Chapter 22

Bibliography.—The Comedies, Tragedies and Operas written by John Dryden, Esq.(2 vols., 1701) was published by Tonson, who also issued the poet’sDramatick Works(6 vols., 1717), edited by Congreve.Poems on Various Occasions and Translations from Several Authors(1701), also published by Tonson, was very incomplete, and although other editions followed there was no satisfactory collection until the edition of theWorks(18 vols., 1808, 2nd ed. 1821) by Sir Walter Scott, who supplied historical and critical notes with a life of the author. This, as revised and corrected by G. Saintsbury (18 vols., Edinburgh, 1882-1893), remains the standard edition.His Critical and Miscellaneous Prose Works(4 vols., 1800) were edited by Edmund Malone, who collected industriously the materials for a life of Dryden. Convenient partial modern editions are thePoetical Works(Globe edition, 1870) edited by W. D. Christie with an excellent “life”;The Best Plays of John Dryden(Mermaid series, 2 vols.), edited by G. Saintsbury; andEssays of John Dryden(2 vols., 1900, Oxford), edited by W. P. Ker. Besides the critical and biographical matter in these editions see Dr Johnson’sLives of the Poets; Dryden(English Men of Letters series, 1881), by G. Saintsbury; A. Beljame,Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre 1660-1744(2nd ed. Paris, 1897); A. W. Ward,History of English Dramatic Literature(new ed. 1899), vol. iii. pp. 346-392; J. Churton Collins,Essays and Studies; W. J. Courthope,History of English Poetry, vol. iv. (1903), chap, xiv., and L. N. Chase,The English Heroic Play(New York, 1903). See alsoEnglish Literature.

(W. M.; M. Br.)

DRYOPITHECUS(Gr.δρῦς, oak,πίθηκος, ape, “the ape of the oak-woods”), the name of an extinct ape or monkey from Miocene deposits of France, believed to be allied to the baboons, but perhaps with some affinity to the higher apes.

DRY ROT,a fungoid disease in timber which occasions the destruction of its fibres, and reduces it eventually to a mass of dry dust. It is produced most readily in a warm, moist, stagnant atmosphere, while common or wet rot is the result of the exposure of wood to repeated changes of climatic conditions. The most formidable of the dry rot fungi is the speciesMerulius lacrymans, which is particularly destructive of coniferous wood; other species arePolyporus hybridus, which thrives in oak-built ships, andP. destructorandThelephora puteana, found in a variety of wooden structures.

The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviating the rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin. Vitruvius directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees should be cut to the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their sap, which by dying in the wood would injure its quality; also that felling should take place only from early autumn until the end of winter. The supposed superior quality of wood cut in winter, and the early practice in England of felling oak timber at that season, may be inferred from a statute of James I., which enacted “that no person or persons shall fell, or cause to be felled, any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s. a cart-load (timber for the needful building and reparation of houses, ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April and last day of June, not even for the king’s use, out of barking time, except for building or repairing his Majesty’s houses or ships.” In giving testimony before a committee of the House of Commons in March 1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed it as his opinion that to secure durable timber for shipbuilding, trees should be barked in spring and not felled till the succeeding winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a royal decree limited the felling of timber from the 1st of October to the 15th of April; and, in an order issued to the commissioners of forests, Napoleon I. directed that the felling of naval timber should take place only from November 1 to March 15, and during the decrease of the moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying of wood in water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible constituents, has long been practised as a means of seasoning. The old “Resistance” frigate, which went down in Malta harbour, remained under water for some months, and on being raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry rot fungus that had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship “Eden,” the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months’ submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a year at home in excellent condition she was sent out to the East Indies. It was an ancient practice in England to place timber for thrashing-floors and oak planks for wainscotting in running water to season them. Whale and other oils have been recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a Mr Emerson.

For the modern processes of preserving timber seeTimber.

DUALISM(from rare Lat.dualis, containing two, fromduo), a philosophical term applied to all theories which attempt to explain facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The term plays an important part in metaphysical, ethical and theological speculation.

In Metaphysics.—Metaphysical dualism postulates the eternal coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism both idealistic and materialistic. Two forms of this dualism are held. On the one hand it is said that mind and matter are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore, that any causal relation between them isex hypothesiimpossible. On the other hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as toknowmatterin itself, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and effect to postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause, of its sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter is a necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism, inasmuch as it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter save as an intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter, in other words, must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot know itin itself. From this question there emerges a second and more difficult problem. Consciousness, it is held, is of twomain kinds, sensation and reason. Sensation alone is insufficient to explain all our intellectual phenomena; all sensation is momentary and individual (cf. Empiricism). How then are we to account for memory and the principles of necessity, similarity, universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and group the presentations of sense. This faculty isa priori, transcendental, and entirely separate from all the data of experience and sense-perception. Here then we have a dualism within experience. The mind is not to be regarded as a sensitized film which automatically records the impressions of the senses. It contains within itself this modifying critical faculty which reacts upon and arranges the sense-given presentations.

