See Taylor,Medical Jurisprudence; “Description of a simple and efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human subject, especially in cases of drowning,” by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 87,Medico-Chirurgical Society’s Transactions); “The relative efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in man,” by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i.Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh);A Method for the Treatment of the Apparently Drowned, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903);Handbook of Instruction, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908).
See Taylor,Medical Jurisprudence; “Description of a simple and efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human subject, especially in cases of drowning,” by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 87,Medico-Chirurgical Society’s Transactions); “The relative efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in man,” by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i.Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh);A Method for the Treatment of the Apparently Drowned, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903);Handbook of Instruction, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908).
(W. Hy.)
Penal Use of Drowning.—As a form of capital punishment, drowning was once common throughout Europe, but it is now only practised in Mahommedan countries and the Far East. Tacitus states that the ancient Germans hanged criminals of any rank, but those of the low classes were drowned beneath hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned convicts. The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. The law of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife should be smothered in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment for women guilty of theft was drowning. So usual was the penalty in the middle ages that grants of life and death jurisdiction were worded to be “cum fossa et furca” (i.e.“with drowning-pit and gallows”). The owner of Baynard’s Castle, London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals, and his descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges, the most valued of which was the right of drowning in the Thames traitors taken within their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment ordained by Richard Cœur de Lion for any soldier of his army who killed a fellow-crusader during the passage to the Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for women as being the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally a male criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to be drowned “by the queen’s special grace.” In 1611 a man was drowned at Edinburgh for stealing a lamb, and in 1623 eleven gipsy women suffered there. By that date the penalty was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland till 1685 (the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The lastexecution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria 1776, in Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution the penalty was revived in the terribleNoyadescarried out by the terrorist Jean Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.
DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV(1808-1884), German historian, was born on the 6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania. His father, Johann Christoph Droysen, was an army chaplain, in which capacity he was present at the celebrated siege of Kolberg in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen witnessed some of the military operations during the War of Liberation, for his father was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate neighbourhood of Stettin, which was held by the French during the greater part of 1813. The impressions of these early years laid the foundation of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him, like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated at the gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin; in 1829 he became a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars), one of the oldest schools in Berlin; besides his work there he gave lectures at the university, from 1833 asprivat-dozent, and from 1835 as professor, without a salary. During these years he was occupied with classical antiquity; he published a translation of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of Aristophanes, but the work by which he made himself known as a historian was hisGeschichte Alexanders des Grossen(Berlin, 1833, and other editions), a book which still remains probably the best work on the subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school of German historical thought, for it shows that idealization of power and success which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel. It was followed by other volumes dealing with the successors of Alexander, published under the title ofGeschichte des Hellenismus(Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and revised edition of the whole work was published in 1885; it has been translated into French, but not into English.
In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel. He was at once attracted into the political movement for the defence of the rights of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was the centre. Like his predecessor F. C. Dahlmann, he placed his historical learning at the service of the estates of Schleswig-Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which the estates protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected a member of the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary to the committee for drawing up the constitution. He was a determined supporter of Prussian ascendancy, and was one of the first members to retire after the king of Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he continued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with Carl Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark with Schleswig-Holstein,Die Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein und das Königreich Dänemark seit dem Jahre 1806(Hamburg, 1850). A translation was published in London in the same year under the titleThe Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein. The work was one of great political importance, and had much to do with the formation of German public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle with Denmark.
After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he was appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called to Berlin, where he remained till his death. In his later years he was almost entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851 he brought out a life of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, 1851-1852, and many later editions), one of the best biographies in the German language, and then began his great work on theGeschichte der preussischen Politik(Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven volumes were published, the last not till after his death. It forms a complete history of the growth of the Prussian monarchy down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen’s work, shows a strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves out in history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness that also gave him so much influence as a teacher.
Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th of June 1884. His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several well-known historical works, namely,Gustav Adolf(Leipzig, 1869-1870);Herzog Bernhard von Weimar(Leipzig, 1885); an admirableHistorischer Handatlas(Leipzig, 1885), and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years’ War. Another son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history and antiquities.
See M. Duncker,Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf(Berlin, 1885); and Dahlmann-Waitz,Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte(Leipzig, 1906).
