Chapter 18

The comprehensive essay by Sir H.H. Risley in the introductory volume of the Indian Census Report for 1901 is the best recent account of caste in India. See also, besides the works mentioned in the text, Sir Denzil Ibbetson’sReport on the Punjab Census(1881); W. Cropke,Things Indian(1905) and other books by this author on Indian religion and caste; Senart,Les Castes dans l’Inde(1896); Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya,Hindu Castes and Sects(1896). There is an interesting chapter on the subject in Sidney Low’sVision of India(1906). See alsoIndia,Indian Law, andHinduism.

1History of Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, i. 332.2Stubbs’Constitutional History of England, i. p. 162.3History of Peru, i. 143.4Rapport sur les différentes classes de chefs dans la nouvelle Espagne(1840), p. 223.5Something like this is to be found in the Russian notion ofchin, or status according to official hierarchy of ranks, as modified by the custom ofmyestnichestvo, by which no one entering the public service could be placed beneath a person who had been subject to his father’s orders. Hereditary nobility at one time belonged to every servant, military or civil, above a certain rank, and a family remaining out of office for two generations lost its rights of nobility; but in 1854 the privilege was confined to army colonels and state councillors of the 4th class. At one time, therefore, therazryadniya knighi, or special registers, superseded by Peter the Great’sbarkhatnaya kniga, or Velvet Book, contained a complete code of social privilege and precedence. Peter’s “tabel o rangakh” contained fourteen classes. The subject is treated of in the 1600 articles of the ninth volume of the Russian CodeSvod Zakonov. The Russian Nobility, though deprived of their exemptions from conscription, personal taxation and corporal punishment, still retain many advantages in the public service.6Juarros,Hist. of Guatemala, Tr. (London, 1823).7Life and Essays of H.T. Colebrooke, i. p. 104.8History of India.9“The crudities and cruelties of the caste system need not blind us to its other aspects. There is no doubt that it is the main cause of the fundamental stability and contentment by which Indian society has been braced up for centuries against the shocks of politics and the cataclysms of Nature. It provides every man with his place, his career, his occupation, his circle of friends. It makes him, at the outset, a member of a corporate body: it protects him through life from the canker of social jealousy and unfulfilled aspirations; it ensures him companionship and a sense of community with others in like case with himself. The caste organization is to the Hindu his club, his trade union, his benefit society, his philanthropic society. An Indian without caste, as things stand at present, is not quite easy to imagine.” (Sidney Low,Vision of India, 1906, ch. xv. p. 263).10Muir’sSanskrit Texts, vol. i. (1868).11Ideen, i. 610.12The idea of a conquering white race is strangely repeated in the later history of India. The Rajputs and Brahmans are succeeded by the Mussulmans, the Turks, the Afghans. There was an aristocracy of colour under the Mogul dynasty. But under an Indian climate it could not last many generations. The Brahmans of southern India were as black as the lowest castes; the Chandalas are said to be descended from Brahmans. According to Manu the Chandala must not dwell within town; his sole wealth must be dogs and asses; his clothes must consist of the mantles of deceased persons; his dishes must be broken pots. Surely this vituperative description must apply to an aboriginal race.13Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Band i. (quoted by Muir,ubi supra).14De Origine Castarum(Göttingen).15History of India, vol. i. (1867-1871).16For a characteristic appreciation of caste see Comte,Cours de philosophic positive, vi. c. 8. He regards the hereditary transmission of functions under the rule of a sacerdotal class as a necessary and universal stage of social progress, greatly modified by war and colonization. The morality of caste was, he contends, an improvement on what preceded; but its permanence was impossible, because “the political rule of intelligence is hostile to human progress.” The seclusion of women and the preservation of industrial inventions were features of caste; and the higher priests were also magistrates, philosophers, artists, engineers, and physicians.17De la religion, ii. 8.18The great mass of the Brahmans were in reality mendicants, who lived on the festivals of birth, marriage, and death, and on the fines exacted for infractions of caste rule. Others had establishments called Muths, endowed with Jagir villages. There were two distinct orders of officiating priests—the Purohita, or family priest, who performed all the domestic rites, and probably gave advice in secular matters, and the Guru, who is the head of a religious sect, making tours of superintendence and exaction, and having the power to degrade from caste and to restore. In some cases the Guru is recognized as the Mehitra or officer of the caste assembly, from whom he receives Huks, or salary, and an exemption from house and stamp taxes, and service as begarree (Steele’sLaw and Customs of Hindoo Castes within the Dekhan Provinces, 1826; later edition, 1868). Expulsion from caste follows on a number of moral offences (e.g.assault, murder, &c.), as well as ceremonial offences (e.g.eating prohibited food, eating with persons of lower caste, abstaining from funeral rites, having connexion with a low-caste woman). Exclusion means that it is not allowed to eat with or enter the houses of the members of the caste, the offender being in theory not degraded but dead. For some heinous offences,i.e.against the express letter of the Shasters, no readmission is possible. But generally this depends on the ability of the out-caste to pay a fine, and to supply the caste with an expiatory feast of sweetmeats. He has also to go through the Sashtanyam, or prostration of eight members, and to drink the Panchakaryam,i.e.drink of the five products of the cow (Description of People of India, Abbé J.A. Dubois, Missionary in Mysore, Eng. Trans., London, 1817; edition by Pope, Madras, 1862).19Manu. x. 88-90.20Wheeler ii. 533.21Travels of Fah Hian, c. 27.22Strabo,Ind.sec. 59.23Arrian,Indic.c. 11, 12; Diod. Sic. ii. c. 40, 41; and Strabo xv. 1.24Irving,Theory and Practice of Caste(London, 1859).25Manual of Archaeology.26Revue des deux mondes, 15th September 1848.

