(O. Ba.)
III. National and Class Costume
Costume, as readers of Carlyle’sSartor Resartusknow, always has a significance deeper than the mere whims of fashion. In the cosmopolitan society of modern times dress everywhere tends to become assimilated to a common model, and this assimilation, however regrettable from the picturesque point of view, is one of the most potent forces in the break-down of the traditional social distinctions. In the middle ages in Europe, and indeed down to the French Revolution, the various classes of the community were clearly differentiated by their dress. Everywhere, of course, it happened that occasionally jackdaws strutted in peacock’s feathers; but even in England, where class distinctions were early less clearly marked than on the continent of Europe, the assumption of a laced coat and a sword marked the development of a citizen into a “gentleman” (q.v.). Nothing has more powerfully contributed to the social amalgamation of the “upper-middle” and the “upper” classes in England than the fashion, introduced in the 19th century, of extreme simplicity in the costume of men. But, apart from the properties of richness in material or decoration as a symbol of class distinction—at one time enforced by sumptuary laws—there have been, and still are, innumerable varieties of costume more or less traditional as proper to certain nationalities or certain classes within those nationalities. Of national costumes properly so called the best known to the English-speaking world is that of the Highlands of Scotland. This is, indeed no longer generally worn, being usually confined to gentlemen of birth and their dependents, but it remains a national dress and is officially recognized as such by the English court and in the uniforms of the Highland regiments in the British army. The chief peculiarity of this costume, distinguishing it from any others, is the tartan, an arrangement of a prevailing colour with more or less narrow checks of other colours, by which the various clans or septs of the same race can be distinguished, while a certain general uniformity symbolizes the union of the clans in a common nationality. Thus, e.g. the tartan of the clan McDonell is green with narrow checks of red, that of the clan Gregarach red with narrow checks of black. The costume consists of a short tunic, vest, a kilt—heavily pleated—fastened round the waist, and reaching not quite to the knees (like a short petticoat), stockings gartered below the bare knee, and shoes. In front of the person, hanging from a belt round the waist, is the “sporran” or “spleuchan,” a pocket-purse covered with fur; and a large “plaid” or scarf, usually wrapped round the body, the ends hanging down from a brooch fastened on the left shoulder, but sometimes gathered up and hanging from the brooch behind, completes the costume. The head-gear is a cloth cap or “bonnet,” in which a sprig of heather is stuck, or an eagle’s feather in the case of chiefs. A dirk is worn thrust into the right stocking. Up to the end of the 16th century the tunic and “philibeg” or kilt formed a single garment; but otherwise the costume has come down the ages without sensible modification. Kilt and plaid are of tartan; and sometimes tartan “trews,” i.e. trousers, are substituted for the former.
Among other national costumes still surviving in Europe may be mentioned the Albanian-Greek dress (characterized by the spreading, pleated white kilt, orfustanella), and the splendid full-dress of a Hungarian gentleman, the prototype of the well-known hussar uniform; to which may be added the Tirolese costume, which, so far as the men are concerned, is characterized by short trousers, cut off above the knee, and a short jacket, the colour varying in different districts. This latter trait illustrates the fact that most of the still surviving “national” costumes in Europe are in fact local and distinctive of class, though they conform to a national type. These “folk-costumes” (Volkstrachten), as the Germans call them, survive most strongly in the most conservative of all classes, that of the peasants and naturally mainly in those districts least accessible to modern “enterprise.” These peasant costumes, often of astonishing richness and beauty, vary more or less in every village, each community having its own traditional type; and, since this type does not vary, they can be handed down as valuable heirlooms from father to son and from mother to daughter. But they are fast disappearing. In the British islands, where there were no free peasant cultivators to maintain the pride of class, they vanished long since; the white caps and steeple-crowned hats of Welsh women were the last to go; and even the becoming and convenient “sun bonnet,” which survives in the United States, has given place almost everywhere to the hideous “cloth cap” of commerce; while the ancient smocked frock, the equivalent of the French peasant’s workmanlikeblouse, has become a curiosity. The same process is proceeding elsewhere; for the simple peasant women cannot resist the blandishments of the commercial traveller and the temptation of change and cheap finery. The transition is at once painful and amusing, and not without interest as illustrating the force of tradition in its struggle with fashion; for it is no uncommon thing, e.g. in France or Holland, to see a “Paris model” perched lamentably on the top of the beautiful traditional head-dress. Similarly in the richer Turkish families women are rapidly acquiring a taste for Parisian costumes, frequently worn in absurd combination with their ordinary garments.
