Chapter 17

See H. Whittemore,The Founders and Builders of the Oranges(Newark, 1896).

EASTPORT, a city and port of entry of Washington county, Maine, U.S.A., co-extensive with Moose Island in Passamaquoddy Bay, about 190 m. E.N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 4908; (1900) 5311 (1554 foreign-born); (1910) 4961. It is served by the Washington County railway, and by steamboat lines to Boston, Portland and Calais. It is the most eastern city of the United States, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow channel, which is spanned by a bridge. The harbour is well protected from the winds, and the tide, which rises and falls here about 25 ft., prevents it from being obstructed with ice. The city is built on ground sloping gently to the water’s edge, and commands delightful views of the bay, in which there are several islands. Its principal industry is the canning of sardines; there are also clam canneries. Shoes, mustard, decorated tin, and shooks are manufactured, and fish and lobsters are shipped from here in the season. The city is the port of entry for the customs district of Passamaquoddy; in 1908 its imports were valued at $994,961, and its exports at $1,155,791. Eastport was first settled about 1782 by fishermen; it became a port of entry in 1790, was incorporated as a town in 1798, and was chartered as a city in 1893. It was a notorious place for smuggling under the Embargo Acts of 1807 and 1808. On the 11th of July 1814, during the war of 1812, it was taken by the British. As the British government claimed the islands of Passamaquoddy Bay under the treaty of 1783, the British forces retained possession of Eastport after the close of the war and held it under martial law until July 1818, when it was surrendered in accordance with the decision rendered in November 1817 by commissioners appointed under Article IV. of the treaty of Ghent (1814), this decision awarding Moose Island, Dudley Island and Frederick Island to the United States and the other islands, including the Island of Grand Manan in the Bay of Fundy, to Great Britain.

EAST PROVIDENCE, a township of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the E. side of Providence river, opposite Providence. Pop. (1890) 8422; (1900) 12,138, of whom 2067 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,808. Area, 12½ sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. It has a rolling surface and contains several villages, one of which, known as Rumford, has important manufactories of chemicals and electrical supplies. South of this village, along the river bank, are several attractive summer resorts, Hunt’s Mills, Silver Spring, Riverside, Vanity Fair, Kettle Point and Bullock’s Point being prominent among them. In 1905 the factory products of the township were valued at $5,035,288. The oyster trade is important. It was within the present limits of this township that Roger Williams established himself in the spring of 1636, until he learned that the place was within the jurisdiction of the Plymouth Colony. About 1644 it was settled by a company from Weymouth as a part of a town of Rehoboth. In 1812 Rehoboth was divided, and the west part was made the township of Seekonk. Finally, in 1861, it was decided that the west part of Seekonk belonged to Rhode Island, and in the following year that part was incorporated as the township of East Providence.

EAST PRUSSIA(Ost-Preussen), the easternmost province of the kingdom of Prussia, bounded on the N. by the Baltic, on the E. and S.W. by Russia and Russian Poland, and on the W. by the Prussian province of West Prussia. It has an area of 14,284 sq. m., and had, in 1905, a population of 2,025,741. It shares in the general characteristics of the great north German plain, but, though low, its surface is by no means absolutely flat, as the southern half is traversed by a low ridge or plateau, which attains a height of 1025 ft. at a point near the western boundary of the province. This plateau, here named the Prussian Seenplatte, is thickly sprinkled with small lakes, among which is the Spirding See, 46 sq. m. in extent and the largest inland lake in the Prussian monarchy. The coast is lined with low dunes or sandhills, in front of which lie the large littoral lakes or lagoons named the Frisches Haff and the Kurisches Haff. The first of these receives the waters of the Nogat and the Pregel, and the other those of the Memel or Niemen. East Prussia is the coldest part of Germany, its mean annual temperature being about 44° F., while the mean January temperature of Tilsit is only 25°. The rainfall is 24 in. per annum. About half the province is under tillage; 18% is occupied by forests, and about 23% by meadows and pastures. The most fertile soil is found in the valleys of the Pregel and the Memel, but the southern slopes of the Baltic plateau and the district to the north of the Memel consist in great part of sterile moor, sand and bog. The chief crops are rye, oats and potatoes, while flax is cultivated in the district of Ermeland, between the Passarge and the upper Alle. East Prussia is the headquarters of the horse-breeding of the country, and contains the principal government stud of Trakehnen; numerous cattle are also fattened on the rich pastures of the river-valleys. The extensive woods in the south part of the province harbour a few wolves and lynxes, and the elk is still preserved in the forest of Ibenhorst, near the Kurisches Haff. The fisheries in the lakes and haffs are of some importance; but the only mineral product of note is amber, which is found in the peninsula of Samland in greater abundance than in any other part of the world. Manufactures are almost confined to the principal towns, though linen-weaving is practised as a domestic industry. Commerce is facilitated by canals connecting the Memel and Pregel and also the principal lakes, but is somewhat hampered by the heavy dues exacted at the Russian frontier. A brisk foreign trade is carried on through the seaports of Königsberg, the capital of the province, and Memel, the exports consisting mainly of timber and grain.