1History of Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, i. 332.

2Stubbs’Constitutional History of England, i. p. 162.

3History of Peru, i. 143.

4Rapport sur les différentes classes de chefs dans la nouvelle Espagne(1840), p. 223.

5Something like this is to be found in the Russian notion ofchin, or status according to official hierarchy of ranks, as modified by the custom ofmyestnichestvo, by which no one entering the public service could be placed beneath a person who had been subject to his father’s orders. Hereditary nobility at one time belonged to every servant, military or civil, above a certain rank, and a family remaining out of office for two generations lost its rights of nobility; but in 1854 the privilege was confined to army colonels and state councillors of the 4th class. At one time, therefore, therazryadniya knighi, or special registers, superseded by Peter the Great’sbarkhatnaya kniga, or Velvet Book, contained a complete code of social privilege and precedence. Peter’s “tabel o rangakh” contained fourteen classes. The subject is treated of in the 1600 articles of the ninth volume of the Russian CodeSvod Zakonov. The Russian Nobility, though deprived of their exemptions from conscription, personal taxation and corporal punishment, still retain many advantages in the public service.

6Juarros,Hist. of Guatemala, Tr. (London, 1823).

7Life and Essays of H.T. Colebrooke, i. p. 104.

8History of India.

9“The crudities and cruelties of the caste system need not blind us to its other aspects. There is no doubt that it is the main cause of the fundamental stability and contentment by which Indian society has been braced up for centuries against the shocks of politics and the cataclysms of Nature. It provides every man with his place, his career, his occupation, his circle of friends. It makes him, at the outset, a member of a corporate body: it protects him through life from the canker of social jealousy and unfulfilled aspirations; it ensures him companionship and a sense of community with others in like case with himself. The caste organization is to the Hindu his club, his trade union, his benefit society, his philanthropic society. An Indian without caste, as things stand at present, is not quite easy to imagine.” (Sidney Low,Vision of India, 1906, ch. xv. p. 263).

10Muir’sSanskrit Texts, vol. i. (1868).

11Ideen, i. 610.

12The idea of a conquering white race is strangely repeated in the later history of India. The Rajputs and Brahmans are succeeded by the Mussulmans, the Turks, the Afghans. There was an aristocracy of colour under the Mogul dynasty. But under an Indian climate it could not last many generations. The Brahmans of southern India were as black as the lowest castes; the Chandalas are said to be descended from Brahmans. According to Manu the Chandala must not dwell within town; his sole wealth must be dogs and asses; his clothes must consist of the mantles of deceased persons; his dishes must be broken pots. Surely this vituperative description must apply to an aboriginal race.

13Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Band i. (quoted by Muir,ubi supra).

14De Origine Castarum(Göttingen).

15History of India, vol. i. (1867-1871).

16For a characteristic appreciation of caste see Comte,Cours de philosophic positive, vi. c. 8. He regards the hereditary transmission of functions under the rule of a sacerdotal class as a necessary and universal stage of social progress, greatly modified by war and colonization. The morality of caste was, he contends, an improvement on what preceded; but its permanence was impossible, because “the political rule of intelligence is hostile to human progress.” The seclusion of women and the preservation of industrial inventions were features of caste; and the higher priests were also magistrates, philosophers, artists, engineers, and physicians.

17De la religion, ii. 8.

18The great mass of the Brahmans were in reality mendicants, who lived on the festivals of birth, marriage, and death, and on the fines exacted for infractions of caste rule. Others had establishments called Muths, endowed with Jagir villages. There were two distinct orders of officiating priests—the Purohita, or family priest, who performed all the domestic rites, and probably gave advice in secular matters, and the Guru, who is the head of a religious sect, making tours of superintendence and exaction, and having the power to degrade from caste and to restore. In some cases the Guru is recognized as the Mehitra or officer of the caste assembly, from whom he receives Huks, or salary, and an exemption from house and stamp taxes, and service as begarree (Steele’sLaw and Customs of Hindoo Castes within the Dekhan Provinces, 1826; later edition, 1868). Expulsion from caste follows on a number of moral offences (e.g.assault, murder, &c.), as well as ceremonial offences (e.g.eating prohibited food, eating with persons of lower caste, abstaining from funeral rites, having connexion with a low-caste woman). Exclusion means that it is not allowed to eat with or enter the houses of the members of the caste, the offender being in theory not degraded but dead. For some heinous offences,i.e.against the express letter of the Shasters, no readmission is possible. But generally this depends on the ability of the out-caste to pay a fine, and to supply the caste with an expiatory feast of sweetmeats. He has also to go through the Sashtanyam, or prostration of eight members, and to drink the Panchakaryam,i.e.drink of the five products of the cow (Description of People of India, Abbé J.A. Dubois, Missionary in Mysore, Eng. Trans., London, 1817; edition by Pope, Madras, 1862).

19Manu. x. 88-90.

20Wheeler ii. 533.

21Travels of Fah Hian, c. 27.

22Strabo,Ind.sec. 59.

23Arrian,Indic.c. 11, 12; Diod. Sic. ii. c. 40, 41; and Strabo xv. 1.

24Irving,Theory and Practice of Caste(London, 1859).

25Manual of Archaeology.

26Revue des deux mondes, 15th September 1848.