The same process has extended far beyond the limits of Europe. Improved communication and industrial enterprise have combined with the prestige of European civilization to commend the European type of costume to peoples for whom it is eminently unsuited. Even the peoples of the East, whose costume has remained unchanged for untold centuries, and for whom the type has been (as in India) often determined by religious considerations, are showing an increasing tendency to yield to the world-fashion. Turkey, as being most closely in touch with Europe, was the first to feel the influence; the introduction of the fez and the frock-coat, in place of the large turban and flowing caftan of the old Turk, was the most conspicuous of the reforms of Sultan Mahmud II.; and when, in 1909, the first Turkish parliament met, only a small minority of its members wore their traditional costumes. The introduction of Japan into the comity of nations was followed by the adoption of European costume by the court and the upper classes, at least in public and on ceremonial occasions; in private the wide-sleeved, loose, comfortablekimonocontinues to be worn. China, on the other hand, has been more conservative, even her envoys in Europe preserving intact (except sometimes in the matter of boots) the traditional costume of their nation and class, while those of Japan, Corea and Siam appear in the conventional diplomatic or “evening” dress in Europe. In the Mussulman East, even whenEuropean dress has been adopted, an exception has usually been made in favour of head-gear, which has a special religious significance. In Turkey, for instance, the hat has not succeeded in displacing the fez; and in India, though the Parsis had by the beginning of the 20th century begun to modify their traditional high turban-like hat into a modified “bowler,” and Hindus—abroad at least—were affecting the head-gear of the West, those Mussulman princes who had adopted, wholly or partially, European dress continued to wear the turban. On the other hand, the amir of Afghanistan, when he visited India, had—out of doors at least—discarded the turban for the ugly “solar topee.” In spite of the natural conservatism, strengthened by religious conventions, of the Eastern races, there is a growing danger that the spread of European enlightenment will more or less rapidly destroy that picturesque variety of costume which is the delight of the traveller and the artist. For Indian costumes seeIndia:Costume; for Chinese seeChina; &c.
IV. Official Costume
Official costumes, in so far as they are not, like the crowns and tabards of heralds, the coronets of peers, or the gold keys tacked to the coat-tails of royal chamberlains—consciously symbolical, are for the most part ceremonious survivals of bygone general fashions. This is as true of the official costume of the past as of the present; as may be illustrated from ancient Rome, where the toga, once the general costume of Roman citizens, in the 3rd and 4th centuries was the official robe of senators and officials (see also underVestments). Thus, at the present time, the lay chamberlains of the pope and the members of his Swiss guard wear costumes of the 16th century, and the same is true of the king’s yeomen of the guard in England. In general, however (apart from robes, which are much older in their origin), official costumes in Europe, or in countries of European origin, are based on the fashions of the 18th and early 19th centuries. Knee-breeches, however, which survive in the full-dress of many British officials, as in ordinary court dress, had practically disappeared on the continent of Europe, surviving only in certain peasant costumes, when the emperor William II. reintroduced them at the court of Berlin. The tendency in the modern democratic communities of Anglo-Saxon race has been to dispense with official costumes. In the United States the judges of the Supreme Court alone wear robes; the president of the Republic wears on all occasions the dress of an ordinary citizen, unrelieved by order or decoration, and thus symbolizes his pride of place asprimus inter pares; an American ambassador appears on state occasions among his colleagues, gorgeous in bullion-covered coats, in the ordinary black “evening dress” of a modern gentleman. The principle, which tends to assert itself also in the autonomous “British dominions beyond the seas,” is not the result of that native dislike of “dressing up” which characterizes many Englishmen of the upper and middle classes; for modern democracy shares to the full the taste of past ages for official or quasi-official finery, as is proved by the costumes and insignia of the multitudinous popular orders, Knights Templars, Foresters, Oddfellows and the like. It is rather cherished as the outward and visible sign of that doctrine of the equality of all men which remains the most generally gratifying of the gifts of French 18th-century philosophy to the world. In Great Britain, where equality has ever been less valued than liberty, official costumes have tended to increase rather than to fall into disuse; mayors of new boroughs, for instance, are not considered properly equipped until they have their gown and chain of office. In France, on the other hand, the taste of the people for pomp and display, and, it may be added, their innate artistic sense, have combined with their passion for equality to produce a somewhat anomalous situation as regards official costume. Lawyers have their robes, judges their scarlet gowns, diplomatists their gold-laced uniforms; but the state costume of the president of the Republic is “evening dress,” relieved only by the red riband and star of the Legion of Honour. In the Latin states of South America, which tend to be disguised despotisms rather than democracies, the actual rather than the theoretical state of things is symbolized by the gorgeous official uniforms which are among the rewards of those who help the dictator for the time being to power. See alsoRobes; for military costume seeUniforms; for ecclesiastical costume seeVestmentsand subsidiary articles.