The population of the province was in 1900 1,996,626, andincluded 1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics and 13,877 Jews. The Roman Catholics are mainly confined to the district of Ermeland, in which the ordinary proportions of the confessions are completely reversed. The bulk of the inhabitants are of German blood, but there are above 400,000 Protestant Poles (Masurians or Masovians) in the south part of the province, and 175,000 Lithuanians in the north. As in other provinces where the Polish element is strong, East Prussia is somewhat below the general average of the kingdom in education. There is a university at Königsberg.

See Lohmeyer,Geschichte von Ost- und West-Preussen(Gotha, 1884); Brünneck,Zur Geschichte des Kirchen-Patronats in Ost- und West-Preussen(Berlin, 1902), andOst-Preussen, Land und Volk(Stuttgart, 1901-1902).

EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE(1814-1883), British Orientalist, was born in 1814, a member of an Anglo-Indian family. Educated at Charterhouse and at Oxford, he joined the Bombay infantry in 1836, but, owing to his talent for languages, was soon given a political post. In 1843 he translated the PersianKessahi Sanján, orHistory of the Arrival of the Parsees in India; and he wrote aLife of Zoroaster, aSindhivocabulary, and various papers in the transactions of the Bombay Asiatic Society. Compelled by ill-health to return to Europe, he went to Frankfort, where he learned German and translated Schiller’sRevolt of the Netherlandsand Bopp’sComparative Grammar. In 1845 he was appointed professor of Hindustani at Haileybury College. Two years later he published a Hindustani grammar, and, in subsequent years, a new edition of theGulistán, with a translation in prose and verse, also an edition with vocabulary of the Hindi translation by Lallú Lál of Chatur Chuj Misr’sPrem Sagár, and translations of theBagh-o-Bahar, and of theAnvár-i Suhailiof Bídpáí. In 1851 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1857-1858 he editedThe Autobiography of Lútfullah. He also edited for the Bible Society the Book of Genesis in the Dakhani language. From 1860 to 1863 he was in Persia as secretary to the British Legation, publishing on his returnThe Journal of a Diplomate. In 1866 he became private secretary to the secretary of state for India, Lord Cranborne (afterwards marquess of Salisbury), and in 1867 went, as in 1864, on a government mission to Venezuela. On his return he wrote, at the request of Charles Dickens, forAll the Year Round, “Sketches of Life in a South American Republic.” From 1868 to 1874 he was M.P. for Penryn and Falmouth. In 1875 he received the degree of M.A. with the franchise from the university of Oxford, “as a slight recognition of distinguished services.” At various times he wrote several of Murray’s Indian hand-books. His last work was theKaisarnamah-i-Hind(“the lay of the empress”), in two volumes (1878-1882). He died at Ventnor, Isle of Wight, on the 16th of July 1883.