See M. Duncker,Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf(Berlin, 1885); and Dahlmann-Waitz,Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte(Leipzig, 1906).
(J. W. He.)
DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE(1832-1895), French man of letters, son of the sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in Paris on the 9th of June 1832. He was educated as an artist, and began to exhibit in the Salon of 1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies of family life, published in theVie parisienneand issued in book form asMonsieur, Madame et Bébé(1866), won for the author an immediate and great success.Entre nous(1867) was built on a similar plan, and was followed by some psychological novels:Le Cahier bleu de Mlle Cibot(1868);Autour d’une source(1869);Un Paquet de lettres(1870);Babolein(1872);Les Étangs(1875);L’Enfant(1885). HisTristesses et sourires(1884) is a delicate analysis of the niceties of family intercourse and its difficulties. Droz’s first book was translated into English under the title ofPapa, Mamma and Baby(1887).Un Été à la campagne, a book which caused considerable scandal, was erroneously attributed to him. He died on the 22nd of October 1895.
DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH(1773-1850), French writer on ethics and political science, was born on the 31st of October 1773 at Besançon, where his family had furnished men of considerable mark to the legal profession. His own legal studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived on the very day after the dethronement of the king, and was present during the massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined the volunteerbataillonof the Doubs, and for the next three years served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on the score of ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post in the newly-foundedécole centraleof Besançon; and in 1799 he made his first appearance as an author by anEssai sur l’art oratoire(Paris, Fructidor, An VII.), in which he acknowledges his indebtedness more especially to Hugh Blair. Removing to Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the like-minded Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on this philosopher’s advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he produced the romance ofLina, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized as a mingled echo of Florian andWerther. Like several other literary men of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue office known as theDroits réunis; but from 1814 he devoted himself exclusively to literature and became a contributor to various journals. Already favourably known by hisEssai sur l’art d’être heureux(Paris, 1806), hisÉloge de Montaigne(1812), and hisEssai sur le beau dans les arts(1815), he not only gained the Monthyon prize in 1823 by his workDe la philosophie morale ou des différents systèmes sur la science de la vie, but also in 1824 obtained admission to the Académie Française. The main doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will never be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of their duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 byApplication de la morale à la philosophie et à la politique, and in 1829 byÉconomie politique, ou principes de la science des richesses, a methodical and clearly written treatise, which was edited by Michel Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest work was aHistoire du règne de Louis XVI(3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842). As he advanced in life Droz became more and more decidedly religious, and the last work of his prolific pen wasPensées du Christianisme(1842). Few have left so blameless a reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he remained all his life of the race of the good and the just.
See Guizot,Discours académiques; Montalembert, “Discours de réception,” inMémoires de l’Académie française; Sainte-Beuve,Causeries du lundi, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to theÉconomie politique.
See Guizot,Discours académiques; Montalembert, “Discours de réception,” inMémoires de l’Académie française; Sainte-Beuve,Causeries du lundi, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to theÉconomie politique.
DRUG,a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. The district was formed in 1906 out of portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. It has an area of 3807 sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 628,885, showing a heavy decrease in the preceding decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and 1900. The district is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel in the centre and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling country. The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway passes through the district. Drug, the capital of the district, is on the railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population of 4002. Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are carried on.
DRUG(from Fr.drogue, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span. and Ital.droga; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly be connected with Dutchdroog, dry), any organic and inorganic substance used in the preparation of medicines, by itself or in combination with others, and either prepared by some method or used in a natural state (seePharmacologyandPharmacopoeia). In a particular sense “drug” is often used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous substances, and hence “to drug” means to stupefy or poison. The word is also applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the value has greatly depreciated—a “drug in the market.”
DRUIDISM,the name usually given to the religious system
of the ancient inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The
word Druid (Lat.druida) probably represents a Gaulishdruid-s,
Irishdrúi, gen. sing.drúad. On the analogy of Irishsúi We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most
circumstantial account of the Druids to be met with in the
classical writers. He tells us that all men of any rank and
dignity in Gaul were included among the Druids or the nobles.