(W. A. P.)
Bibliography.—Apart from the enormous number of books especially devoted to costume, innumerable illustrated works exist which are, in various degrees, useful for the study of the history of this subject. It may be noted here, e.g. that the illuminators and painters of the middle ages did not affect historical accuracy in their presentment of biblical or secular subjects, but clothed their patriarchs, apostles or Roman warriors in the dress of their own ages, their pictures thus becoming invaluable records of the costume of their time. In this respect the knowledge of classical antiquity revived during the Renaissance introduced a certain confusion. Artists began to realize the incongruity of representing antique figures in modern garb, but, in the absence of exact knowledge, fancy began to play a greater part than research in the dressing of their characters. Portraits and representations of contemporary scenes (e.g. Rembrandt’s “Night Watch”) continue to be first-hand authorities for the costume of the period in which they were produced; but representations of biblical or historical scenes have little or no value from this point of view. Thus in Rubens’s famous picture of St Ambrose repelling Theodosius from the door of his cathedral, the bishop is vested in the mitre and cope which only came into vogue centuries later, while the emperor wears a military costume modelled on that of Roman imperators of an earlier day. Even in portraiture, however, a certain conservatism tends to make the record untrustworthy; thus, great men continued to be painted in full armour long after it had in fact ceased to be worn.Of authorities for English costume the following may be selected as especially useful: J. C. Bruce,The Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated(London, 1856), with 17 plates; F. W. Fairholt,Costume in England to the end of the 18th Century(2nd ed., ib., 1860); William Fowler,Examples of Medieval Art(1796-1829), 116 plates; Froissart’sChronicles, translated by T. Johnes (4 vols., 1844), 72 plates and many woodcuts; R. N. Humphrey,Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages(ib., 1849);Facsimiles of Original Drawings by Holbein, in the Collection of His Majesty, for Portraits of Persons of the Court of Henry VIII., engraved by F. Bartolozzi, &c. (London, 1884); John Nichols,Progresses, Pageants, &c., of Queen Elizabeth(3 vols., 1823), andof James I.(4 vols., 1828), with numerous plates; Hogarth’sWorks, engraved by himself, with descriptions by J. Nichols (1822), 153 plates; Edmund Lodge,Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain(12 vols., 1823-1835), 240 plates; J. R. Planché,Hist. of British Costume(3rd ed., Bohn, 1874), andCyclopaedia of Costume(2 vols., 1876-1877); Henry Shaw,Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages(2 vols., 1840-1843), 94 plates and many woodcuts; Joseph Strutt, engraver,Dress and Habits of the People of England(2 vols., 1796-1799), andRegal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Great Britain, new edition with notes by J. R. Planché (1842), 153 plates; Westwood,Miniatures of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts(1868), 54 plates; C. A. Stothard,The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain(1817-1832; ed. Hewitt, 1876); Herbert Haines,Manual of Monumental Brasses(Oxford, 1861), with many woodcuts; J. G. and L. A. B. Waller,A Series of Monumental Brasses(London, 1864); H. Druitt,Costume on Brasses(London, 1906). Of foreign works on costume the most important are Hefner-Alteneck,Trachten, &c., vom frühesten Mittelalter bis Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts(2nd ed., Frankfort, 1879-1890); Viollet-le-Duc,Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français(6 vols., Paris, 1858-1875), the first four volumes devoted to armour and costume; Friedrich Hottenroth,Trachten der Völker alter und neuer Zeit(2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1882-1890), with excellent plates, Fr. transl. by J. Bernhoff,Les Costumes chez les peuples, &c.