EATON, DORMAN BRIDGMAN(1823-1899), American lawyer, was born at Hardwick, Vermont, on the 27th of June 1823. He graduated at the university of Vermont in 1848 and at the Harvard Law School in 1850, and in the latter year was admitted to the bar in New York city. There he became associated in practice with William Kent, the son of the great chancellor, an edition of whoseCommentarieshe assisted in editing. Eaton early became interested in municipal and civil service reform. He was conspicuous in the fight against Tweed and his followers, by one of whom he was assaulted; he required a long period of rest, and went to Europe, where he studied the workings of the civil service in various countries. From 1873 to 1875 he was a member of the first United States Civil Service Commission. In 1877, at the request of President Hayes, he made a careful study of the British civil service, and three years later publishedCivil Service in Great Britain. He drafted the Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883, and later became a member of the new commission established by it. He resigned in 1885, but was almost immediately reappointed by President Cleveland, and served until 1886, editing the 3rd and 4thReportsof the commission. He was an organizer (1878) of the first society for the furtherance of civil service reform in New York, of the National Civil Service Reform Association, and of the National Conference of the Unitarian Church (1865). He died in New York city on the 23rd of December 1899, leaving $100,000 each to Harvard and Columbia universities for the establishments of professorships in government. He was a legal writer and editor, and a frequent contributor to the leading reviews. In addition to the works mentioned he publishedShould Judges be Elected?(1873),The Independent Movement in New York(1880),Term and Tenure of Office(1882),The Spoils System and Civil Service Reform(1882),Problems of Police Legislation(1895) andThe Government of Municipalities(1899).

See the privately printed memorial volume,Dorman B. Eaton, 1823-1899 (New York, 1900).

EATON, MARGARET O’NEILL(1796-1879), better known asPeggy O’Neill, was the daughter of the keeper of a popular Washington tavern, and was noted for her beauty, wit and vivacity. About 1823, she married a purser in the United States navy, John B. Timberlake, who committed suicide while on service in the Mediterranean in 1828. In the following year she married John Henry Eaton (1790-1856), a Tennessee politician, at the time a member of the United States Senate. Senator Eaton was a close personal friend of President Jackson, who in 1829 appointed him secretary of war. This sudden elevation of Mrs Eaton into the cabinet social circle was resented by the wives of several of Jackson’s secretaries, and charges were made against her of improper conduct with Eaton previous to her marriage to him. The refusal of the wives of the cabinet members to recognize the wife of his friend angered President Jackson, and he tried in vain to coerce them. Eventually, and partly for this reason, he almost completely reorganized his cabinet. The effect of the incident on the political fortunes of the vice-president, John C. Calhoun, whose wife was one of the recalcitrants, was perhaps most important. Partly on this account, Jackson’s favour was transferred from Calhoun to Martin Van Buren, the secretary of state, who had taken Jackson’s side in the quarrel and had shown marked attention to Mrs Eaton, and whose subsequent elevation to the vice-presidency and presidency through Jackson’s favour is no doubt partly attributable to this incident. In 1836 Mrs Eaton accompanied her husband to Spain, where he was United States minister in 1836-1840. After the death of her husband she married a young Italian dancing-master, Antonio Buchignani, but soon obtained a divorce from him. She died in Washington on the 8th of November 1879.

See James Parton’sLife of Andrew Jackson(New York, 1860).

EATON, THEOPHILUS(c.1590-1658), English colonial governor in America, was born at Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire, about 1590. He was educated in Coventry, became a successful merchant, travelled widely throughout Europe, and for several years was the financial agent of Charles I. in Denmark. He subsequently settled in London, where he joined the Puritan congregation of the Rev. John Davenport, whom he had known since boyhood. The pressure upon the Puritans increasing, Eaton, who had been one of the original patentees of the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1629, determined to use his influence and fortune to establish an independent colony of which his pastor should be the head. In 1637 he emigrated with Davenport to Massachusetts, and in the following year (March 1638) he and Davenport founded New Haven. In October 1639 a form of government was adopted, based on theMosaicLaw, and Eaton was elected governor, a post which he continued to hold by annual re-election, first over New Haven alone, and after 1643 over the New Haven Colony or Jurisdiction, until his death at New Haven on the 7th of January 1658. His administration was embarrassed by constantly recurring disputes with the neighbouring Dutch settlements, especially after Stamford (Conn.) and Southold (Long Island) had entered the New Haven Jurisdiction, but his prudence and diplomacy prevented an actual outbreak of hostilities. He was prominent in the affairs of the New England Confederation, of which he was one of the founders (1643). In 1655 he and Davenport drew up the code of laws, popularly known as the “Connecticut Blue Laws,” which were publishedin London in 1656 under the titleNew Haven’s Settling in New England and some Lawes for Government published for the Use of that Colony.

