His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to journals, are:—Palestine inconnue(1886),Études d’archéologie orientale(1880, &c.),Les Fraudes archéologiques(1885),Recueil d’archéologie orientale(1885, &c.),Album d’antiquités orientales(1897, &c.).
His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to journals, are:—Palestine inconnue(1886),Études d’archéologie orientale(1880, &c.),Les Fraudes archéologiques(1885),Recueil d’archéologie orientale(1885, &c.),Album d’antiquités orientales(1897, &c.).
CLERMONT-L’HERAULT, orClermont de Lodève, a town of southern France in the department of Hérault, 10 m. S.S.E. by rail of Lodève. Pop. (1906) 4731. The town is built on the slope of a hill which is crowned by an ancient castle and skirted by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It has an interesting church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief manufacture is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods, an industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century. Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is trade in wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town was several times taken and retaken in the religious wars of the 16th century.
CLERMONT-TONNERRE, the name of a French family, members of which played some part in the history of France, especially in Dauphiné, from about 1100 to the Revolution. Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first appears in 1080, was the founder of the family. His descendant, another Sibaud, commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain emblems—two keys and a tiara—to the arms of his family. A direct descendant, Ainard (d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont, was granted the dignity of captain-general and first baron of Dauphiné by his suzerain Humbert, dauphin of Viennois, in 1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for Antoine (d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphiné and the French king’s lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine’s son Henri was created a duke, but as this was only a “brevet” title it did not descend to his son. Henri was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596 Henri’s son, Charles Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added Tonnerre to his heritage; but in 1648 this county was sold by his son and successor, François (d. 1679).
A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri’s descendants was Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier served his country during a long period, fighting in Bohemia and Alsace, and then distinguishing himself greatly at the battles of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was created duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the senior marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at the coronation of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles Henri Jules, governor of Dauphiné, was guillotined in July 1794, a fate which his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons in the previous year. A later duke, Aimé Marie Gaspard (1779-1865), served for some years as a soldier, afterwards becoming minister of marine and then minister of war under Charles X., and retiring into private life after the revolution of 1830. Aimé’s grandson, Roger, duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.
Among other distinguished members of this family was Catherine (c. 1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-Tonnerre. This lady,dame d’honneurto Henry II.’s queen, Catherine de’ Medici, and afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi, due de Retz, won a great reputation by her intellectual attainments, being referred to as the “tenth muse” and the “fourth grace.” One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de Retz. Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family were: François (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until his death, a member of the French Academy, notorious for his inordinate vanity; Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre (q.v.); and Anne Antoine Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop of Châlons, who was a member of the states-general in 1789, afterwards retiring into Germany, and after the return of the Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.
CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE,Comte de(1757-1792), French politican, was born at Pont-à-Mousson on the 10th of October 1757. At the beginning of the Revolution he was a colonel, with some reputation as a freemason and a Liberal. He was elected to the states-general of 1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman of the minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the 25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of France on that of England. He was elected president of the Constituent Assembly on the 17th of August 1789; but on the rejection by the Assembly of the scheme elaborated by the first constitutional committee, he attached himself to the party of moderate royalists, known asmonarchiens, led by P.V. Malouet. His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him the wrath of the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal; but in spite of threats and abuse he continued to advocate a moderate liberal policy, especially in the matter of removing the political disabilities of Jews and Protestants and of extending the system of trial by jury. In January 1790 he collaborated with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux and theJournal des Impartiaux, the names of which were changed in November to the Société des Amis de la Constitution Monarchique andJournal de la Société, &c.. in order to emphasize their opposition to the Jacobins (Société des Amis de la Constitution). This club was denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 21st, 1791), and on the 28th of March it was attacked by a mob, whereupon it was closed by order of the Assembly. Clermont-Tonnerre was murdered by the populace during the rising of the 9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent orator, having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of thegrands seigneursholding advanced and liberal ideas, who helped to bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried in vain to arrest its course.
SeeRecueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre(4 vols., Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself; A. Aulard,Les Orateurs de la Constituante(2nd ed., Paris, 1905).
SeeRecueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre(4 vols., Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself; A. Aulard,Les Orateurs de la Constituante(2nd ed., Paris, 1905).
CLERUCHY(Gr.κληρουχία, fromκλῆρος, a lot,ἔχειν, to have), in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of Athenian1citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered country. Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (e.g.ὁ δῆμος ὁ ἐν Ήφαιστίᾳ), and their allotments were politically part of Attic soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where the earlier inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the settlers occupied the whole territory; (2) where the settlers occupied allotments in the midst of a conquered people; and (3) where the inhabitants gave up portions of land to settlers in return for certain pecuniary concessions. The primary object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506B.C.upon the lands of the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the Hippobotae) was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the DelianLeague the system was the simplest precaution against disaffection on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resentment may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101 [81]), which, in setting forth the terms of the second Delian Confederacy, expressly forbids the holding of land by Athenians in allied territory.
A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian, to provide a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians. Plutarch (Pericles, 11) suggests that Pericles by this means rid the city of the idle and mischievous loafers; but it would appear that the cleruchs were selected by lot, and in any case a wise policy would not deliberately entrust important military duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that in 50 years of the 5th century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.
It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained control over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military service and presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians at home. That they were not liable for the tribute which members of the Delian League paid is clear from the fact that the assessments of places where cleruchs were settled immediately went down considerably (cf. the Periclean cleruchies, 450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained their membership of deme and tribe. In internal government the cleruchs adopted the Boulē and Assembly system of Athens itself; so we read of Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi, Strategi, in various places. With a measure of local self-government there was also combined a certain central authority (e.g.in the matter of jurisdiction, some case being tried by the Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume that the more important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and a citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a few cases, the cleruchs,e.g.in the case of Lesbos (427), were apparently allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their allotments from the original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50); but this represents the perversion of the original idea of the cleruchy to a system of reward and punishment.
See G. Gilbert,Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta(Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted as an example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41 [29]); A.H.J. Greenidge,Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities(London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs seePericles;Delian League.
See G. Gilbert,Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta(Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted as an example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41 [29]); A.H.J. Greenidge,Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities(London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs seePericles;Delian League.
1It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by the Milesians,e.g.to Leros.
1It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by the Milesians,e.g.to Leros.