In other words, the Druids constituted the learned and the
priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders
and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by
Diodorus and Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards
and soothsayers. Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive
functions to the Druids than they actually possessed. The
substance of Caesar’s account is as follows. On those who
refused to submit to their decisions they had the power of inflicting
severe penalties, of which excommunication from society
was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and
enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment
of taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after
by the youth of Gaul. The course of training to which a novice
had to submit was protracted, extending sometimes over twenty
years. All instruction was communicated orally, but for
ordinary purposes they had a written language in which they
used the Greek characters. The president of the order, whose
office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life, had
supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was
immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural
theology were their favourite studies. Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every
year a general assembly of the order was held within the territories
of the Carnutes in Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to
offer human sacrifices, usually criminals. Cicero remarks on
the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known
by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus, an Aeduan,
he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice acceptable
to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the
intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves
between two armies to bring about peace. They are said to
have had a firm belief in the immortality of the soul and in
metempsychosis, a fact which led several ancient writers to
conclude that they had been influenced by the teaching of the
Greek philosopher Pythagoras. A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise
druidical rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as
arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer deal
with cases of murder. Under Tiberius the Druids were suppressed
by a decree of the senate, but this had to be renewed by
Claudius ina.d.54. In Mela we find the Druids teaching in the
depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their activity is limited
to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According to this
writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration.
Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on
that tree was thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially
the mistletoe. When thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a
golden knife by a priest clad in a white robe, two white bulls
being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus, in describing the attack
made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the Romans under
Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awe-struck
on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who,
with hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible
imprecations on the heads of the invaders. The courage of the
Romans, however, soon overcame such fears; the Britons were
put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the scene of many a
sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down. After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are
only referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance,
apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a
race of Druids. When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should
expect, no traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the
conquest of Anglesea mentioned above, except in the story of
Vortigern as recounted by Nennius. After being excommunicated
by Germanus the British leader invites twelve Druids to
assist him. These probably came from North Britain. In
Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently mentioned,
and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly well
to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers.
The functions of Caesar’s Druids we here find distributed amongst
Druids, bards and poets (fili), but even in very early times the
poet has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally
supplants him with the spread of Christianity. The following
is the position of the Druid in the pagan literature. The most
important documents are contained in MSS. of the 12th century,
but the texts themselves go back in large measure to abouta.d.700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do not appear to have
formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been exempt
from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected
with Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied
by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version)
who are desirous of learning his art, though what this consisted
in we are not told. The Druids are represented as being able
to foretell the future and to perform magic. Before setting out
on the great expedition against Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught,
goes to consult her Druid, and just before the famous heroine
Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies what sort of a
woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the magical
skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the
land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman
named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is
given a potion by some Druids, which banishes all memory of his
recent adventures and which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs
of jealousy. More remarkable still is the story of Etain. This
lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem, high-king of Ireland, was
in a former existence the beloved of the god Mider, who again
seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his
Druid Dalān, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt
of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of
yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description
of the band of Cathbu’s Druids occurs in the epic tale, theCattle-spoiling of Cualnge(Cooley): “The attendant raises hiseyes towards heaven and observes the clouds and answers the
band around him. They all raise their eyes towards heaven,
observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that
they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven
towards the camp of the men of Ireland.” We are further told
that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak
before the Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are
able to produce insanity. In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented
as magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries,
though we find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters
of Laegaire, the high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They
are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of St
Patrick and St Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the
battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid made anairbe drúad(fence
of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely
meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids seem to have
had a peculiar tonsure. The worddrúiis always used to render
the Latinmagus, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ
as his Druid. See D’Arbois de Jubainville,Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à
forme d’animaux(Paris, 1906), andIntroduction à l’étude de la
littérature celtique(Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce,A Social History of
Ancient Ireland(London, 1903). See D’Arbois de Jubainville,Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à
forme d’animaux(Paris, 1906), andIntroduction à l’étude de la
littérature celtique(Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce,A Social History of
Ancient Ireland(London, 1903). (E. C. Q.) DRUIDS, ORDER OF,a friendly society founded, as an
imitation of the ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They
adopted Masonic rites and spread to America (1833) and Australia.
Their lodges are called “Groves.” In 1872 the Order
was introduced into Germany. (SeeFriendly Societies.) DRUM(early formsdromeordromme, a word common to many
Teut. languages, cf. Dan.tromme, Ger.Trommel: the word is
ultimately the same as “trumpet,” and is probably onomatopoeic
in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th
century), the name given to the well-known musical instrument
(see below) and also to many objects resembling it in shape.
Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar shape, as a “drum”
of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder, round which
belting is passed; of thetympanumor cylindrically shaped
middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the
external auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure
of a dome when raised to some height above the
pendentives. The architectural drum had a twofold object;
first, to give greater elevation to the dome externally so that it
should rise well above the surrounding building, and secondly,
to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical windows cut
in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome itself,
as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the
circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions
were built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of
these great circular blocks are found on the road between the
quarries and the temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter,
being about 6 ft. high. The termfrustais sometimes applied to
them. In music the drum (Fr.tambour; Ger.Trommel; Ital.tamburo)
is an instrument of percussion common in some form to all
nations and ages. It consists of a frame or vessel forming a
resonant cavity, over one or both ends of which is stretched a
skin or vellum set in vibration by direct percussion of hand or
stick. Drums fall into two divisions according to the nature of
their sonority:—(1) instruments producing sounds of definite
musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in the harmony
of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (q.v.); (2) instruments
of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the
harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side
or snare drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for
marking the rhythm and adding tone colour. Drums are further divided into three classes according to
special features of construction:—(1) instruments having a
skin stretched over one end of the resonant cavity, the other
being open, such as the tambourine (q.v.) and thedarabukkehor Egyptian drum, shaped like a mushroom; (2) instruments
consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of metal, wood or earthenware
entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched across the
opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape of a
cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side
drum, &c. Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to
produce vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment
are taken up by the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus
reinforces the sound produced by the parchment. Thetoneof
the instrument whether definite or indefinite depends upon the
dimensions of the vellum, the shape of the resonant receptacle,
and the method of percussion. Theintensityof the sound
depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the diameter
of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the
resonant receptacle; the material of which the latter consists
has little or no influence on the tone of the instrument. Thepitchof the sound is determined by the dimensions of the vellum
taken in conjunction with the degree of tension, the pitch
varying in acuteness directly with the degree of tension and
inversely with the size of the vellum. Thebass drumor Turkish drum (Fr.grosse caisse; Ger.Grosse
Trommel; Ital.gran cassaortamburo grande) consists of a
short cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by
vellum stretched over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place
by larger hoops fitting
tightly over them. At
regular intervals in the
two large hoops are
bored holes through
which passes an endless
cord stretched in zig-zag
round the cylinder and
connecting the two
hoops. The tension of
the vellum is controlled
by means of leather
braces which are made
to slide up and down
the zig-zag of cord,
slackening or tightening
the large hoops, and
with them the vellum,
at the will of the performer.
Systems of rods
and screws are also used
for the purpose. The
bass drum is mounted on a stand when used in the orchestra.
The sound is produced by striking the centre of the vellum on
the one end of the drum with a stick having a large soft round
knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or felt. The
bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note, but
the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a
mere dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the
braces; the instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering
it with a piece of cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally
written on a stave with a bass clef,, the C being
merely used to show the rhythm and accents. Sometimes
the stave is dispensed with, a single note on a single
line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every
orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the
rhythm. It is possible to make gradations inforteandpianoon the bass drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in
moderatetempo. A roll is sometimes played by holding a short
stick, furnished with a knob at each end, in the middle and
striking in quick succession with each knob alternately; two
kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It is understood
that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum
unless the composer has writtensenza piattiover the part.
Wagner did not once score for the bass drum after he composedRienzi, but Verdi, Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively.
The bass drum was formerly known as thelong drum,
the cylinder being long in proportion to the diameter. Thesideorsnare drum(Fr.tambour militaire; Ger.Militärtrommel;
Ital.tamburo militare) is an instrument consisting ofa small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end.
The parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly
down by larger hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the
vellums are tightened or slackened by means of cords and leather
braces, or by a system of rods and screws. Across the lower head
are stretched two or more catgut strings called snares, which
produce a rattling sound at each stroke on the upper head,
owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head which
jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by
direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations
in the air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these
vibrations are communicated to the lower head. The presence
of the snares across the diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon
which gives the side drum its peculiar timbre, changing
the nature of the vibrations, now no longer free: the snares
form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double the number of
vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than
would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover,
the vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter
is compelled to vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.1 The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is
struck in the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated
heads or knobs of hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound
when the drum is played singly and in close proximity to the
hearer; when, however, several drums are played simultaneously
or with other instruments the effect is brilliant and exhilarating.