In Ethics and Theology.—In the domain of morals, dualism postulates the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles of existence. In theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic and has not the fundamental, determining importance which it has in metaphysics. It is a result rather than a starting-point. The old Zoroastrianism, and those Christian sects (e.g.Manichaeism) which were influenced by it, postulate two contending deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil), which war against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking this dualism is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God will triumph over Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism the dualism is not ultimate, for Ahriman and Ormuzd are represented as the twin sons of Zervana Akarana,i.e.limitless time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The postulate of an Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times acutely felt by a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of evil with the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and infinite power. John Stuart Mill (Essay on Religion) preferred to disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the belief in His goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan is not the creation of God, but rather a power coeval in origin, over whose activity God has no absolute control.

In Theology.—Dualism is also used in a special theological sense to describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According to this doctrine the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine Logos dwells as a distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ, the union of the two natures being analogous to the relation between the believer and the indwelling Holy Spirit.

History of the Doctrine.—The earliest European thinkers (seeIonian School of Philosophy) endeavoured to reduce all the facts of the universe to a single material origin, such as Fire, Water, Air. It is only gradually that there appears any recognition of a spiritual principle exercising a modifying or causal influence over inert matter. Anaxagoras was the first to postulate the existence of Reason (νοῦς) as the source of change and progress. Yet even he did not conceive this Reason as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most highly rarefied form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time we find a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate a second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous existence and of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified metaphysics and ethics, combining the good with the truly existent and evil with the non-existent. Aristotle rebels against this conception and substitutes the idea ofπρώτη ὕληand development. Nevertheless he does not escape from the dualism of Form and Matter,νοῦςandὕλη. The scholastic philosophers naturally held dualistic views resulting from their extreme devotion to formalism. This blind dualism found its natural consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance thinkers, Bruno and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and matter in all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors. The birth of modern physical science on the other hand in the investigations of Bacon and Descartes obscured the metaphysical issue by the predominance of the mechanical principles of natural philosophy. They attempted to explain the fundamental problems of existence by the unaided evidence of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained the absolute dualism of theres cogitansand theres extensa. Spinoza realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate behind mind and matter a single substance (unica substantia) while Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual or semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the problem. He never really establishes a relation between pure reason and things-in-themselves (Dinge an sich), but rather seeks refuge in a dualism within consciousness, the transcendental and the empirical. Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams of dualism, dealing, one with the radical problem of the relation between mind and matter, the other with the relation between the pure rational and the empirical elements within consciousness. To the first problem there is one obvious and conclusive answer, namely that matter in itself is inherently unthinkable and comes within the vision of the mind only as an intellectual presentation. It follows that philosophy is in a sense both dualist and monist; it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the possible existence of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the possibility of any true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the only possible knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive dualism, a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental problem. To the second problem there are two main answers, that of Associationism which denies to the mind anya prioriexistence and asserts that sensation is the only source of knowledge, and that which admits the existence of both transcendental and empirical knowledge.

DUALLA,one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon estuary, West Africa. When the Germans established themselves in that region, the Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose domains were usually restricted to one village. Over these were two greater chiefs, Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the principal families of the tribe. The Dualla are physically a fine race. They are proud of their racial purity, and it was formerly usual for all half-caste children to be strangled at birth. The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole body, the men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is more developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples of Cameroon. The kings, many of whom have grown rich through trade, retain part of their former power, subject to the German government. The Dualla, who are laborious, industrious and capable of great physical endurance, are great traders and are proportionately prosperous. The average price for a wife among the Dualla is from £90 to £120; but sometimes a great deal more is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced if sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the seducer; if he cannot pay he becomes the husband’s slave. Cannibalism as a religious rite was formerly common among the Dualla. All accessions to power were preceded by a sacrifice, a king having no authority till his hands were stained with blood. The religion is fetish blended with ancestor-worship, and certain secret societies exist among them which seem to have a religious connexion. The dead are buried within the hut, which is abandoned shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many converts, and some churches have been built. Many of the natives can read. The Dualla are in possession of an interesting code, in accordance with which messages can be sent and even conversations maintained by means of drums, or rather gongs, giving two notes. (SeeCameroon.)

DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU,Comtesse (1746-1793), French adventuress, mistress of Louis XV., was the natural daughter of a poor woman of Vaucouleurs, and was born there on the 19th of August 1746. Placed in a convent in Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education, learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age of sixteen entered a milliner’s shop in the rue St Honoré. Subsequently she lived as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange. Her great personal charms led the adventurer Jean, comte du Barry, to take her into his house in order to make it moreattractive to the dupes whose money he won by gambling. Her success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a higher flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and the duc de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress of the king. In order to present her at court it was necessary to find a title for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married himself his brother Guillaume offered himself as nominal husband. The comtesse du Barry was presented at court on the 22nd of April 1769, and became official mistress of the king. Her influence over the monarch was absolute until his death, and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with him in exact accordance with her wishes. The duc de Choiseul, who refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the duc d’Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover, took his place, and in concert with her governed the monarch. Louis XV. built for her the magnificent mansion of Luciennes. At his death in 1774 an order of his successor banished her to the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux, but, the queen interceding for her, the king in the following year gave her permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led a retired life with the comte de Cossé-Brissac, and was visited there by Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among many other distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1792 to endeavour to raise money on her jewels, she was on her return accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated the treasures of the state, conspired against the republic, and worn, in London, “mourning for the tyrant.” She was condemned to death on the 7th of December 1793, and beheaded the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political rôle of which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant justice to her quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seductive beauty. The volume ofLettres et Anecdotes(1779) which bears her name was not written by her.

See E. and J. de Goncourt,La du Barry(Paris, 1880); C. Vatel,Histoire de Madame du Barry(1882-1883), based on sources; R. Douglas,The Life and Times of Madame du Barry(London, 1896).

DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE,Seigneur(1544-1590), French poet, was born near Auch in 1544. He was employed by Henry IV. of France in England, Denmark and Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in Gascony, under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot, and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant the paganmise en scènethen in fashion. His first epic,Judith, appeared in a volume entitledLa Muse chrétienne(Bordeaux, 1573). This was followed five years later by his principal work,La Sepmaine, a poem on the creation of the world. This work was held by admirers of du Bartas to put him on a level with Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed within six years after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful style made it a great favourite in England, where the author was called the “divine” du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto. Spenser, Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of what seems to us a most uninteresting poem. King James VI. of Scotland tried his “prentice hand” at the translation of du Bartas’s poemL’Uranie, and the compliment was returned by the French writer, who translated, asLa Lepanthe, James’s poem on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the publication of theSeconde Semainein 1584. He aimed at a great epic which should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of the Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part, marked by a certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in acclimatizing the religious epic in France. The work is spoiled by a constant tendency to moralize, and is filled with the indiscriminate information that passed under the name of science in the 16th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more than any other writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius of the French language, and in his borrowings from old French, from provincial dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the sure instinct and prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was also guilty of reduplicating the first syllables of words, producing such expressions aspépétiller,sousouflantes. Du Bartas died in July 1590 in Paris from wounds received at the battle of Ivry.

Joshua Sylvester translated theSepmainein 1598; other English translations from du Bartas areThe Historie of Judith ...(1584), by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the “Weeks” (1625) by William Lisle (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar;Urania(1589), by Robert Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio’s dedication of the second book of his translation of Montaigne to Lady Rich) wrote a translation of the first “Week,” which is lost. TheŒuvres complètesof du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579), Paris and Bordeaux (1611). See also G. Pellissier,La Vie et les œuvres de du Bartas(1883).

DUBAWNT,orDoobaunt(IndianToobaung,i.e.turbid), a river of Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in Wholdaia (or Daly) Lake, in 104° 20′ W. and 60° 15′ N., and flows northward to its confluence with the Thelon river, and thence eastward to Chesterfield Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay. It passes through numerous lake-expansions, including Dubawnt Lake, with an area of 1700 sq. m. and an altitude of 500 ft. above the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft. From the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is 750 m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The river is shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of boulders; grassy slopes, however, occur at intervals along its banks, especially on the shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the feeding grounds of large bands of cariboo. Discovered in 1770 by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored by J. B. Tyrrell in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899.

See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1896 (printed 1898).

DUBBO,a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South Wales, Australia, on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409. It is a flourishing manufacturing town in a pastoral district, in part also cultivated. Coal and copper are found in the neighbourhood.

DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME,Sieur de Langey(1491-1543), French soldier and diplomat, was born at the château of Glatigny, near Montmirail, in 1491. His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey was a younger son of the Angevin family of du Bellay, which from the 14th century was distinguished in the service of the dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France; and Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I. Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of the time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was above all the most able diplomat at the command of Francis I., prodigiously active, and excelling in secret negotiations. He entered the military service at an early age, was taken prisoner at Pavia (1525) and shared the captivity of Francis I. His skill and devotion attached him to the king. His missions to Spain, Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent three times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execution of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of Henry VIII.’s divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean, then bishop of Paris, he obtained a decision favourable to Henry VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2, 1530). From 1532 to 1536, though he went three times to England, he was principally employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.; in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes of Bavaria, the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony, and in January 1534 the treaty of Augsburg. During the war of 1537 Francis I. sent him on missions to Piedmont; he was governor of Turin from December 1537 till the end of 1539, and subsequently replacing Marshal d’Annebaut as governor of the whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in organization. But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was compelled to return to France, and died near Lyons on the 9th of January 1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his death (Pantagruel, iii. ch. 21, and iv. ch. 27). He was buried in the cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected to his memory, with the inscription, “Ci gît Langey, dont la plume et l’épée Ont surmonté Cicéron et Pompée”; Charles V. is said to have remarked that Langey, by his own unaided efforts,did more mischief and thwarted more schemes than all the French together.

Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom of thought; without actually joining the reformers, he defended the innovators against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-1535 he even tried, unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting between Francis I. and Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened in favour of the Vaudois. Rabelais was the most famous of his clients, and followed him to Piedmont from 1540 to 1542. Guillaume was himself a valuable historian, and a clear and precise writer. He imitated Livy in hisOgdoades, a history of the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments remain, inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in hisMémoires(1569). The celebratedInstructions, reprinted asTraité de la discipline militairein 1554 and 1592, was formerly attributed to him, but it has been proved that he could not have written it (see Bayle,Dict. Hist.i. 502, and Jähns,Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften, i. 498 seq.); this work, however, is of the highest value for the study of the military art of the 16th century; in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619 German translations were published.

See also the edition of Martin du Bellay’sMémoiresby Michaud and Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly’sFragments de la première Ogdoade(Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume du Bellay by V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905).

(J. I.)

DU BELLAY, JEAN(c. 1493-1560), French cardinal and diplomat, younger brother of Guillaume du Bellay, appears as bishop of Bayonne in 1526, member of the privy council in 1530, and bishop of Paris in 1532. Supple and clever, he was well fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out several missions in England (1527-1534) and Rome (1534-1536). In 1535 he received his cardinal’s hat; in 1536-1537 he was nominated “lieutenant-general” to the king at Paris and in the Île de France, and was entrusted with the organization of the defence against the imperialists. When Guillaume du Bellay went to Piedmont, Jean was put in charge of the negotiations with the German Protestants, principally through the humanist Johann Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan. In the last years of the reign of Francis I., cardinal du Bellay was in favour with the duchesse d’Étampes, and received a number of benefices—the bishopric of Limoges (1541), archbishopric of Bordeaux (1544), bishopric of Le Mans (1546); but his influence in the council was supplanted by that of Cardinal de Tournon. Under Henry II., being involved in the disgrace of all the servants of Francis I., he was sent to Rome (1547), and he obtained eight votes in the conclave which followed the death of Pope Paul III. After three quiet years passed in retirement in France (1550-1553), he was charged with a new mission to Pope Julius III. and took with him to Rome his young cousin the poet Joachim du Bellay (q.v.). He lived in Rome thenceforth in great state. In 1555 he was nominated bishop of Ostia and dean of the Sacred College, an appointment which was disapproved of by Henry II. and brought him into fresh disgrace, lasting till his death in Rome on the 16th of February 1560. Less resolute and reliable than his brother Guillaume, the cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and free mind. He was on the side of toleration and protected the reformers. Budaeus was his friend, Rabelais his faithful secretary and doctor; men of letters, like Étienne Dolet, and the poet Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for assistance. An orator and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of graceful Latin poems (printed with Salmon Macrin’sOdes, 1546, by R. Estienne), and some other compositions, includingFrancisci Francorum regis epistola apologetica(1542). His voluminous correspondence, mostly in MS., is remarkable for itsverveand picturesque quality.

Bibliography.—The Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris has numerous unpublished letters of Jean du Bellay. See also Ribier,Lettres et mémoires d’estat(Paris, 1666); V. L. Bourrilly and P. de Vaissière,Ambassade de Jean du Bellay en Angleterre, vol. i. (Paris, 1905); marquis de la Jonquière,Le Cardinal du Bellay(Alençon, 1887); Heulhard,Rabelais, ses voyages en Italie(Paris, 1891); Chamard,Joachim du Bellay(Lille, 1900); V. L. Bourrilly,Guillaume du Bellay(Paris, 1905); “Jean du Bellay, les protestants et la Sorbonne” in theBulletin du Protestantisme français(1903, 1904); and “Jean Sleidan et le Cardinal du Bellay,” in theBulletin, &c.(1901, 1906).