A sketch of his life appears in Cotton Mather’sMagnalia(London, 1702); see also J.B. Moore’s “Memoir of Theophilus Eaton” in theCollectionsof the New York Historical Society, second series, vol. ii. (New York, 1849).

EATON, WILLIAM(1764-1811), American soldier, was born in Woodstock, Connecticut, on the 23rd of February 1764. As a boy he served for a short time in the Continental army. He was a school teacher for several years, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1790, was clerk of the lower house of the Vermont legislature in 1791-1792, and in 1792 re-entered the army as a captain, later serving against the Indians in Ohio and Georgia. In 1797 he was appointed consul to Tunis, where he arrived in February 1799. In March 1799, with the consuls to Tripoli and Algiers, he negotiated alterations in the treaty of 1797 with Tunis. He rendered great service to Danish merchantmen by buying on credit several Danish prizes in Tunis and turning them over to their original owners for the redemption of his notes. In 1803 he quarrelled with the Bey, was ordered from the country, and returned to the United States to urge American intervention for the restoration of Ahmet Karamanli to the throne of Tripoli, arguing that this would impress the Barbary States with the power of the United States. In 1804 he returned to the Mediterranean as United States naval agent to the Barbary States with Barron’s fleet. On the 23rd of February 1805 he agreed with Ahmet that the United States should undertake to re-establish him in Tripoli, that the expenses of the expedition should be repaid to the United States by Ahmet, and that Eaton should be general and commander-in-chief of the land forces in Ahmet’s campaign; as the secretary of the navy had given the entire matter into the hands of Commodore Barron, and as Barron and Tobias Lear (1762-1816), the United States consul-general at Algiers and a diplomatic agent to conduct negotiations, had been instructed to consider the advisability of making arrangements with the existing government in Tripoli, Eaton far exceeded his authority. On the 8th of March he started for Derna across the Libyan desert from the Arab’s Tower, 40 m. W. of Alexandria, with a force of about 500 men, including a few Americans, about 40 Greeks and some Arab cavalry. In the march of nearly 600 m. the camel-drivers and the Arab chiefs repeatedly mutinied, and Ahmet Pasha once put himself at the head of the Arabs and ordered them to attack Eaton. Ahmet more than once wished to give up the expedition. There were practically no provisions for the latter part of the march. On the 27th of April with the assistance of three bombarding cruisers Eaton captured Derna—an exploit commemorated by Whittier’s poemDerne. On the 13th of May and on the 10th of June he successfully withstood the attacks of Tripolitan forces sent to dislodge him. On the 12th of June he abandoned the town upon orders from Commodore Rodgers, for Lear had made peace (4th June) with Yussuf, thede factoPasha of Tripoli. Eaton returned to the United States, and received a grant of 10,000 acres in Maine from the Massachusetts legislature. According to a deposition which he made in January 1807 he was approached by Aaron Burr (q.v.), who attempted to enlist him in his “conspiracy,” and wished him to win over the marine corps and to sound Preble and Decatur. As he received from the government, soon after making this deposition, about $10,000 to liquidate claims for his expense in Tripoli, which he had long pressed in vain, his good faith has been doubted. At Burr’s trial at Richmond in 1807 Eaton was one of the witnesses, but his testimony was unimportant. In May 1807 he was elected a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, and served for one term. He died on the 1st of June 1811 in Brimfield, Massachusetts.

See the anonymously publishedLife of the Late Gen. William Eaton(Brookfield, Massachusetts, 1813) by Charles Prentiss; C.C. Felton, “Life of William Eaton” in Sparks’sLibrary of American Biography, vol. ix. (Boston, 1838); and Gardner W. Allen’sOur Navy and the Barbary Corsairs(Boston, 1905).

EATON, WYATT(1849-1896), American portrait and figure painter, was born at Philipsburg, Canada, on the 6th of May 1849. He was a pupil of the schools of the National Academy of Design, New York, and in 1872 went to Paris, where he studied in the École des Beaux-Arts under J.L. Gérôme. He made the acquaintance of J.F. Millet at Barbizon, and was also influenced by his friend Jules Bastien-Lepage. After his return to the United States in 1876 he became a teacher in Cooper Institute and opened a studio in New York city. He was one of the organizers (and the first secretary) of the Society of American Artists. Among his portraits are those of William Cullen Bryant and Timothy Cole, the wood engraver (“The Man with the Violin”). Eaton died at Newport, Rhode Island, on the 7th of June 1896.