(Paris, 1885), andHandbuch der deutschen Tracht(1898); Bonnard et Mercuri,Costumes historiques des XIIe, XIIIe, XIVeet XVesiècles(2 vols., Paris, 1867), 200 plates; Burgmair,Triomphe de l’empereur Maximilien I. (Vienna, 1796), 135 plates; Chapuy,Le Moyen Age pittoresque(2 vols., 1837), 180 plates; Chevignard et Duplessis,Costumes historiques des XVIe, XVIIeet XVIIIesiècles(2 vols., Paris, 1867), 150 plates; du Sommerard,Les Arts au moyen âge(10 vols., Paris, 1838-1848), 510 plates; Duflos,Recueil d’estampes, représentant les grades, les rangs, et les dignités, suivant le costume de toutes les nations existantes(Paris, 1779-1780), 240 plates;España artistica y monumental(3 vols., Paris, 1842-1859), 145 plates; Fabri,Raccolta di varii vestimenti ed arti del regno di Napoli(Naples, 1773), 27 plates; Jaquemin,Iconographie méthodique du costume du Veau XIXesiècle(Paris), 200 plates; Lacombe,Galerie de Florence et du palais Pitti(4 vols., Paris, 1789-1807), 192 plates; Paul Lacroix,Manners, Customs and Dress during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Eng. trans. (London, 1874),Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance(London, 1874), andThe 18th Century, its Institutions, Customs, Costumes(London, 1875-1876); L. M. Lanté,Galerie française de femmes célèbres, atlas (Paris, 1841), 70 plates; Malliot et Martin,Recherches sur les costumes, les mœurs, les usages religieux, civils et militaires des anciens peuples(3 vols., Paris, 1809), 228 plates; Pauly,Description ethnographique des peuples(St Petersburg, 1862); Pauquet Frères,Modes et costumes historiques et étrangers(2 vols., Paris, 1873), 196 plates; Auguste Racinet,Le Costume historique, in two forms, large and small (Paris, 1876, another ed. in 6 vols., with 500 plates, 1888); G. M. Straub,Trachten oder Stammbuch(1600), several hundreds of curious woodcuts of costumes; Vecellio,Habiti antichi et moderni di tutto il mondo(3 vols., Venice, 1859-1863).Examples and illustrations of early costume of great interest and value may be found in theArchaeologia, M. Didron’sAnnales archéologiques, theJournalsof the Archaeological Societies, the various county histories, theMonumenta Vetusta of the London Society of Antiquaries, and other kindred works.Besides works on costume generally, there are a large number devoted specially to national or “folk” costumes. Of these may be mentioned: F. Hottenroth,Deutsche Volkstrachten, städtische und ländliche, vom XVI. Jahrhundert his zum Anfange des XIX. Jahrhunderts(Frankfort, 1898, 1900, 1902, &c.), including German, Bohemian, Swiss and Dutch local costumes, with references to further works; L. M. Lanté,Costume de divers pays(undated, c. 1825), 177 coloured plates of female costumes, mainly French, some Spanish, German, &c.; A. Hård,Swedish Costumes(Stockholm, 1858), 10 coloured plates; Félix Benoist,La Normandie illustrée(2 vols, fol., Nantes, 1854), with excellent coloured lithographs of costumes by Hyppolite Lalaine; E. H. T. Pingret,Galerie royale de costumes(Paris, undated), beautiful lithographs of costumes, principally Italian with some Spanish and Swiss, lithographed from paintings by Pingret by various artists; Edward Harding,Costume of the Russian Empire(London, 1811), with 70 hand-coloured plates, including costumes of many of the semi-barbaric tribes of central Asia; for Turkish costume in the 18th century seeRecueil de cent estampes représentant différentes nations du Levant, engraved by Le Hay (Paris, 1714); for Greek costume at the time of the War of Independence see Baron O. M. von Stackelberg,Costumes et usages des peuples de la Grèce moderne(Rome, 1825), with 30 beautiful plates. For Highland costume see R. R. MacIan,Costumes of the Clans(Glasgow, 1899), with letterpress by J. Logan.
Bibliography.—Apart from the enormous number of books especially devoted to costume, innumerable illustrated works exist which are, in various degrees, useful for the study of the history of this subject. It may be noted here, e.g. that the illuminators and painters of the middle ages did not affect historical accuracy in their presentment of biblical or secular subjects, but clothed their patriarchs, apostles or Roman warriors in the dress of their own ages, their pictures thus becoming invaluable records of the costume of their time. In this respect the knowledge of classical antiquity revived during the Renaissance introduced a certain confusion. Artists began to realize the incongruity of representing antique figures in modern garb, but, in the absence of exact knowledge, fancy began to play a greater part than research in the dressing of their characters. Portraits and representations of contemporary scenes (e.g. Rembrandt’s “Night Watch”) continue to be first-hand authorities for the costume of the period in which they were produced; but representations of biblical or historical scenes have little or no value from this point of view. Thus in Rubens’s famous picture of St Ambrose repelling Theodosius from the door of his cathedral, the bishop is vested in the mitre and cope which only came into vogue centuries later, while the emperor wears a military costume modelled on that of Roman imperators of an earlier day. Even in portraiture, however, a certain conservatism tends to make the record untrustworthy; thus, great men continued to be painted in full armour long after it had in fact ceased to be worn.