(J. I.)

DU BELLAY, JOACHIM(c. 1522-1560), French poet and critic, member of the Pléiade, was born1at the château of La Turmelière, not far from Liré, near Angers, being the son of Jean du Bellay, seigneur de Gonnor, cousin-german of the cardinal Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay. Both his parents died while he was still a child, and he was left to the guardianship of his elder brother, René du Bellay, who neglected his education, leaving him to run wild at La Turmelière. When he was twenty-three, however, he received permission to go to Poitiers to study law, no doubt with a view to his obtaining perferment through his kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came in contact with the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with Jean Salmon Macrin (1490-1557), a Latin poet famous in his day. There too he probably met Jacques Peletier du Mans, who had published a translation of theArs poëticaof Horace, with a preface in which much of the programme advocated later by the Pléiade is to be found in outline.

It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an inn on the way to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded as the starting-point of the French school of Renaissance poetry. The two had much in common, and immediately became fast friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to Paris to join the circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean Daurat (q.v.) at the Collège de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Antoine de Baïf were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more especially a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language so nearly connected with his own had some part in determining the more national and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548 appeared theArt poétiqueof Thomas Sibilet, who enunciated many of the ideas that Ronsard and his followers had at heart, though with essential differences in the point of view, since he held up as models Clément Marot and his disciples. Ronsard and his friends dissented violently from Sibilet on this and other points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented. The famous manifesto of the Pléiade, theDeffence et illustration de la langue françoyse(1549), was at once a complement and a refutation of Sibilet’s treatise. This book was the expression of the literary principles of the Pléiade as a whole, but although Ronsard was the chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to du Bellay. To obtain a clear view of the reforms aimed at by the Pléiade, theDeffenceshould be further considered in connexion with Ronsard’sAbrégé d’art poétiqueand his preface to theFranciade. Du Bellay maintained that the French language as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as a medium for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical tongues. He condemned those who despaired of their mother tongue, and used Latin for their more serious and ambitious work. For translations from the ancients he would substitute imitations. Not only were the forms of classical poetry to be imitated, but a separate poetic language and style, distinct from those employed in prose, were to be used. The French language was to be enriched by a development of its internal resources and by discreet borrowing from the Latin and Greek. Both du Bellay and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to latinize their mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry and of the possibilities of the French language; it was also a declaration of war on those writers who held less heroic views.

The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his followers, and on Sibilet, did not go unanswered. Sibilet replied in the preface to his translation (1549) of theIphigeniaof Euripides; Guillaume des Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached du Bellay with ingratitude to his predecessors, and showed the weakness of his argument for imitation as opposed to translation in a digression in hisRéplique aux furieuses défenses de Louis Meigret(Lyons, 1550); Barthélemy Aneau, regent of theCollège de la Trinité at Lyons, attacked him in hisQuintil Horatian(Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency of inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating native poets in a work professing to be a defence of the French language. Du Bellay replied to his various assailants in a preface to the second edition (1550) of his sonnet sequenceOlive, with which he also published two polemical poems, theMusagnaeomachie, and an ode addressed to Ronsard,Contre les envieux poètes.Olive, a collection of love-sonnets written in close imitation of Petrarch, first appeared in 1549. With it were printed thirteen odes entitledVers lyriques. Olive has been supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but there is little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they may perhaps be regarded as a Petrarcan exercise, especially as, in the second edition, the dedication to his lady is exchanged for one to Marguerite de Valois, sister of Henry II. Du Bellay did not actually introduce the sonnet into French poetry, but he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of sonneteering became a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its excesses.