The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately with each
hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a rattling
tremolo. This roll (“daddy-mammy”) is very difficult to
acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be
muffled by loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk
or cloth between the snares and the parchment. An impressive
effect is produced by a continued roll on muffled drums in funeral
marches. The notation for the side drum is similar to that in use
for the bass drum; the value of the note is alone of importance;
the place of the note on the staff is immaterial and purely a
matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single line is often
used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the same
staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the
side drum, such as Thetenor drum(Fr.caisse roulante; Ger.Roll-orRührtrommel;
Ital.tamburo rulante) is similar to the side drum but has a larger
cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks
the brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for
the roll in military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the
stage. Thetambourin de Provenceis a small drum with a long cylinder
of narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small
pipe (galoubet) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one
stick only, the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers
the pipe. The tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of
the pipe and tabor (q.v.). The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient
civilizations is established beyond a doubt by the numerous
representations of the instrument in a variety of shapes and
sizes on the monuments and paintings of Egypt, Assyria,
India and Persia. Thetympanon, under which name seem to
have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as well as
the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks
and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it
was introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization
into western Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced
by the crusaders, but it was certainly known in England
long before the crusades, for Bede (Musica practica) mentions
it in his list of instruments, and Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes
it. The side drum was, until the reign of Elizabeth, of a much
larger size than now and was held horizontally and beaten on
one head only. It is not known at what date snares were added;
Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, 1618) and Mersenne (L’Harmonie
universelle, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of a side
drum showing a snare appears in a book2from the printing press
of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords
and braces. Another woodcut of the same century is given as
frontispiece to an edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.3An actual
side drum with two curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient
Egyptians was found during the excavations conducted at Thebes
in 1823.4It measured 1½ ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter; the
tension of the heads was regulated by cords braced by means of
catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and wound separately
round each cord so that these could be tightened or slackened
at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing
them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient
Egyptian straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums
were used at the battle of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad
celebrating Edward III.’s victory on this occasion appears in a
chronicle of the 14th century, preserved in the British Museum
(Harl. MS. 4690), “This was do with merry sowne.With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto.And loud clariones they blew also.” “This was do with merry sowne. With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto. And loud clariones they blew also.” A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the
“Englische mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their
trompes and pipers pipenede loude and made a great schowte
upon the Skottes.” Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken
by the Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.5Having
mentioned their great horns, he adds, “ils font si grand’ noise
avec grands tambours qu’ils ont aussi.” The same chronicler,
describing the triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347),
gives the following list of instruments used: “trompes, tambours,
nacaires, chalemies, muses.”6 Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to
give signals in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and
dragoons, and kettledrums by the cavalry.7In the reign of
Henry VIII. two drummers were allowed to every company of
100 men. The chief drum beats used by the infantry in the
17th century8werecall,troop,preparative,march,battaileandretreat; these were later9changed togeneral,réveillé,assemblyortroop,tattoo,chamade, &c. The side drum was admitted into
the orchestra in the 17th century, when Marais (1636-1728)
scored for it in his operaAlcione. (K. S.) 1See Victor Mahillon,Catalogue descriptif(Ghent, 1880), vol. i.
pp. 19 and 20.2Joannes Mauburnius,Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et
sacrarum meditationum(Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix.3Vier Bücher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerüsten, &c.;
(Augsburg, 1534).4Carl Engel,The Music of the Most Ancient Nations(London,
1864), p. 219.5Chron.ii. p. 737, see also Grose’sMilitary Antiquities, ii. 41.6See Froissart in J. A. Buchon,Panthéon litt.(Paris, 1837), vol. i.
cap. 322, p. 273.7Sir John Smythe,A Brief Discourse(London, 1594), pp. 158-159.8Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe,Militarie Discipline, or the Young
Artilleryman(London, 1643).9Sir James Turner,Pallas armata(1685), xxi. 302. 1See Victor Mahillon,Catalogue descriptif(Ghent, 1880), vol. i.