Of authorities for English costume the following may be selected as especially useful: J. C. Bruce,The Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated(London, 1856), with 17 plates; F. W. Fairholt,Costume in England to the end of the 18th Century(2nd ed., ib., 1860); William Fowler,Examples of Medieval Art(1796-1829), 116 plates; Froissart’sChronicles, translated by T. Johnes (4 vols., 1844), 72 plates and many woodcuts; R. N. Humphrey,Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages(ib., 1849);Facsimiles of Original Drawings by Holbein, in the Collection of His Majesty, for Portraits of Persons of the Court of Henry VIII., engraved by F. Bartolozzi, &c. (London, 1884); John Nichols,Progresses, Pageants, &c., of Queen Elizabeth(3 vols., 1823), andof James I.(4 vols., 1828), with numerous plates; Hogarth’sWorks, engraved by himself, with descriptions by J. Nichols (1822), 153 plates; Edmund Lodge,Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain(12 vols., 1823-1835), 240 plates; J. R. Planché,Hist. of British Costume(3rd ed., Bohn, 1874), andCyclopaedia of Costume(2 vols., 1876-1877); Henry Shaw,Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages(2 vols., 1840-1843), 94 plates and many woodcuts; Joseph Strutt, engraver,Dress and Habits of the People of England(2 vols., 1796-1799), andRegal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Great Britain, new edition with notes by J. R. Planché (1842), 153 plates; Westwood,Miniatures of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts(1868), 54 plates; C. A. Stothard,The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain(1817-1832; ed. Hewitt, 1876); Herbert Haines,Manual of Monumental Brasses(Oxford, 1861), with many woodcuts; J. G. and L. A. B. Waller,A Series of Monumental Brasses(London, 1864); H. Druitt,Costume on Brasses(London, 1906). Of foreign works on costume the most important are Hefner-Alteneck,Trachten, &c., vom frühesten Mittelalter bis Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts(2nd ed., Frankfort, 1879-1890); Viollet-le-Duc,Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français(6 vols., Paris, 1858-1875), the first four volumes devoted to armour and costume; Friedrich Hottenroth,Trachten der Völker alter und neuer Zeit(2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1882-1890), with excellent plates, Fr. transl. by J. Bernhoff,Les Costumes chez les peuples, &c.(Paris, 1885), andHandbuch der deutschen Tracht(1898); Bonnard et Mercuri,Costumes historiques des XIIe, XIIIe, XIVeet XVesiècles(2 vols., Paris, 1867), 200 plates; Burgmair,Triomphe de l’empereur Maximilien I. (Vienna, 1796), 135 plates; Chapuy,Le Moyen Age pittoresque(2 vols., 1837), 180 plates; Chevignard et Duplessis,Costumes historiques des XVIe, XVIIeet XVIIIesiècles(2 vols., Paris, 1867), 150 plates; du Sommerard,Les Arts au moyen âge(10 vols., Paris, 1838-1848), 510 plates; Duflos,Recueil d’estampes, représentant les grades, les rangs, et les dignités, suivant le costume de toutes les nations existantes(Paris, 1779-1780), 240 plates;España artistica y monumental(3 vols., Paris, 1842-1859), 145 plates; Fabri,Raccolta di varii vestimenti ed arti del regno di Napoli(Naples, 1773), 27 plates; Jaquemin,Iconographie méthodique du costume du Veau XIXesiècle(Paris), 200 plates; Lacombe,Galerie de Florence et du palais Pitti(4 vols., Paris, 1789-1807), 192 plates; Paul Lacroix,Manners, Customs and Dress during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Eng. trans. (London, 1874),Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance(London, 1874), andThe 18th Century, its Institutions, Customs, Costumes(London, 1875-1876); L. M. Lanté,Galerie française de femmes célèbres, atlas (Paris, 1841), 70 plates; Malliot et Martin,Recherches sur les costumes, les mœurs, les usages religieux, civils et militaires des anciens peuples(3 vols., Paris, 1809), 228 plates; Pauly,Description ethnographique des peuples(St Petersburg, 1862); Pauquet Frères,Modes et costumes historiques et étrangers(2 vols., Paris, 1873), 196 plates; Auguste Racinet,Le Costume historique, in two forms, large and small (Paris, 1876, another ed. in 6 vols., with 500 plates, 1888); G. M. Straub,Trachten oder Stammbuch(1600), several hundreds of curious woodcuts of costumes; Vecellio,Habiti antichi et moderni di tutto il mondo(3 vols., Venice, 1859-1863).
Examples and illustrations of early costume of great interest and value may be found in theArchaeologia, M. Didron’sAnnales archéologiques, theJournalsof the Archaeological Societies, the various county histories, theMonumenta Vetusta of the London Society of Antiquaries, and other kindred works.