EAU CLAIRE, a city and the county-seat of Eau Claire county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, at the mouth of the Eau Claire, about 87 m. E. of St Paul. Pop. (1890) 17,415; (1900) 17,517, of whom 4996 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 18,310. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Wisconsin Central railways, and is connected by an electric line with Chippewa Falls (12 m. distant). The city has a Carnegie library with 17,200 volumes in 1908, a Federal building, county court house, normal school and insane asylum. It has abundant water-power, and is an important lumber manufacturing centre; among its other manufactures are flour, wooden-ware, agricultural machinery, saw-mill machinery, logging locomotives, wood pulp, paper, linen, mattresses, shoes and trunks. The total value of factory products in 1905 was $3,601,558. The city is the principal wholesale and jobbing market for the prosperous Chippewa Valley. Eau Claire was first settled about 1847, and was chartered as a city in 1872; its growth dates from the development of the north-western lumber trade in the decade 1870-1880. In 1881 a serious strike necessitated the calling out of state militia for its suppression and the protection of property.

EAU DE COLOGNE(Ger.Kölnisches Wasser, “Cologne water”), a perfume, so named from the city of Cologne, where its manufacture was first established by an Italian, Johann (or Giovanni) Maria Farina (1685-1766), who settled at Cologne in 1709. The perfume gained a high reputation by 1766, and Farina associated himself with his nephew, to whose grandson the secret was ultimately imparted; the original perfume is still manufactured by members of this family under the name of the founder. The manufacture is, however, carried on at Cologne, and also in Italy, by other firms bearing the name Farina, and the scent has become part of the regular output of perfumers. The discovery has also been ascribed to a Paul de Feminis, who is supposed to have brought his recipe from Milan to Cologne, of which he became a citizen in 1690, and sold the perfume under the nameEau admirable, leaving the secret at his death to his nephew Johann Maria Farina. Certain of the Farinas claim to use his process. It was originally prepared by making an alcoholic infusion of certain flowers, pot-herbs, drugs and spices, distilling and then adding definite quantities of several vegetable essences. The purity and thorough blending of the ingredients are of the greatest importance. The original perfume is simulated and even excelled by artificial preparations. The oils of lemon, bergamot and orange are employed, together with the oils of neroli and rosemary in the better class. The common practice consists in dissolving the oils, in certain definite proportions based on experience, in pure alcohol and distilling, the distillate being diluted by rose-water.

EAUX-BONNES, a watering-place of south-western France, in the department of Basses-Pyrénées, 3½ m. S.E. of the small town of Laruns, the latter being 24 m. S. of Pau by rail. Pop. (1906) 610. Eaux-Bonnes is situated at a height of 2460 ft. at the entrance of a fine gorge, overlooking the confluence of two torrents, the Valentin and the Sourde. The village is well known for its sulphurous and saline mineral waters (first mentioned in the middle of the 14th century), which are beneficial in affections of the throat and lungs. They vary between 50° and 90° F. in temperature, and are used for drinking and bathing. There are two thermal establishments, a casino and fine promenades.

The watering-place ofLes Eaux-Chaudesis 5 m. by road south-west of Eaux-Bonnes, in a wild gorge on the Gave d’Ossau. The springs are sulphurous, varying in temperature from 52° to 97° F., and are used in cases of rheumatism, certain maladies of women, &c. The thermal establishment is a handsome marble building.

There is fine mountain scenery in the neighbourhood of both places, the Pic de Ger near Eaux-Bonnes, commanding an extensive view. The valley of Ossau, one of the most beautiful in the Pyrenees, before the Revolution formed a community which, though dependent on Béarn, had its own legal organization, manners and costumes, the last of which are still to be seen on holidays.

EAVES(not a plural form as is sometimes supposed, but singular; O. Eng.efes, in Mid. High Ger.obse, Gothicubizwa, a porch; connected with “over”), in architecture, the projecting edge of a sloping roof, which overhangs the face of the wall so as to throw off the water.