pp. 19 and 20. 2Joannes Mauburnius,Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et
sacrarum meditationum(Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix. 3Vier Bücher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerüsten, &c.;
(Augsburg, 1534). 4Carl Engel,The Music of the Most Ancient Nations(London,
1864), p. 219. 5Chron.ii. p. 737, see also Grose’sMilitary Antiquities, ii. 41. 6See Froissart in J. A. Buchon,Panthéon litt.(Paris, 1837), vol. i.
cap. 322, p. 273. 7Sir John Smythe,A Brief Discourse(London, 1594), pp. 158-159. 8Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe,Militarie Discipline, or the Young
Artilleryman(London, 1643). 9Sir James Turner,Pallas armata(1685), xxi. 302. DRUMMOND, HENRY(1786-1860), English banker, politician
and writer, best known as one of the founders of the Catholic
Apostolic or “Irvingite” Church, was born at the Grange, near
Alresford, Hampshire, on the 5th of December 1786. He was the
eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent London banker,
by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated at
Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His
name is permanently connected with the university through the
chair of political economy which he founded in 1825. He
entered parliament in early life, and took an active interest from
the first in nearly all departments of politics. Thoroughly
independent and often eccentric in his views, he yet acted
generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often
almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on
occasion caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in
1860 he represented West Surrey in parliament. Drummond
took a deep interest in religious subjects, and published numerous
books and pamphlets on such questions as the interpretation of
prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the principles of
Christianity, &c., which attracted considerable attention. In
1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his
movement against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in
that city. In later years he was intimately associated with the
origin and spread of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings
of those who sympathized with the views of Edward Irving
were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond’s seat,
Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the
funds of the new church; and he became one of its leading
office-bearers, visiting Scotland as an “apostle” and being
ordained as an “angel” for that kingdom. The numerous
works he wrote in defence of its distinctive doctrines and practice
were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom convincing. He
died on the 20th of February 1860. DRUMMOND, HENRY(1851-1897), Scottish evangelical
writer and lecturer, was born in Stirling on the 17th of August
1851. He was educated at Edinburgh University, where he
displayed a strong inclination for physical and mathematical
science. The religious element was an even more powerful
factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free Church
of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for
a time deeply interested in the evangelizing mission of Moody
and Sankey, in which he actively co-operated for two years. In
1877 he became lecturer on natural science in the Free Church
College, which enabled him to combine all the pursuits for which
he felt a vocation. His studies resulted in his writingNatural
Law in the Spiritual World, the argument of which was that the
scientific principle of continuity extended from the physical
world to the spiritual. Before the book issued from the press
(1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes Company
drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in
the following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of
serious readers, alike among the religious and the scientific
classes, discovered inNatural Lawthe common standing-ground
which they needed; and the universality of the demand proved,
if nothing more, the seasonableness of its publication. Drummond
continued to be actively interested in missionary and other
movements among the Free Church students. In 1888 he
publishedTropical Africa, a valuable digest of information.
In 1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the
Lowell Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve
them for mature revision, but an attempted piracy compelled
him to hasten their publication, and they appeared in 1894
under the title ofThe Ascent of Man. Their object was to vindicate
for altruism, or the disinterested care and compassion
of animals for each other, an important part in effecting “the
survival of the fittest,” a thesis previously maintained by
Professor John Fiske. Drummond’s health failed shortly afterwards,
and he died on the 11th of March 1897. His character
was full of charm. His writings were too nicely adapted to the
needs of his own day to justify the expectation that they would
long survive it, but few men exercised more religious influence
in their own generation, especially on young men. DRUMMOND, THOMAS(1797-1840), British inventor and
administrator, was born at Edinburgh on the 10th of October
1797, and was educated at the high school there. He was
appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers.
In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service
for the bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby
(1784-1852), from whom in the following year he received an
appointment on the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain.
During his winters in London he attended the chemical lectures
of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the Royal Institution, and
the mention at one of these of the brilliant luminosity of lime
when incandescent suggested to him the employment of the lime
light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825,
when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light
apparatus (“Drummond light”) was put to a practical test,
and enabled observations to be completed between Divis
mountain, near Belfast, and Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m.