CASTEL, LOUIS BERTRAND(1688-1757), French mathematician, was born at Montpellier on the 11th of November 1688, and entered the order of the Jesuits in 1703. Having studied literature, he afterwards devoted himself entirely to mathematics and natural philosophy. He wrote several scientific works, that which attracted most attention at the time being hisOptique des couleurs(1740), or treatise on the melody of colours. He endeavoured to illustrate the subject by aclavecin oculaire, or ocular harpsichord; but the treatise and the illustration were quickly forgotten. He also wroteMathématique universelle(1728) andTraité de physique sur la pesanteur universelle des corps(1724). He also published a critical account of the system of Sir Isaac Newton in French in 1743.

CASTELAR Y RIPOLL, EMILIO(1832-1899), Spanish statesman, was born at Cadiz on the 8th of September 1832. At the age of seven he lost his father, who had taken an active part in the progressist agitations during the reign of Ferdinand VII., and had passed several years as an exile in England. He attended a grammar-school at Sax. In 1848 he began to study law in Madrid, but soon elected to compete for admittance at the school of philosophy and letters, where he took the degree of doctor in 1853. He was an obscure republican student when the Spanish revolutionary movement of 1854 took place, and the young liberals and democrats of that epoch decided to hold a meeting in the largest theatre of the capital. On that occasion Castelar delivered his maiden speech, which at once placed him in the van of the advanced politicians of the reign of Queen Isabella. From that moment he took an active part in politics, radical journalism, literary and historical pursuits. Castelar was compromised in the first rising of June 1866, which was concerted by Marshal Prim, and crushed, after much bloodshed, in the streets by Marshals O’Donnell and Serrano. A court-martial condemned himin contumaciamto death by “garote vil,” and he had to hide in the house of a friend until he escaped to France. There he lived two years until the successful revolution of 1868 allowed him to return and enter the Cortes for the first time—as deputy for Saragossa. At the same time he resumed the professorship of history at the Madrid university. Castelar soon became famous by his rhetorical speeches in the Constituent Cortes of 1869, where he led the republican minority in advocating a federal republic as the logical outcome of the recent revolution. He thus gave much trouble to men like Serrano, Topete and Prim, who had never harboured the idea of drifting into advanced democracy, and who had each his own scheme for re-establishing the monarchy with certain constitutional restrictions. Hence arose Castelar’s constant and vigorous criticisms of the successive plans mooted to place a Hohenzollern, a Portuguese, the duke of Montpensier, Espartero and finally Amadeus of Savoy on the throne. He attacked with relentless vigour the short-lived monarchy of Amadeus, and contributed to its downfall.

The abdication of Amadeus led to the proclamation of the federal republic. The senate and congress, very largely composed of monarchists, permitted themselves to be dragged along into democracy by the republican minority headed by Salmeron, Figueras, Pi y Margall and Castelar. The short-lived federal republic from the 11th of February 1873 to the 3rd of January 1874 was the culminating point of the career of Castelar, and his conduct during those eleven months was much praised by the wiser portion of his fellow-countrymen, though it alienated from him the sympathies of the majority of his quondam friends in the republican ranks.

Before the revolution of 1868, Castelar had begun to dissent from the doctrines of the more advanced republicans, and particularly as to the means to be employed for their success. He abhorred bloodshed, he disliked mob rule, he did not approve of militarypronunciamientos. His idea would have been a parliamentary republic on the American lines, with some traits of the Swiss constitution to keep in touch with the regionalist and provincialist inclinations of many parts of the peninsula. He would have placed at the head of his commonwealth a president and Cortes freely elected by the people, ruling the country in a liberal spirit and with due respect for conservative principles, religious traditions and national unity. Such a statesman was sure to clash with the doctrinaires, like Salmeron, who wanted to imitate French methods; with Pi y Margall, who wanted a federal republic after purely Spanish ideas of decentralization; and above all with the intransigent and gloomy fanatics who became the leaders of the cantonal insurrections at Cadiz, Seville, Valencia, Malaga and Cartagena in 1873.

At first Castelar did his best to work with the other republican members of the first government of the federal republic. He accepted the post of minister for foreign affairs. He even went so far as to side with his colleagues, when serious difficulties arose between the new government and the president of the Cortes, Señor Martos, who was backed by a very imposing commission composed of the most influential conservative members of the last parliament of the Savoyard king, which hadsuspended its sittings shortly after proclaiming the federal republic. A sharp struggle was carried on for weeks between the executive and this commission, at first presided over by Martos, and, when he resigned, by Salmeron. In the background Marshal Serrano and many politicians and military men steadily advocated acoup d’étatin order to avert the triumph of the republicans. The adversaries of the executive were prompted by the captain-general of Madrid, Pavia, who promised the co-operation of the garrison of the capital. The president, Salmeron, and Marshal Serrano himself lacked decision at the last moment, and lost time and many opportunities by which the republican ministers profited. The federal republicans became masters of the situation in the last fortnight of April 1873, and turned the tables on their adversaries by making a pacific bloodlesspronunciamiento.

The battalions of the militia that had assembled in the bull-ring near Marshal Serrano’s house to assist the anti-democratic movement were disarmed, and their leaders, the politicians and generals, were allowed to escape to France or Portugal. The Cortes were dissolved, and the federal and constituent Cortes of the republic convened, but they only sat during the summer of 1873, long enough to show their absolute incapacity, and to convince the executive that the safest policy was to suspend the session for several months.