Besides works on costume generally, there are a large number devoted specially to national or “folk” costumes. Of these may be mentioned: F. Hottenroth,Deutsche Volkstrachten, städtische und ländliche, vom XVI. Jahrhundert his zum Anfange des XIX. Jahrhunderts(Frankfort, 1898, 1900, 1902, &c.), including German, Bohemian, Swiss and Dutch local costumes, with references to further works; L. M. Lanté,Costume de divers pays(undated, c. 1825), 177 coloured plates of female costumes, mainly French, some Spanish, German, &c.; A. Hård,Swedish Costumes(Stockholm, 1858), 10 coloured plates; Félix Benoist,La Normandie illustrée(2 vols, fol., Nantes, 1854), with excellent coloured lithographs of costumes by Hyppolite Lalaine; E. H. T. Pingret,Galerie royale de costumes(Paris, undated), beautiful lithographs of costumes, principally Italian with some Spanish and Swiss, lithographed from paintings by Pingret by various artists; Edward Harding,Costume of the Russian Empire(London, 1811), with 70 hand-coloured plates, including costumes of many of the semi-barbaric tribes of central Asia; for Turkish costume in the 18th century seeRecueil de cent estampes représentant différentes nations du Levant, engraved by Le Hay (Paris, 1714); for Greek costume at the time of the War of Independence see Baron O. M. von Stackelberg,Costumes et usages des peuples de la Grèce moderne(Rome, 1825), with 30 beautiful plates. For Highland costume see R. R. MacIan,Costumes of the Clans(Glasgow, 1899), with letterpress by J. Logan.
1The Races of Man.2The comprehensive description by Herodotus (vii. 61 sqq.) of the costumes of the mercenaries of Xerxes is classical (see Rawlinson’s edition, iv. 56 sqq.). For archaeological parallels one may compare the tombs of Rekhmire (15th cent. B.C.) and Harmhab (14th cent.) in Egypt, the “Black Obelisk” of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser II. (9th cent.) or his famous gates at Balawat (ed. W. Birch and T. G. Pinches, and with critical description and plates by A. Billerbeck and F. Delitzsch,Beiträge z. Assyriologie, vi. 1; Leipzig, 1908).3Old Babylonian sculptors who represent the enemy as naked (Meyer [see bibliography below], pp. 12, 70 seq., 116), conventionally anticipate the usual treatment of the slain and wounded warriors.4Edited P. C. Newberry (Archaeol. Survey of Egypt, 1893). Cf. also the Palestinian short coloured skirt with black tassels of the 14th century (Zeit. f. Ägypt. Sprache, 1898, pp. 126 sqq.).5See e.g. Ball,Light from the East, p. 36. On the Aegean dress (Whether a development from spiral swathes or perhaps rather from a series of skirts one above the other), see the discussion of the Aegean loin-cloth by D. Mackenzie,Annual of the British School at Athens, xii. 233-249 (esp. 242 seq.).6Joseph’s familiar “coat of many colours,” which we owe to the Septuagint, can perhaps be justified: R. Eisler,Orient. Lit. Zeitung, August, 19087Erman, 226 sqq., cf. the modern Bedouin shoe, Jennings-Bramley,Quart. Stat.of Palest. Explor. Fund (1908), p. 115 sq. (on dress of Sinaitic Bedouin generally).8Meyer, 97, see F. Hommel,Aufsätze u. Abhandlungen(Munich, 1900), 160 sqq., 214 sqq. For other feathered head-dresses in western Asia, see Müller, 361 sqq.9Such tasselled or fringed caps were used by the Syrians in the Christian era, see W. Budge,Book of Governors, ii, 339, 367.10Comp. the horns of Bau (“mother of the gods”), Samas (Shamash), (H)adad, and (in Egypt) of the Asiatic god assimilated to Set (so, too, Rameses III. is styled “strong-horned” like Baal). With the band dependent from the conical hat of Marduk-bal-iddin II. (Meyer, 8) and other kings, cf. the tail on the head-dress of this foreign Set (e.g.Proc. Soc. of Bibl. Arch.xvi. 87 sq.). The consort of the Pharaoh, in turn, wore the sacred vulture head-dress.11On the resemblance between divine and royal figures in costume, &c., see further Meyer, 9, 14 sq., 17, 23, 53 sq., 67, 79, 102, 105 sq.12Herod. iii. 8. If the bald Sumerians wore wigs in time of war, (Meyer, 81, 86), war itself from beginning to end was essentially a religious rite; see W. R. Smith,Rel. of Semites, pp. 401 sqq., 491 sq.; F. Schwally,Semitische Kriegsaltertümer, i. On the importance attached to the beard, seeEncy. Bib., s.v.13A typical example is afforded by the solitary representation of a Moabite (Perrot and Chipiez,Phoen.ii. 45) whose helmet and dress suggest