About the same time he also devised an improved heliostat, and
in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light for lighthouse
purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was appointed
superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later
he was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he
proved himself a most successful administrator, and did much
to promote law and order. It was he who in 1838 told the Irish
landlords that “property has its duties as well as its rights.”
In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a commission on railways
in Ireland, and took a large share in its work, which resulted
in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that the state
should construct a system of lines throughout the island.
Drummond’s health was undermined by overwork, and he died
at Dublin on the 15th of April 1840. SeeLifeby J. F. M’Lennan (1867);Life and Lettersby R. Barry
O’Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom inPapers on the Duties of the
Royal Engineers, vol. iv. (1840). SeeLifeby J. F. M’Lennan (1867);Life and Lettersby R. Barry
O’Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom inPapers on the Duties of the
Royal Engineers, vol. iv. (1840). DRUMMOND, WILLIAM(1585-1649), called “of Hawthornden,”
Scottish poet, was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh,
on the 13th of December 1585. His father, John Drummond, was
the first laird of Hawthornden; and his mother was Susannah
Fowler, sister of William Fowler (q.v.), poet and courtier.
Drummond received his early education at the high school of
Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently
founded university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman
usher at the English court (as he had been at the Scottish court
from 1590) and William, in a visit to London in 1606, describes
the festivities in connexion with the visit of the king of Denmark.
Drummond spent two years at Bourges and Paris in the study
of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland, where, by the
death of his father in the following year, he became laird of
Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books
he read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting.
It indicates a strong preference for imaginative literature, and
shows that he was keenly interested in contemporary verse.
His collection (now in the library of the university of Edinburgh)
contains many first editions of the most famous productions of
the age. On finding himself his own master, Drummond naturally
abandoned law for the muses; “for,” says his biographer in
1711, “the delicacy of his wit always run on the pleasantness
and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of
poetry.” In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William
Alexander of Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (q.v.), which
ripened into a life-long friendship after Drummond’s visit to
Menstrie in 1614. Drummond’s first publication appeared in 1613, an elegy on
the death of Henry, prince of Wales, calledTeares on the Death
of Meliades(Moeliades, 3rd edit. 1614). The poem shows the
influence of Spenser’s and Sidney’s pastoralism. In the same
year he published an anthology of the elegies of Chapman,
Wither and others, entitledMausoleum, orThe Choisest Flowres
of the Epitaphs. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare’s death,
appearedPoems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall: in
Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals, being substantially thestory of his love for Mary Cunningham of Barns, who was about
to become his wife when she died in 1615. The poems bear
marks of a close study of Sidney, and of the Italian poets. He
sometimes translates direct from the Italian, especially from
Marini.Forth Feasting: A Panegyricke to the King’s Most
Excellent Majestie(1617), a poem written in heroic couplets of
remarkable facility, celebrates James’s visit to Scotland in that
year. In 1618 Drummond began a correspondence with Michael
Drayton. The two poets continued to write at intervals for
thirteen years, the last letter being dated in the year of Drayton’s
death. The latter had almost been persuaded by his “dear
Drummond” to print the later books ofPoly-Olbionat Hart’s
Edinburgh press. In the winter of 1618-1619, Drummond had
included Ben Jonson in his circle of literary friends, and at
Christmas 1618 was honoured with a visit of a fortnight or more
from the dramatist. The account of their conversations, long
supposed to be lost, was discovered in the Advocates’ Library,
Edinburgh, by David Laing, and was edited for the Shakespeare
Society in 1842 and printed by Gifford & Cunningham. The
conversations are full of literary gossip, and embody Ben’s
opinion of himself and of his host, whom he frankly told that
“his verses were too much of the schooles, and were not after
the fancie of the time,” and again that he “was too good and
simple, and that oft a man’s modestie made a fool of his witt.”
But the publication of what was obviously intended merely
for a private journal has given Jonson an undeserved reputation
for harsh judgments, and has cast blame on Drummond for
blackening his guest’s memory. In 1623 appeared the poet’s fourth publication, entitledFlowers of Sion: By William Drummond of Hawthornedenne:
to which is adjoyned his Cypresse Grove. From 1625 till 1630
Drummond was probably for the most part engaged in travelling
on the Continent. In 1627, however, he seems to have been
home for a short time, as, in that year, he appears in the entirely
new character of the holder of a patent for the construction of
military machines, entitled “Litera Magistri Gulielmi Drummond
de Fabrica Machinarum Militarium, Anno 1627.” The same
year, 1627, is the date of Drummond’s munificent gift (referred
to above) of about 500 volumes to the library of the university
of Edinburgh. In 1630 Drummond again began to reside permanently at
Hawthornden, and in 1632 he married Elizabeth Logan, by
whom he had five sons and four daughters. In 1633 Charles
made his coronation-visit to Scotland; and Drummond’s pen
was employed in writing congratulatory speeches and verses.