About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years’ duration, from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had further anxieties in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy died in 1553, and Joachim, who had up to this time borne the title of sieur de Liré, became seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had published aRecueil de poësiesdedicated to the Princess Marguerite. This was followed in 1552 by a version of the fourth book of theAeneid, with other translations and some occasional poems. In the next year he went to Rome as one of the secretaries of Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a half years’ residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of hisAntiquités de Rome, which were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser (The Ruins of Rome, 1591). These sonnets were more personal and less imitative than theOlivesequence, and struck a note which was revived in later French literature by Volney and Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome was, however, a real exile. His duties were those of an intendant. He had to meet the cardinal’s creditors and to find money for the expenses of the household. Nevertheless he found many friends among Italian scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet whose circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny. Towards the end of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love with a Roman lady called Faustine, who appears in his poetry as Columba and Columbelle. This passion finds its clearest expression in the Latin poems. Faustine was guarded by an old and jealous husband, and du Bellay’s eventual conquest may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems he had brought back with him from Rome, the LatinPoemata, theAntiquités de Rome, theJeux rustiques, and the 191 sonnets of theRegrets, the greater number of which were written in Italy. TheRegretsshow that he had advanced far beyond the theories of theDeffence. The simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic of du Bellay appear in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion for Faustine, and of his nostalgia for the banks of the Loire. Among them are some satirical sonnets describing Roman manners, and the later ones written after his return to Paris are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations with Ronsard were not renewed; but he formed a close friendship with the scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a learned society. In 1559 du Bellay published at PoitiersLa Nouvelle Manière de faire son profit des lettres, a satirical epistle translated from the Latin of Adrien Turnèbe, and with itLe Poète courtisan, which introduced the formal satire into French poetry. These were published under the pseudonym of J. Quintil du Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally supposed to be Melin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always, however, been on friendly terms.

A long and eloquentDiscours au roi(detailing the duties of a prince, and translated from a Latin original written by Michel de l’Hôpital, now lost) was dedicated to Francis II. in 1559, and is said to have secured for the poet a tardy pension. In Paris he was still in the employ of the cardinal, who delegated to him the lay patronage which he still retained in the diocese. In the exercise of these functions Joachim quarrelled with Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his relations with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the outspokenRegrets. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom he was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay’s health was weak; his deafness seriously hindered his official duties; and on the 1st of January 1560 he died. There is no evidence that he was in priest’s orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held various preferments. He had at one time been a canon of Notre Dame of Paris, and was accordingly buried in the cathedral. The statement that he was nominated archbishop of Bordeaux during the last year of life is unauthenticated by documentary evidence and is in itself extremely improbable.

Bibliography.—The best edition of the works of J. du Bellay isŒuvres françaises(2 vols., 1866-1867), edited with introduction and notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in hisPléiade française. HisŒuvres choisieswere published by L. Becq de Fouquières in 1876. The chief source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy addressed to Jean de Morel, “Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredunensem, Pyladem suum,” printed with a volume ofXenia(Paris, 1569). A study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii. of theTravaux et mémoires de l’université de Lille(Lille, 1900), contains all the available information and corrects many common errors. See also Sainte-Beuve,Tableau de la poésie française au XVI^{e} siècle(1828);La Défense et illust. de la langue française(1905), with biographical and critical introduction by Léon Séché, who also wroteJoachim du Bellay, documents nouveaux et inédits(1880), and published in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of theŒuvres; Lettres de Joachim du Bellay(1884), edited by P. de Nolhac; G. Wyndham,Ronsard and La Pléiade(1906); H. Belloc,Avril(1905); A. Tilley,The Literature of the French Renaissance(2 vols., 1904).

1For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H. Chamard,Joachim du Bellay(Lille, 1900).

DUBLIN,a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded N. by Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow, and W. by Kildare and Meath. With the exception of Louth and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest county in Ireland, having an area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m. The northern portion is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the borders of Meath; but on the southern side the land rises into elevations of considerable height. The mountains are chiefly covered with heath, except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus for the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered. There are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of the county. The mountain district is well adapted for timber. The northern coast of the county from Balbriggan to Howth has generally a sandy shore, and affords only the small harbours of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the promontory of Howth, the coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and between the town of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland’s Eye an unsuccessful artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on the south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best in the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies about midway between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful bay of Killiney. North of Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600 acres in area. Shell fish, especially lobsters, are taken here in abundance. Small islets lie farther north off Skerries; the most interesting of which is that known as Inispatrick, reputed as the first landing-place of St Patrick, and having the ruins of a church said to be the saint’s first foundation, though it shares this reputation with other sites. Ireland’s Eye, off Howth, is a very picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It has afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river in the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains about 12 m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m., empties itself into Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so tortuous that 40 m. may be traversed and only 10 gained in direction. The scenery along the banks of the Liffey is remarkably beautiful. The mountains which occupy the southern border of the county are the extremities of the great group belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal summits are the group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two Rock (1699 ft.) within the county, and the border group of Kippure, reaching in that summit a height of 2475 ft. The grandest features of these hills are the great natural ravineswhich open in them, the most extraordinary being the Scalp through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow.