a god or king. Equally perplexing is the Egyptian style on the Phoenician statue, ib. 28.14Cf. Lev. xvi. 23 sq.; Ex. xix 10; Herod, ii. 37 (ed. Wiedemann); Lagrange,Études sur les relig. sém.239.15M. Jastrow,Relig. of Bab. and Ass.p. 666; cf.Rev. biblique, 1908, p. 466 sq., and Meyer, 59, 86, 97, 101. According to the latter Sumerian priests served naked (p. 112).16For the conspicuous dress of Syrian and Phrygian priests in Rome and for other incidental references, see D. Chwolsohn,Die Ssabier(1856), ii. 655, 712 sq.17Ex. xxviii., xxix. 5; Lev. viii. 6-9, xvi.; Ecclus. xlv.; Joseph.Ant.iii. 7,Wars, v. 5, 7; see commentaries and special dictionaries of the Bible.18Zimmern,Keilinschrift. u. Alte Test. 629, n. 5; cf. the Bab. priests’ pectoral; Lagrange, op. cit., 236, n. 1.19Jubilees, viii. 11, see W. Muss-Arnolt,Amer. Journ. of Semit. Lang., 1900, pp. 207-212.20The relations between sacerdotal and civic authority may be seen in the vestments of the church (chasuble, alb, stole), which probably were once the official garments of magistrates.21See articles on mourning customs in theBible Dictionaries, and, for special studies, Büchler, Zeit.f. alttest. Wissens., 1901, pp. 81-92; M. Jastrow, ib., 1907, 117 sqq.; and inJourn. Amer. Or. Soc.xx. 133 Sqq., xxi. 23-39. For the Babylonian evidence see Zimmern, op. cit., 603. The sculptures of Sennacherib show the bare-headed and bare-footed suppliants of Lachish meanly clad before Sennacherib (Ball, p. 192, contrast the warriors with caps and helmets, ib. p. 190, and on the simple dress, cf. above).22Ezek. xvi. xxiii.; Isa. iii. 16-iv. 1. For the hairy garb, cf. John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); it became the ascete’s dress. The founder of the Jacobite Church in Asia owed his surname (Burde’ānā) to his rough horse-cloth. Here may be mentioned the archaic revival in Egypt in the 8th century B.C., which also extended to the costume.23See for details, A. Brüll,Trachten d. Juden(1873).24These ornamental bands are carefully described and reproduced in colour by A. Lermann,Altgriechische Plastik(1907), pp. 85 ff., pls. i.-xx. Some authorities hold that the skirt forms part of the over-garment, but it seems clear that it belongs to theχιτών.25Thetutuluswas worn at Rome by theflaminica.26It was also worn by Roman children.27This seems more likely than the alternative view that it was of elliptical shape and was folded before being put on. Quintilian (xi. 3, 139. alocus classicusfor thetoga) speaks of it as “rotunda”; but this need not be taken literally.28The Lares are thus represented in art.29The suffibulum of the vestals, which was fastened on the breast by a brooch (fibula), was a garment of this sort. The marriage-veil (flammeum) derived its name from its bright orange colour. The palliolum was a kind of mantilla.
1The Races of Man.
2The comprehensive description by Herodotus (vii. 61 sqq.) of the costumes of the mercenaries of Xerxes is classical (see Rawlinson’s edition, iv. 56 sqq.). For archaeological parallels one may compare the tombs of Rekhmire (15th cent. B.C.) and Harmhab (14th cent.) in Egypt, the “Black Obelisk” of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser II. (9th cent.) or his famous gates at Balawat (ed. W. Birch and T. G. Pinches, and with critical description and plates by A. Billerbeck and F. Delitzsch,Beiträge z. Assyriologie, vi. 1; Leipzig, 1908).
3Old Babylonian sculptors who represent the enemy as naked (Meyer [see bibliography below], pp. 12, 70 seq., 116), conventionally anticipate the usual treatment of the slain and wounded warriors.
4Edited P. C. Newberry (Archaeol. Survey of Egypt, 1893). Cf. also the Palestinian short coloured skirt with black tassels of the 14th century (Zeit. f. Ägypt. Sprache, 1898, pp. 126 sqq.).
5See e.g. Ball,Light from the East, p. 36. On the Aegean dress (Whether a development from spiral swathes or perhaps rather from a series of skirts one above the other), see the discussion of the Aegean loin-cloth by D. Mackenzie,Annual of the British School at Athens, xii. 233-249 (esp. 242 seq.).
6Joseph’s familiar “coat of many colours,” which we owe to the Septuagint, can perhaps be justified: R. Eisler,Orient. Lit. Zeitung, August, 1908
7Erman, 226 sqq., cf. the modern Bedouin shoe, Jennings-Bramley,Quart. Stat.of Palest. Explor. Fund (1908), p. 115 sq. (on dress of Sinaitic Bedouin generally).