As Drummond preferred Episcopacy to Presbytery, and was an
extremely loyal subject, he supported Charles’s general policy,
though he protested against the methods employed to enforce
it. When Lord Balmerino was put on his trial on the capital
charge of retaining in his possession a petition regarded as a
libel on the king’s government, Drummond in an energetic
“Letter” (1635) urged the injustice and folly of the proceedings.
About this time a claim by the earl of Menteith to the earldom
of Strathearn, which was based on the assertion that Robert III.,
husband of Annabella Drummond, was illegitimate, roused the
poet’s pride of blood and prompted him to prepare an historical
defence of his house. Partly to please his kinsman the earl
of Perth, and partly to satisfy his own curiosity, the poet made
researches in the genealogy of the family. This investigation
was the real secret of Drummond’s interest in Scottish history;
and so we find that he now began hisHistory of Scotland during
the Reigns of the Five Jameses, a work which did not appear till
1655, and is remarkable only for its good literary style. His next
work was called forth by the king’s enforced submission to the
opposition of his Scottish subjects. It is entitledIrene: or a
Remonstrance for Concord, Amity, and Love amongst His Majesty’s
Subjects(1638), and embodies Drummond’s political creed of
submission to authority as the only logical refuge from democracy,
which he hated. In 1639 Drummond had to sign the Covenant
in self-protection, but was uneasy under the burden, as several
political squibs by him testify. In 1643 he publishedΣκιαμαχία:or a Defence of a Petition tendered to the Lords of the Council of
Scotland by certain Noblemen and Gentlemen, a political pamphlet
in support of those royalists in Scotland who wished to espouse
the king’s cause against the English parliament. Its burden is
an invective on the intolerance of the then dominant Presbyterian
clergy. His later works may be described briefly as royalist pamphlets,
written with more or less caution, as the times required. Drummond
took the part of Montrose; and a letter from the Royalist
leader in 1646 acknowledged his services. He also wrote a
pamphlet, “A Vindication of the Hamiltons,” supporting the
claims of the duke of Hamilton to lead the Scottish army which
was to release Charles I. It is said that Drummond’s health
received a severe shock when news was brought of the king’s
execution. He died on the 4th of December 1649. He was
buried in his parish church of Lasswade. Drummond’s most important works are theCypresse Groveand the poems. TheCypresse Groveexhibits great wealth of
illustration, and an extraordinary command of musical English.
It is an essay on the folly of the fear of death. “This globe of
the earth,” says he, “which seemeth huge to us, in respect of
the universe, and compared with that wide pavilion of heaven,
is less than little, of no sensible quantity, and but as a point.”
This is one of Drummond’s favourite moods; and he uses
constantly in his poems such phrases as “the All,” “this great
All.” Even in such of his poems as may be called more distinctively
Christian, this philosophic conception is at work. A noteworthy feature in Drummond’s poetry, as in that of
his courtier contemporaries Ayton (q.v.), Lord Stirling and
others, is that it manifests no characteristic Scottish element,
but owes its birth and inspiration rather to the English and
Italian masters. Drummond was essentially a follower of
Spenser, but, amid all his sensuousness, and even in those lines
most conspicuously beautiful, there is a dash of melancholy
thoughtfulness—a tendency deepened by the death of his first
love, Mary Cunningham. Drummond was called “the Scottish
Petrarch”; and his sonnets, which are the expression of a
genuine passion, stand far above most of the contemporary
Petrarcan imitations. A remarkable burlesque poemPolemo-Middinia
inter Vitarvam et Nebernam(printed anonymously in
1684) has been persistently, and with good reason, ascribed to
him. It is a mock-heroic tale, in dog-Latin, of a country feud
on the Fifeshire lands of his old friends the Cunninghams.
Back to IndexNext