This was the darkest period of the annals of the Spanish revolution of 1873-1874. Matters got to such a climax of disorder, disturbance and confusion, from the highest to the lowest strata of Spanish society, that the president of the executive, Figueras, deserted his post and fled the country. Pi y Margall and Salmeron, in successive attempts to govern, found no support in the really important and influential elements of Spanish society. Salmeron had even to appeal to such well-known reactionary generals as Pavia, Sanchez, Bregna and Moriones, to assume the command of the armies in the south and in the north of Spain. Fortunately these officers responded to the call of the executive. In less than five weeks a few thousand men properly handled sufficed to quell the cantonal risings in Cordoba, Sevilla, Cadiz and Malaga, and the whole of the south might have been soon pacified, if the federal republican ministers had not once more given way to the pressure of the majority of the Cortes, composed of “Intransigentes” and radical republicans. The president, Salmeron, after showing much indecision, resigned, but not until he had recalled the general in command in Andalusia, Pavia. This resignation was not an unfortunate event for the country, as the federal Cortes not only made Castelar chief of the executive, though his partisans were in a minority in the Parliament, but they gave him much liberty to act, as they decided to suspend the sittings of the house until 2nd January 1874. This was the turning-point of the Spanish revolution, as from that day the tide set in towards the successive developments that led to the restoration of the Bourbons.

On becoming the ruler of Spain at the beginning of September 1873, Castelar at once devoted his attention to the reorganization of the army, whose numbers had dwindled down to about 70,000 men. This force, though aided by considerable bodies of local militia and volunteers in the northern and western provinces, was insufficient to cope with the 60,000 Carlists in arms, and with the still formidable nucleus of cantonalists around Alcoy and Cartagena. To supply the deficiencies Castelar called out more than 100,000 conscripts, who joined the colours in less than six weeks. He selected his generals without respect of politics, sending Moriones to the Basque provinces and Navarre at the head of 20,000 men, Martinez Campos to Catalonia with several thousand, and Lopez Dominguez, the nephew of Marshal Serrano, to begin the land blockade of the last stronghold of the cantonal insurgents, Cartagena, where the crews of Spain’s only fleet had joined the revolt.

Castelar next turned his attention to the Church. He renewed direct relations with the Vatican, and at last induced Pope Pius IX. to approve his selection of two dignitaries to occupy vacant sees as well as his nominee for the vacant archbishopric of Valencia, a prelate who afterwards became archbishop of Toledo, and remained to the end a close friend of Castelar. He put a stop to all persecutions of the Church and religious orders, and enforced respect of Church property. He attempted to restore some order in the treasury and administration of finance, with a view to obtain ways and means to cover the expense of the three civil wars, Carlist, cantonal and Cuban. The Cuban insurgents gave him much trouble and anxiety, the famousVirginiusincident nearly leading to a rupture between Spain and the United States. Castelar sent out to Cuba all the reinforcements he could spare, and a new governor-general, Jovellar, whom he peremptorily instructed to crush the mutinous spirit of the Cuban militia, and not allow them to drag Spain into a conflict with the United States. Acting upon the instructions of Castelar, Jovellar gave up the filibuster vessels, and those of the crew and passengers who had not been summarily shot by General Burriel. Castelar always prided himself on having terminated this incident without too much damage to the prestige of Spain.

At the end of 1873 Castelar had reason to be satisfied with the results of his efforts, with the military operations in the peninsula, with the assistance he was getting from the middle classes and even from many of the political elements of the Spanish revolution that were not republican. On the other hand, on the eve of the meeting of the federal Cortes, he could indulge in no illusions as to what he had to expect from the bulk of the republicans, who openly dissented from his conservative and conciliatory policy, and announced that they would reverse it on the very day the Cortes met. Warnings came in plenty, and no less a personage than the man he had made captain-general of Madrid, General Pavia, suggested that, if a conflict arose between Castelar and the majority of the Cortes, not only the garrison of Madrid and its chief, but all the armies in the field and their generals, were disposed to stand by the president. Castelar knew too well what such offers meant in the classic land ofpronunciamientos, and he refused so flatly that Pavia did not renew his advice. The sequel is soon told. The Cortes met on the 2nd of January 1874. The intransigent majority refused to listen to a last eloquent appeal that Castelar made to their patriotism and common sense, and they passed a vote of censure. Castelar resigned. The Cortes went on wrangling for a day and night until, at daybreak on the 3rd of January 1874, General Pavia forcibly ejected the deputies, closed and dissolved the Cortes, and called up Marshal Serrano to form a provisional government.

Castelar kept apart from active politics during the twelve months that Serrano acted as president of the republic. Anotherpronunciamientofinally put an end to it in the last week of December 1874, when Generals Campos at Sagunto, Jovellar at Valencia, Primo de Rivera at Madrid, and Laserna at Logroño, proclaimed Alphonso XII. king of Spain. Castelar then went into voluntary exile for fifteen months, at the end of which he was elected deputy for Barcelona. He sat in all subsequent parliaments, and just a month before his death he was elected as representative of Murcia. During that period he became even more estranged from the majority of the republicans. Bitter experience had shown him that their federal doctrines and revolutionary methods could lead to nothing in harmony with the aspirations of the majority of Spaniards. He elected, to use his own words, to defend and to seek the realization of the substance of the programme of the Spanish revolution of 1868 by evolution, and legal, pacific means. Hence the contrast between his attitude from 1876 to 1886, during the reign of Alphonso XII., when he stood in the front rank of the Opposition to defend the reforms of that revolution against Señor Canovas, and his attitude from 1886 to 1891. In this latter period Castelar acted as a sort of independent auxiliary of Sagasta and of the Liberal party. As soon as Castelar saw universal suffrage re-established he solemnly declared in the Cortes that his task was accomplished, his political mission at an end, and that he proposed to devote the remainder of his life to those literary, historical, philosophical, and economic studies which he had never neglected even in the busiest days of his political career. Indeed, it was his extraordinary activity and power ofassimilation in such directions that allowed him to keep his fellow-countrymen so well informed of what was going on in the outer world. His literary and journalistic labours occupied much of his time, and were his chief means of subsistence. He left unfinished a history of Europe in the 19th century. The most conspicuous of his earlier works were:—A History of Civilization in the First Five Centuries of Christianity,Recollections of Italy,Life of Lord Byron,The History of the Republican Movement in Europe,The Redemption of Slaves,The Religious Revolution,Historical Essays on the Middle Ages,The Eastern Question,Fra Filippo Lippi,History of the Discovery of America, and some historical novels. Castelar died near Murcia on the 25th of May 1899, at the age of 66. His funeral at Madrid was an imposing demonstration of the sympathy and respect of all classes and parties.