EAVESDRIP, orEavesdrop, that width of ground around a house or building which receives the rain water dropping from the eaves. By an ancient Saxon law, a landowner was forbidden to erect any building at less than 2 ft. from the boundary of his land, and was thus prevented from injuring his neighbour’s house or property by the dripping of water from his eaves. The law of Eavesdrip has had its equivalent in the Romanstillicidium, which prohibited building up to the very edge of an estate.

From the Saxon custom arose the term “eavesdropper,”i.e.any one who stands within “the eavesdrop” of a house, hence one who pries into others’ business or listens to secrets. At common law an eavesdropper was regarded as a common nuisance, and was presentable at the court leet, and indictable at the sheriff’s tourn and punishable by fine and finding sureties for good behaviour. Though the offence of eavesdropping still exists at common law, there is no modern instance of a prosecution or indictment.

EBBW VALE, an urban district in the western parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 21 m. N.W. of Newport on the Great Western, London & North-Western and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1891) 17,312; (1901) 20,994. It lies near the head of the valley of the river Ebbw, at an elevation of nearly 1000 ft., in a wild and mountainous mining district, which contains large collieries and important iron and steel works.

EBEL, HERMANN WILHELM(1820-1875), German philologist, was born at Berlin on the 10th of May 1820. He displayed in his early years a remarkable capacity for the study of languages, and at the same time a passionate fondness for music and poetry. At the age of sixteen he became a student at the university of Berlin, applying himself especially to philology, and attending the lectures of Böckh. Music continued to be the favourite occupation of his leisure hours, and he pursued the study of it under the direction of Marx. In the spring of 1838 he passed to the university of Halle, and there began to apply himself to comparative philology under Pott. Returning in the following year to his native city, he continued this study as a disciple of Bopp. He took his degree in 1842, and, after spending his year of probation at the French Gymnasium of Berlin, he resumed with great earnestness his language studies. About 1847 he began to study Old Persian. In 1852 he accepted a professorship at the Beheim-Schwarzbach Institution at Filehne, which post he held for six years. It was during this period that his studies in the Old Slavic and Celtic languages began. In 1858 he removed to Schneidemühl, and there he discharged the duties of first professor for ten years. He was afterwards called to the chair of comparative philology at the university of Berlin. He died at Misdroy on the 19th of August 1875. The most important work of Dr Ebel in the field of Celtic philology is his revised edition of theGrammatica Celticaof Professor Zeuss, completed in 1871. This had been preceded by his treatises—De verbi Britannici futuro ac conjunctivo(1866), andDe Zeussii curis positis in Grammatica Celtica(1869). He made many learned contributions to Kühn’sZeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung, and to A. Schleicher’sBeiträge zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung; and a selection of these contributions was translated into English by Sullivan, and published under the title ofCeltic Studies(1863). Ebel contributed the Old Irish section to Schleicher’sIndogermanische Chrestomathie(1869). Among his other works must be namedDie Lehnwörter der deutschen Sprache(1856).

EBEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED(1764-1830), the author of the first real guide-book to Switzerland, was born at Züllichau (Prussia). He became a medical man, visited Switzerland for the first time in 1790, and became so enamoured of it that he spent three years exploring the country and collecting all kinds of information relating to it. The result was the publication (Zürich, 1793) of hisAnleitung auf die nützlichste und genussvollste Art in der Schweitz zu reisen(2 vols.), in which he gave a complete account of the country, the General Information sections being followed by an alphabetically arranged list of places, with descriptions. It at once superseded all other works of the kind, and was the best Swiss guide-book till the appearance of “Murray” (1838). It was particularly strong on the geological and historical sides. The second (1804-1805) and third (1809-1810) editions filled four volumes, but the following (the 8th appeared in 1843) were in a single volume. The work was translated into French in 1795 (many later editions) and into English (by 1818). Ebel also published a work (2 vols., Leipzig, 1798-1802) entitledSchilderungen der Gebirgsvölker der Schweiz, which deals mainly with the pastoral cantons of Glarus and Appenzell. In 1801 he was naturalized a Swiss citizen, and settled down in Zürich. In 1808 he issued his chief geological work,Über den Bau der Erde im Alpengebirge(Zürich, 2 vols.). He took an active share in promoting all that could make his adopted country better known,e.g.Heinrich Keller’s map (1813), the building of a hotel on the Rigi (1816), and the preparation of a panorama from that point (1823). From 1810 onwards he lived at Zürich, with the family of his friend, Conrad Escher von der Linth (1767-1823), the celebrated engineer.