Geology.—On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the sea at Balbriggan, where fossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same series occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large mass of dark green porphyritic andesite (the “Lambay porphyry”). Silurian rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the granite of Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft. in height only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone, seen at Donabate and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Limestone, which is often darkened by mud and even shaly (“calpy” type). This rock produces a fairly level country, both north and south of the valley of the Liffey, although the beds are greatly folded. Beds of a higher Carboniferous zone are retained in synclinals near Rush. The rugged peninsula of Howth, connected by a raised bench with the mainland, is formed of old quartzites and shales, crushed and folded, and probably of Cambrian age. The rocks of the county show many signs of ice-action, and boulder-clays and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the latter being banked up on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft. or more. Much of this glacial material has been imported from the area of the Irish Sea. Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at Ballycorus.Industries.—The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large proportion of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures of the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there is manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock, herring and other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important, and Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The salmon fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment. As containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications of the county are naturally good, several important railways and two canals converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of which they are considered.

Industries.—The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large proportion of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures of the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there is manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock, herring and other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important, and Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The salmon fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment. As containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications of the county are naturally good, several important railways and two canals converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of which they are considered.

Population and Administration.—The population (148,210 in 1891; 157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however, is not consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman Catholics, the Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next. The chief towns, apart from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop. 2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey (3398), Killiney and Ballybrack (2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and Rathgar (32,602), and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These are urban districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns. There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city of Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant and Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in Dublin, and quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Balbriggan, Kilmainham, Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the union with Great Britain, this county returned ten representatives to the Irish Parliament,—two for the county, two for the city, two for the university, and two for each of the boroughs of Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary divisions are now two, north and south, each returning one member. The city of Dublin constitutes a separate county.

History.—Dublin is among the counties generally considered to have been formed by King John, and comprised the chief portion of country within the English pale. The limits of the county, however, were uncertain, and underwent many changes before they were fixed. As late as the 17th century the mountainous country south of Dublin offered a retreat to the lawless, and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of the county received definition in this direction, along with the formation of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government 67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of 1641 and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the most formidable of the Fenian risings took place near the village of Tallaght, about 7 m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered from 500 to 700, were found wandering at dawn, some by a small force of constabulary who, having in vain called upon them to yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the great bulk of them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn, who captured them with ease and marched them into the city. There are numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or encampments are frequent, and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan, with the large specimen at Shankill or Rathmichael near the Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs occur in Phoenix Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine round towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump of one at Rathmichael.

DUBLIN,a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough and seaport, and the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. It lies at the head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which it gives name, about midway on the eastern coast of the island, 334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead route, and 70 m. W. of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For map, seeIreland.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638.

Site, Streets and Buildings.—Dublin lies on the great central limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river Liffey. Its situation is justly admired. The populous shores of the bay are exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west the country is comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland here reaching to the coast, but to the south the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains practically touch the confines of Greater Dublin, affording comprehensive views of the physical position of the city, and forming a background to some of the finest streets. The municipal boundary lies generally a little outside the so-called Circular Road, which may be taken as encircling the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this name on both the north and south sides of the river. As the city is approached from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from west to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the North Wall quay, where the principal steamers lie, and in this vicinity are the docks. At the opposite (western) end of the city, the Phoenix Park may be taken as a convenient landmark. Between this and North Wall the river is crossed by twelve bridges, which, in order from west to east, are these:—Sarah Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway; King’s, commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack; Queen’s; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a bridge has stood since the 12th century; Richmond, Grattan and Wellington; O’Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying a loop railway. Of these O’Connell bridge (formerly known as Carlisle) is the principal, as it connects the chief thoroughfare on the north side, namely Sackville (or O’Connell) Street, with Great Brunswick Street and others on the south. Sackville Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth, contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine Ionic portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street and Earl Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft. in height, consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive pedestal, and crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern end of the street is Daniel O’Connell’s monument, almost completed by John Henry Foley before his death, and erected in 1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end, is the Rotunda, containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it, the Rotunda hospital with its Doric façade.

From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thoroughfares radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately joining the Circular Road at various points. To the west there are the Broadstone station, Dominion Street, and beyond this the large workhouse, prison, asylum and other district buildings, while the Royal barracks front the river behind Albert Quay. Two other notable buildings face the river on the north bank. Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the “Four Courts” (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican monastery of St Saviour. It was erected between 1786 and 1796, and is adjoined by other court buildings, the public record office, containing a vast collection, and the police offices. Below the lowest bridge on the river, and therefore in the neighbourhood of the shipping quarter, is the customs house (1781-1791), considered one of the chief ornaments of the city. It presents four fronts, that facing the river being of Portland stone, in the Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The centre is crowned by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This buildingprovides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of Trade and of Public Works and other bodies.