(A. E. H.)

CASTELFRANCO NELL’ EMILIA,a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Bologna, 16 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Bologna. Pop. (1901) 3163 (town), 13,484 (commune). The churches contain some pictures by later Bolognese artists. Just outside the town is a massive fort erected by Urban VIII. in 1628, on the frontier of the province of Bologna, now used as a prison. Castelfranco either occupies or lies near the site of the ancient Forum Gallorum, a place on the Via Aemilia between Mutina and Bononia, where in 43b.c.Octavian and Hirtius defeated Mark Antony.

CASTELFRANCO VENETO,a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Treviso, 16 m. W. by rail from the town of Treviso. Pop. (1901) 5220 (town), 12,551 (commune). The older part of the town is square, surrounded by medieval walls and towers constructed by the people of Treviso in 1218 (seeCittadella). It was the birthplace of the painter Giorgio Barbarelli (Il Giorgione, 1477-1512), and the cathedral contains one of his finest works, the Madonna with SS. Francis and Liberalis (1504), in the background of which the towers of the old town may be seen.

CASTELL, EDMUND(1606-1685), English orientalist, was born in 1606 at Tadlow, in Cambridgeshire. At the age of fifteen he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, but afterwards changed his residence to St John’s, on account of the valuable library there. His great work was the compiling of hisLexicon Heptaglotton Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, Samaritanum, Aethiopicum, Arabicum, et Persicum(1669). Over this book he spent eighteen years, working (if we may accept his own statement) from sixteen to eighteen hours a day; he employed fourteen assistants, and by an expenditure of £12,000 brought himself to poverty, for his lexicon, though full of the most unusual learning, did not find purchasers. He was actually in prison in 1667 because he was unable to discharge his brother’s debts, for which he had made himself liable. A volume of poems dedicated to the king brought him preferment. He was made prebendary of Canterbury and professor of Arabic at Cambridge. Before undertaking theLexicon Heptaglotton, Castell had helped Dr Brian Walton in the preparation of his Polyglott Bible. His MSS. he bequeathed to the university of Cambridge. He died in 1685 at Higham Gobion, Bedfordshire, where he was rector.

The Syriac section of theLexiconwas issued separately at Göttingen in 1788 by J.D. Michaelis, who offers a tribute to Castell’s learning and industry. Trier published the Hebrew section in 1790-1792.

CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA(anc.Stabiae), a seaport and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 17 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, 26,378; commune, 32,589. It lies in the south-east angle of the Bay of Naples, at the beginning of the peninsula of Sorrento, and owing to the sea and mineral water baths (12 different springs) and its attractive situation, with a splendid view of Vesuvius and fine woods on the hills behind, it is a favourite resort of foreigners in spring and autumn and of Neapolitans in summer. The castle from which it takes its name, on the hill to the south of the town, was built by the emperor Frederick II. There are three large churches of the late 18th century. There are a large royal dockyard and a small-arms factory; there are also iron works, cotton, flour and macaroni mills. The value of imports (chiefly coal, wheat, scrap-iron and cheese) for 1904 was £1,239,048, and the value of exports (chiefly macaroni and green fruit) £769,100. There is also a sponge trade, but the former coral trade is depressed. The port was cleared by 420 vessels of 477,713 tonnage in 1905. An electric tramway along the coast road to Sorrento was opened in 1905.

CASTELLESI, ADRIANO(c. 1460?-c. 1521?), known also asCornetofrom his birthplace, Italian cardinal and writer, was sent by Innocent VIII. to reconcile James III. of Scotland with his subjects. While in England he was appointed (1503), by Henry VII., to the see of Hereford, and in the following year to the more lucrative diocese of Bath and Wells, but he never resided in either. Returning to Rome, he became secretary to Alexander VI. and was made by him cardinal (May 31, 1503). A man of doubtful reputation, Alexander’s confidant and favourite, he paid the pope a large sum for his elevation. He bought avignain the Borgo near the Vatican, and thereon erected a sumptuous palace after designs by Bramante; and it was here, in the summer of 1503, that he entertained the pope and Cesare Borgia at a banquet that went on till nightfall despite the unhealthy season of the year, when ague in its most malignant form was rife. Of the three, Cardinal Adrian was the first to fall ill, the pope succumbing a week after. The story of the poisoning of the pope is to be relegated to the realm of fiction. Soon after the election of Leo X. the cardinal was implicated in the conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci against the pope, and confessed his guilt; but, pardon being offered only on condition of the payment o£ 25,000 ducats, he fled from Rome and was subsequently deposed from the cardinalate. As early as 1504 he had presented his palace (now the Palazzo Giraud-Torlonia) to Henry VII. as a residence for the English ambassador to the Holy See; and on his flight Henry VIII., who had quarrelled with him, gave it to Cardinal Campeggio. Adrian first fled to Venice. Of his subsequent history nothing is known for certain. It is said that he was murdered by a servant when on his way to the conclave that elected Adrian VI. As a writer, he was one of the first to restore the Latin tongue to its pristine purity; and among his works areDe Vera Philosophia ex quatuor doctoribus ecclesiae(Bologna, 1507),De Sermone Latino(Basel, 1513), and a poem,De Venatione(Venice, 1534).