8Meyer, 97, see F. Hommel,Aufsätze u. Abhandlungen(Munich, 1900), 160 sqq., 214 sqq. For other feathered head-dresses in western Asia, see Müller, 361 sqq.
9Such tasselled or fringed caps were used by the Syrians in the Christian era, see W. Budge,Book of Governors, ii, 339, 367.
10Comp. the horns of Bau (“mother of the gods”), Samas (Shamash), (H)adad, and (in Egypt) of the Asiatic god assimilated to Set (so, too, Rameses III. is styled “strong-horned” like Baal). With the band dependent from the conical hat of Marduk-bal-iddin II. (Meyer, 8) and other kings, cf. the tail on the head-dress of this foreign Set (e.g.Proc. Soc. of Bibl. Arch.xvi. 87 sq.). The consort of the Pharaoh, in turn, wore the sacred vulture head-dress.
11On the resemblance between divine and royal figures in costume, &c., see further Meyer, 9, 14 sq., 17, 23, 53 sq., 67, 79, 102, 105 sq.
12Herod. iii. 8. If the bald Sumerians wore wigs in time of war, (Meyer, 81, 86), war itself from beginning to end was essentially a religious rite; see W. R. Smith,Rel. of Semites, pp. 401 sqq., 491 sq.; F. Schwally,Semitische Kriegsaltertümer, i. On the importance attached to the beard, seeEncy. Bib., s.v.
13A typical example is afforded by the solitary representation of a Moabite (Perrot and Chipiez,Phoen.ii. 45) whose helmet and dress suggest a god or king. Equally perplexing is the Egyptian style on the Phoenician statue, ib. 28.
14Cf. Lev. xvi. 23 sq.; Ex. xix 10; Herod, ii. 37 (ed. Wiedemann); Lagrange,Études sur les relig. sém.239.
15M. Jastrow,Relig. of Bab. and Ass.p. 666; cf.Rev. biblique, 1908, p. 466 sq., and Meyer, 59, 86, 97, 101. According to the latter Sumerian priests served naked (p. 112).
16For the conspicuous dress of Syrian and Phrygian priests in Rome and for other incidental references, see D. Chwolsohn,Die Ssabier(1856), ii. 655, 712 sq.
17Ex. xxviii., xxix. 5; Lev. viii. 6-9, xvi.; Ecclus. xlv.; Joseph.Ant.iii. 7,Wars, v. 5, 7; see commentaries and special dictionaries of the Bible.
18Zimmern,Keilinschrift. u. Alte Test. 629, n. 5; cf. the Bab. priests’ pectoral; Lagrange, op. cit., 236, n. 1.
19Jubilees, viii. 11, see W. Muss-Arnolt,Amer. Journ. of Semit. Lang., 1900, pp. 207-212.
20The relations between sacerdotal and civic authority may be seen in the vestments of the church (chasuble, alb, stole), which probably were once the official garments of magistrates.
21See articles on mourning customs in theBible Dictionaries, and, for special studies, Büchler, Zeit.f. alttest. Wissens., 1901, pp. 81-92; M. Jastrow, ib., 1907, 117 sqq.; and inJourn. Amer. Or. Soc.xx. 133 Sqq., xxi. 23-39. For the Babylonian evidence see Zimmern, op. cit., 603. The sculptures of Sennacherib show the bare-headed and bare-footed suppliants of Lachish meanly clad before Sennacherib (Ball, p. 192, contrast the warriors with caps and helmets, ib. p. 190, and on the simple dress, cf. above).
22Ezek. xvi. xxiii.; Isa. iii. 16-iv. 1. For the hairy garb, cf. John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); it became the ascete’s dress. The founder of the Jacobite Church in Asia owed his surname (Burde’ānā) to his rough horse-cloth. Here may be mentioned the archaic revival in Egypt in the 8th century B.C., which also extended to the costume.
23See for details, A. Brüll,Trachten d. Juden(1873).
24These ornamental bands are carefully described and reproduced in colour by A. Lermann,Altgriechische Plastik(1907), pp. 85 ff., pls. i.-xx. Some authorities hold that the skirt forms part of the over-garment, but it seems clear that it belongs to theχιτών.
25Thetutuluswas worn at Rome by theflaminica.
26It was also worn by Roman children.
27This seems more likely than the alternative view that it was of elliptical shape and was folded before being put on. Quintilian (xi. 3, 139. alocus classicusfor thetoga) speaks of it as “rotunda”; but this need not be taken literally.
28The Lares are thus represented in art.
29The suffibulum of the vestals, which was fastened on the breast by a brooch (fibula), was a garment of this sort. The marriage-veil (flammeum) derived its name from its bright orange colour. The palliolum was a kind of mantilla.