It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interesting buildings are found. Crossing O’Connell bridge, the short Westmoreland Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses the entire city parallel with the river, and is known successively (from west to east) as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame, College and Great Brunswick streets. At the end of Westmoreland Street a fine group of buildings is seen—Trinity College on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right. Barely half a mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300 yds. beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These, with the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently described in the inverse order.

The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older of the two Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which Dublin is remarkable, was founded by Sigtryg, a Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in 1038,Christ Church.but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from 1541. It was restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge of Mr Henry Roe, a merchant of Dublin, who also presented the Synod House. The restoration involved the complete rebuilding of the choir and the south side of the nave, but the model of the ancient building was followed with great care. The crypt embodies remains of the founder’s work; the rest is Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the monuments is that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to whom the earlier part of the superstructure (1170) is due. Here the tenants of the church lands were accustomed to pay their rents. The monument was injured by the fall of one of the cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a smaller tomb, ascribed to Strongbow’s son, whom his father killed for showing cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this church, and parliaments also, before the Commons’ Hall was destroyed in 1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. Here also the pretender Lambert Simnel was crowned.

A short distance south from Christ Church, through the squalid quarter of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the other Protestant cathedral dedicated to St Patrick, the foundation of which was an attempt to supersedeSt Patrick’s.the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jealousies, both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-Norman invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Comyn, archbishop of Dublin; but there was a church dedicated to the same saint before. It was burnt about two hundred years later, but was raised from its ruins with increased splendour. At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as a cathedral, and the building was used for some of the purposes of the courts of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a university, but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign of Mary, St Patrick’s was restored to its primary destination. The installations of the knights of St Patrick, the first of which took place in 1783, were originally held here, and some of their insignia are preserved in the choir. This cathedral contains the monuments of several illustrious persons, amongst which the most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of this cathedral), of Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of “Stella”; of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over Schomberg’s grave contains what Macaulay called a “furious libel,” though it only states that the duke’s relatives refused the expense of the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the chain ball which killed General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim, and the spurs which he wore. The cathedral was restored by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a fine statue by John Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed by his son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh’s library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh, archbishop of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological works and of manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is deficient in modern publications.

Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of ground, but excepting St Patrick’s Hall, the apartments are small, and the building is of a motley and unimposing appearance, with the exception of the chapel (a Gothic buildingThe Castle.of the early 19th century) and great tower. The castle was originally built in the first two decades of the 13th century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly the whole is of the 16th century and later. In St Patrick’s hall where the knights of St Patrick are invested, are the banners of that order. Opposite the castle is the city hall (1779), in the possession of the corporation, with statues in the central hall of George III., of Grattan (a superb work by Sir Francis Chantry), of Daniel O’Connell, and of Thomas Drummond by John Hogan and several others.

The Bank of Ireland (seeArchitecture, fig. 85) occupies five acres, and was formerly the House of Parliament. There are three fronts; the principal, towards College Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order, with façadeBank of Ireland.and two projecting wings; it connects with the western portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the quadrant of a circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance of the House of Lords, is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian order, made conformable with the rest of the building not without difficulty to the architect. The House of Lords contains tapestry dating from 1733, and remains in its original condition, but the octagonal House of Commons was demolished by the bank directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The building was begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the century; the remodelling took place in 1803.

Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with a Palladian façade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of Goldsmith and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall called the Regent House. The first quadrangle,Trinity College.Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with a Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall (1787), containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux, Burke, Bishop Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-scotted dining hall, also containing portraits. A beautiful modern campanile (1853), erected by Lord John George Beresford, archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the university, occupies the centre of the square. Library Square takes its name from the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the Copyright Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early Irish manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented Book of Kells, containing the gospels. The building was begun in 1712. In this square are the oldest buildings of the foundation, dating in part from the close of the 17th century, and the modern Graduates’ Memorial buildings (1904). These contain a theatre, library and reading-room, the rooms of the college societies and others. The schools form a fine modern pile (1856), and other buildings are the provost’s house (1760), printing house (1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings of the 20th century include chemical laboratories. The College Park and Fellows’ Garden are of considerable beauty. In the former most of the recreations of the students take place; but the college also supports a well-known rowing-club. The college observatory is at Dunsink, about 5 m. north-west of Dublin; it is amply furnished with astronomical instruments. It was endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity College, was erected in 1785, and in 1791 was placed by statute under the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose official residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin was erected in the years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to Trinity College, at the expense of the university. A normal climatological station was established in the Fellows’ Garden in 1904. The botanic garden is at Ball’s Bridge, 1 m. S.E. of the college.

Back to Index Next