood is plentiful) by stacking the wood in heaps, which are covered with earth or with brushwood and turf, and then burning the heap slowly in a limited supply of air. The combustion of the wood is conducted from the top downwards, and from the exterior towards the centre; great care has to be taken that the process is carried out slowly. The disadvantage in this process is that the by-products, such as pyroligneous acid, acetone, wood spirit, &c., are lost; as an alternative method, wood is frequently carbonized in ovens or retorts and the volatile products are condensed and utilized.

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