See Polydore Vergil,Anglicae historiae, edited by H. Ellis (London, 1844); and A. Aubéry,Histoire générale des cardinaux(Paris, 1642).

(E. Tn.)

CASTELLI, IGNAZ FRANZ(1781-1862), Austrian dramatist, was born at Vienna on the 6th of March 1781. He studied law at the university, and then entered the government service. During the Napoleonic invasions his patriotism inspired him to write stirring war songs, one of which,Kriegslied für die österreichische Armee, was printed by order of the archduke Charles and distributed in thousands. For this Castelli was proclaimed by Napoleon in theMoniteur, and had to seek refuge in Hungary. In 1815 he accompanied the allies into France as secretary to Count Cavriani, and, after his return to Vienna, resumed his official post in connexion with the estates of Lower Austria. In 1842 he retired to his property at Lilienfeld, where, surrounded by his notable collections of pictures and other art treasures, he for the rest of his life devoted himself to literature. Castelli’s dramatic talent was characteristically Austrian; his plays were well constructed and effective and satirized unsparingly the foibles of the Viennese. But his wit was too local and ephemeral to appeal to any but his own generation, and if he is remembered at all to-day it is by his excellentGedichte in niederösterreichischer Mundart(1828). He died at Lilienfeld on the 5th of February 1862.

Castelli’sGesammelte Gedichteappeared in 1835 in 6 vols.; a selection of hisWerkein 1843 in 15 vols. (2nd ed., 1848), followed by 6 supplementary volumes in 1858. His autobiography,Memoiren meines Lebens, appeared in 1861-1862 in 4 vols.

CASTELLO, BERNARDO(1557-1629), Genoese portrait and historical painter, born at Albaro near Genoa, was the intimate friend of Tasso, and took upon himself the task of designing the figures of theGerusalemme Liberata, published in 1592;some of these subjects were engraved by Agostino Caracci. Besides painting a number of works in Genoa, mostly in a rapid and superficial style, Castello was employed in Rome and in the court of the duke of Savoy.

CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA(1500?-1569?), Italian historical painter, was born near Bergamo in 1500 or perhaps 1509, and is hence ordinarily termed Il Bergamasco. He belongs, however, to the school of Genoa, but does not appear to have had any family relationship with the other two painters named Castello, also noticed here. He was employed to decorate the Nunziata di Portoria in Genoa, the saloon of the Lanzi Palace at Gorlago, and the Pardo Palace in Spain. His best-known works are the “Martyrdom of St Sebastian,” and the picture of “Christ as Judge of the World” on one of the vaultings of the Annunziata. He was an architect and sculptor as well as painter. In 1567 he was invited to Madrid by Philip II., and there he died, holding the office of architect of the royal palaces. The date of death (as of birth) is differently stated as 1569 or 1579.

CASTELLO, VALERIO(1625-1659), Italian painter, was the youngest son of Bernardo Castello (q.v.). He surpassed his father, and particularly excelled in painting battle-scenes. He painted the “Rape of the Sabines,” now in the Palazzo Brignole, Genoa, and decorated the cupola of the church of the Annunziata in the same city. In these works he is regarded by his admirers as combining the fire of Tintoretto with the general style of Paolo Veronese.

CASTELLO BRANCO, CAMILLO,Visconde de Correia Botelho(1825-1890), Portuguese novelist, was born out of wedlock and lost his parents in infancy. He spent his early years in a village in Traz-os-Montes. He learnt to love poetry from Camoens and Bocage, while Mendes Pinto gave him a lust for adventure, but he dreamed more than he read, and grew up undisciplined and proud. He studied in Oporto and Coimbra with much irregularity, and since his disdain for the intrigues and miseries of politics in Portugal debarred him from the chance of a government post, he entered the career of letters to gain a livelihood. After a spell of journalistic work in Oporto and Lisbon he proceeded to the Episcopal seminary in the former city with a view of studying for the priesthood, and during this period wrote a number of religious works and translated Chateaubriand. He actually took minor orders, but his restless nature prevented him from following one course for long and he soon returned to the world, and henceforth kept up a feverish literary activity to the end. He was created a viscount in 1885 in recognition of his services to letters, and when his health finally broke down and he could no longer use his pen, parliament gave him a pension for life. When, having lost his sight, and suffering from chronic nervous disease, he died by his own hand in 1890, it was generally recognized that Portugal had lost the most national of her modern writers.

Apart from his plays and verses, Castello Branco’s works may be divided into three sections. The first comprises his romances of the imagination, of whichOs mysterios de Lisboa, in the style of Victor Hugo, is a fair example. The second includes his novels of manners, a style of which he was the creator and remained the chief exponent until the appearance ofO Crime de Padre Amaroof Eça de Queiroz. In these he is partly idealist and partly realist, and describes to perfection the domestic and social life of Portugal in the early part of the 19th century. The third division embraces his writings in the domain of history, biography and literary criticism. Among these may be citedNoites de Lamego,Cousas leves e pesadas,Cavar em ruinas,Memorias do Bispo do Grão ParaandBohemia do Espirito.