(W. A. B. C.)

EBER, PAUL(1511-1569), German theologian, was born at Kitzingen in Franconia, and was educated at Nuremberg and Wittenberg, where he became the close friend of Philip Melanchthon. In 1541 he was appointed professor of Latin grammar at Wittenberg, and in 1557 professor of the Old Testament. His range of learning was wide, and he published a handbook of Jewish history, a historical calendar intended to supersede the Roman Saints’ Calendar, and a revision of the Latin Old Testament. In the theological conflict of the time he played a large part, doing what he could to mediate between the extremists. From 1559 to the close of his life he was superintendent-general of the electorate of Saxony. He attained some fame as a hymn-writer, his best-known composition being “Wenn wir in höchsten Nöthen sein.” He died at Wittenberg on the 10th of December 1569.

EBERBACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, romantically situated on the Neckar, at the foot of the Katzenbuckel, 19 m. E. of Heidelberg by the railway to Würzburg. Pop. (1900) 5857. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a commercial and a technical school, and, in addition to manufacturing cigars, leather and cutlery, carries on by water an active trade in timber and wine. Eberbach was founded in 1227 by the German king Henry VII., who acquired the castle (the ruins of which overhang the town) from the bishop of Worms. It became an imperial town and passed later to the Palatinate.

See Wirth,Geschichte der Stadt Eberbach(Stuttgart, 1864).

EBERBACH, a famous Cistercian monastery of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, situated near Hattenheim in the Rheingau, 10 m. N.W. from Wiesbaden. Founded in 1116 by Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, as a house of Augustinian canons regular, it was bestowed by him in 1131 upon the Benedictines, but was shortly afterwards repurchased and conferred upon the Cistercian order. The Romanesque church (consecrated in 1186) contains numerous interesting monuments and tombs, notable among them being those of the archbishop of Mainz,Gerlach (d. 1371) and Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). It was despoiled during the Thirty Years’ War, was secularized in 1803, and now serves as a house of correction. Its cellars contain some of the finest vintages of the Rhine wines of the locality.

See Bär,Diplomatische Geschichte der Abtei Eberbach(Wiesb., 1851-1858 and 1886, 3 vols.), and Schäfer,Die Abtei Eberbach im Mittelalter(Berlin, 1901).

EBERHARD, surnamedIm Bart(Barbatus), count and afterwards duke of Württemberg (1445-1496), was the second son of Louis I., count of Württemberg-Urach (d. 1450), and succeeded his elder brother Louis II. in 1457. His uncle Ulrich V., count of Württemberg-Stuttgart (d. 1480), acted as his guardian, but in 1459, assisted by Frederick I., elector palatine, he threw off this restraint, and undertook the government of the district of Urach as Count Eberhard V. He neglected his duties as a ruler and lived a reckless life until 1468, when he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He visited Italy, became acquainted with some famous scholars, and in 1474 married Barbara di Gonzaga, daughter of Lodovico III., marquis of Mantua, a lady distinguished for her intellectual qualities. In 1482 he brought about the treaty of Münsingen with his cousin Eberhard VI., count of Württemberg-Stuttgart. By this treaty the districts of Urach and Stuttgart into which Württemberg had been divided in 1437 were again united, and for the future the county was declared indivisible, and the right of primogeniture established. The treaty led to some disturbances, but in 1492 the sanction of the nobles was secured for its provisions. In return for this Eberhard agreed to some limitations on the power of the count, and so in a sense founded the constitution of Württemberg. At the diet of Worms in 1495 the emperor Maximilian I. guaranteed the treaty, confirmed the possessions and prerogatives of the house of Württemberg, and raised Eberhard to the rank of duke. Eberhard, although a lover of peace, was one of the founders of the Swabian League in 1488, and assisted to release Maximilian, then king of the Romans, from his imprisonment at Bruges in the same year. He gave charters to the towns of Stuttgart and Tübingen, and introduced order into the convents of his land, some of which he secularized. He took a keen interest in the new learning, founded the university of Tübingen in 1476, befriended John Reuchlin, whom he made his private secretary, welcomed scholars to his court, and is said to have learned Latin in later life. In 1482 he again visited Italy and received the Golden Rose from Pope Sixtus IV. He won the esteem of the emperors Frederick III. and Maximilian I. on account of his wisdom and fidelity, and his people held him in high regard. His later years were mainly spent at Stuttgart, but he died at Tübingen on the 25th of February 1496, and in 1537 his ashes were placed in the choir of the Stiftskirche there. Eberhard left no children, and the succession passed to his cousin Eberhard, who became Duke Eberhard II.