In all, his publications number about two hundred and sixty, belonging to many departments of letters, but he owes his great and lasting reputation to his romances. Notwithstanding the fact that his slender means obliged him to produce very rapidly to the order of publishers, who only paid him from £30 to £60 a book, he never lost his individuality under the pressure. Knowing the life of the people by experience and not from books, he was able to fix in his pages a succession of strongly marked and national types, such as thebrazileiro, the oldfidalgoof the north, and the Minho priest, while his lack of personal acquaintance with foreign countries and his relative ignorance of their literatures preserved him from the temptation, so dangerous to a Portuguese, of imitating the classical writers of the larger nations. Among the most notable of his romances areO Romance de un Homem Rico, his favourite,Retrato de Ricardina, Amor de Perdição, and the magnificent series entitledNovellas do Minho. Many of his novels are autobiographical, likeOnde está a felicidade,Memorias do CarcereandVingança. Castello Branco is an admirable story-teller, largely because he was a brilliant improvisatore, but he does not attempt character study. Nothing can exceed the richness of his vocabulary, and no other Portuguese author has shown so profound a knowledge of the popular language. Though nature had endowed him with the poetic temperament, his verses are mediocre, but his best plays are cast in bold lines and contain really dramatic situations, while his comedies are a triumph of the grotesque, with a mordant vein running through them that recalls Gil Vicente.

The collected works of Camillo Castello Branco are published by the Companhia Editora of Lisbon, and his most esteemed books have had several editions. TheDiccionario Bibliographico Portuguez, vol. ix. p. 7 et seq., contains a lengthy but incomplete list of his publications. SeeRomance do Romancista, by A. Pimentel, a badly put together but informing biography; also a study on the novelist by J. Pereira de Sampaio inA Geração Nova(Oporto, 1886); Dr Theophilo Braga,As Modernas Ideias na litteratura Portugueza(Oporto, 1892); Padre Senna Freitas,Perfil de Camillo Castello Branco(S. Paulo, 1887); and Paulo Osorio,Camillo, a sua vida, o seu genio, a sua obra(Oporto, 1908).

(E. Pr.)

CASTELLO BRANCO,an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative district formerly included in the province of Beira, Portugal; 1560 ft. above the sea, on the Abrantes-Guarda railway. Pop. (1900) 7288. Numerous Roman remains bear witness to the antiquity of Castello Branco, but its original name is unknown. The city is dominated by a ruined castle, and partly enclosed by ancient walls; its chief buildings are the cathedral and episcopal palace. Cloth is manufactured, and there is a flourishing local trade in cork, wine and olive oil. The administrative district of Castello Branco, which comprises the valleys of the Zezere, Ocreza and Ponsul, right-hand tributaries of the Tagus, coincides with the south-eastern part of Beira; pop. (1900) 216,608; area, 2382 sq. m.

CASTELLÓN DE LA PLANA,a maritime province of eastern Spain, formed in 1833 of districts formerly included in Valencia, and bounded on the N. by Teruel and Tarragona, E. by the Mediterranean Sea, S. by Valencia, and W. by Teruel. Pop. (1900) 310,828; area, 2495 sq. m. The surface of the province is almost everywhere mountainous, and flat only near the coast and along some of the river valleys. Even on the coast the Atalayas de Alcalá and the Desierto de las Palmas form two well-defined though not lofty ridges. The Mijares or Millares is the principal river, flowing east-south-east from the highlands of Teruel, between the Sierras of Espina and Espadan towards the south, and the peak called Peña Golosa (5945 ft.) towards the north, until it reaches the sea a little south of the capital, also called Castellón de la Plana. The Monlleo, a left-hand tributary of the Mijares; the Bergantes, which flows inland to join the Guadalope in Teruel; the Cenia, which divides Castellón from Tarragona; and a variety of lesser streams, render the province abundantly fertile. No considerable inlet breaks the regularity of the coast-line, and there is no first-class harbour. The climate is cold and variable in the hilly districts, temperate in winter and very warm in summer in the lowlands. Agriculture, fruit-growing, and especially the cultivation of the vine and olive, employ the majority of the peasantry; stock-farming and sea-fishing are also of importance. Lead, zinc, iron and other ores have been discovered in the province; but in 1903, out of 129 mining concessions registered, only two were worked, and their output, lead and zinc, was quite insignificant. The local industries are mainly connected with fish-curing, paper, porcelain, woollens, cotton, silk, esparto, brandy and oils. Wine, oranges and oil are exported to foreign countries andother parts of Spain. The important Barcelona-Valencia railway skirts the coast, passing through the capital; and the Calatayúd-Sagunto line crosses the southern extremity of the province. Elsewhere the roads, which are generally indifferent, form the sole means of communication. Castellón (29,904), Villarreal (16,068), the port of Burriana (12,962), and Peñiscola (3142), a town of some historical interest, are described in separate articles. The other chief towns are Alcalá de Chisbert (6293), Almazora (7076), Benicarló (7251), Maella (7335), Onda (6595), Segorbe (7045), Vail de Uxó (8643), Villafamés (6708) and Vinaroz (8625).

CASTELLÓN DE LA PLANA,the capital of the province described above, on the Barcelona-Valencia railway, 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 29,904. The broad and fertile plain in which Castellón is built is watered artificially by a Moorish aqueduct, largely cut through the solid rock, and supplied by the estuary of the Mijares, 5 m. south-east. The town is partly encircled by ancient walls; and, although most of its public buildings are modern, it contains several convents of early foundation, a curious old bell-tower, 150 ft. high, and a parish church chiefly noteworthy for a painting in the interior by Francisco Ribalta, who was born here in the middle of the 16th century. Castellón has a brisk trade, its manufactures comprising porcelain, leather, silk, linen, brandy and cork goods. Its harbour, El Gráo de Castellón, about 4 m. east, is annually entered by some 200 small vessels. A light railway, which traverses the numerous and profitable orange plantations on the south-west, connects it with the towns of Almazora, Villarreal, Burriana and Onda. Under its Moorish rulers Castellón occupied a hill to the north of its present site; its removal to the plain by James I. of Aragon (1213-1276) gave the town its full name, “Castellón of the Plain.”

CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE,Sieur de la Mauvissière(c. 1520-1592), French soldier and diplomatist, ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, was born in Touraine about 1520. He was one of a large family of children, and his grandfather, Pierre de Castelnau, was equerry to Louis XII. Endowed with a clear and penetrating intellect and remarkable strength of memory, he received a careful education, to complete which he travelled in Italy and made a long stay at Rome. He then spent some time in Malta, afterwards entered the army, and made his first acquaintance with war in the campaigns of the French in Italy. His abilities and his courage won for him the friendship and protection of the cardinal of Lorraine, who took him into his service. In 1557 a command in the navy was given to him, and the cardinal proposed to get him knighted. This, however, he declined, and then rejoined the French army in Picardy. Various delicate missions requiring tact and discretion were entrusted to him by the constable de Montmorency, and these he discharged so satisfactorily that he was sent by the king, Henry II., to Scotland with despatches for Mary Stuart, then betrothed to the dauphin (afterwards Francis II.). From Scotland he passed into England, and treated with Queen Elizabeth respecting her claims on Calais (1559), a settlement of which was effected at the congress of Cateau-Cambrésis. He was next sent as ambassador to the princes of Germany, for the purpose of prevailing upon them to withdraw their favour from the Protestants. This embassy was followed by missions to Margaret of Parma, governess of the Netherlands, to Savoy, and then to Rome, to ascertain the views of Pope Paul IV. with regard to France. Paul having died just before his arrival, Castelnau used his influence in favour of the election of Pius IV. Returning to France, he once more entered the navy, and served under his former patron. It was his good fortune, at Nantes, to discover the earliest symptoms of the conspiracy of Amboise, which he immediately reported to the government.

After the death of Francis II. (December 1560) he accompanied the queen, Mary Stuart, to Scotland, and remained with her a year, during which time he made several journeys into England, and attempted to bring about a reconciliation between Mary and Queen Elizabeth. The wise and moderate counsels which he offered to the former were unheeded. In 1562, in consequence of the civil war in France, he returned there. He was employed against the Protestants in Brittany, was taken prisoner in an engagement with them and sent to Havre, but was soon after exchanged. In the midst of the excited passions of his countrymen, Castelnau, who was a sincere Catholic, maintained a wise self-control and moderation, and by his counsels rendered valuable service to the government. He served at the siege of Rouen, distinguished himself at the battle of Dreux, took Tancarville, and contributed in 1563 to the recapture of Havre from the English.

During the next ten years Castelnau was employed in various important missions:—first to Queen Elizabeth, to negotiate a peace; next to the duke of Alba, the new governor of the Netherlands. On this occasion he discovered the project formed by the prince of Condé and Admiral Coligny to seize and carry off the royal family at Monceaux (1567). After the battle of St Denis he was again sent to Germany to solicit aid against the Protestants; and on his return he was rewarded for his services with the post of governor of Saint-Dizier and a company of orderlies. At the head of his company he took part in the battles of Jarnac and Moncontour. In 1572 he was sent to England by Charles IX. to allay the excitement created by the massacre of St Bartholomew, and the same year he was sent to Germany and Switzerland. Two years later he was reappointed by Henry III. ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, and he remained at her court for ten years. During this period he used his influence to promote the marriage of the queen with the duke of Alençon, with a view especially to strengthen and maintain the alliance of the two countries. But Elizabeth made so many promises only to break them that at last he refused to accept them or communicate them to his government. On his return to France he found that his château of La Mauvissière had been destroyed in the civil war; and as he refused to recognize the authority of the League, the duke of Guise deprived him of the governorship of Saint-Dizier. He was thus brought almost to a state of destitution. But on the accession of Henry IV., the king, who knew his worth, and was confident that although he was a Catholic he might rely on his fidelity, gave him a command in the army, and entrusted him with various confidential missions.

Castelnau died at Joinville in 1592. HisMémoiresrank very high among the original authorities for the period they cover, the eleven years between 1559 and 1570. They were written during his last embassy in England for the benefit of his son; and they possess the merits of clearness, veracity and impartiality. They were first printed in 1621; again, with additions by Le Laboureur, in 2 vols. folio, in 1659; and a third time, still further enlarged by Jean Godefroy, 3 vols. folio, in 1731. Castelnau translated into French the Latin work of Ramus,On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls. Various letters of his are preserved in the Cottonian and Harleian collections in the British Museum.

His grandson,Jacques de Castelnau(1620-1658), distinguished himself in the war against Austria and Spain during the ministries of Richelieu and Mazarin, and died marshal of France.

Back to Index Next