See Rösslin,Leben Eberhards im Barte(Tübingen, 1793); Bossert,Eberhard im Bart(Stuttgart, 1884).

EBERHARD, CHRISTIAN AUGUST GOTTLOB(1769-1845), German miscellaneous writer, was born at Belzig, near Wittenberg, on the 12th of January 1769. He studied theology at Leipzig; but, a story he contributed to a periodical having proved successful, he devoted himself to literature. With the exception ofHannchen und die Küchlein(1822), a narrative poem in ten parts, and an epic on the Creation,Der erste Mensch und die Erde(1828), Eberhard’s work was ephemeral in character and is now forgotten. He died at Dresden on the 13th of May 1845.

His collected works (Gesammelte Schriften) appeared in 20 volumes in 1830-1831.

EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUSTUS(1739-1809), German theologian and philosopher, was born at Halberstadt in Lower Saxony, where his father was singing-master at the church of St Martin’s, and teacher of the school of the same name. He studied theology at the university of Halle, and became tutor to the eldest son of the baron von der Horst, to whose family he attached himself for a number of years. In 1763 he was appointed con-rector of the school of St Martin’s, and second preacher in the hospital church of the Holy Ghost; but he soon afterwards resigned these offices and followed his patron to Berlin. There he met Nicolai and Moses Mendelssohn, with whom he formed a close friendship. In 1768 he became preacher or chaplain to the workhouse at Berlin and the neighbouring fishing village of Stralow. Here he wrote hisNeue Apologie des Socrates(1772), a work occasioned by an attack on the fifteenth chapter of Marmontel’sBelisariusmade by Peter Hofstede, a clergyman of Rotterdam, who maintained the patristic view that the virtues of the noblest pagans were onlysplendida peccata. Eberhard stated the arguments for the broader view with dignity, acuteness and learning, but the liberality of the reasoning gave great offence to the strictly orthodox divines, and is believed to have obstructed his preferment in the church.

In 1774 he was appointed to the living of Charlottenburg. A second volume of hisApologieappeared in 1778. In this he not only endeavoured to obviate some objections which were taken to the former part, but continued his inquiries into the doctrines of the Christian religion, religious toleration and the proper rules for interpreting the Scriptures. In 1778 he accepted the professorship of philosophy at Halle. As an academical teacher, however, he was unsuccessful. His powers as an original thinker were not equal to his learning and his literary gifts, as was shown in his opposition to the philosophy of Kant. In 1786 he was admitted a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; in 1805 the king of Prussia conferred upon him the honorary title of a privy-councillor. In 1808 he obtained the degree of doctor in divinity, which was given him as a reward for his theological writings. He died on the 6th of January 1809. He was master of the learned languages, spoke and wrote French with facility and correctness, and understood English, Italian and Dutch. He possessed a just and discriminating taste for the fine arts, and was a great lover of music.

Works:—Neue Apologie des Socrates, &c. (2 vols., 1772-1778);Allgemeine Theorie des Denkens und Empfindens, &c. (Berlin, 1776), an essay which gained the prize assigned by the Royal Society of Berlin for that year;Von dem Begriff der Philosophie und ihren Theilen(Berlin, 1778)—a short essay, in which he announced the plan of his lectures on being appointed to the professorship at Halle;Lobschrift auf Herrn Johann Thunmann Prof. der Weltweisheit und Beredsamkeit auf der Universität zu Halle(Halle, 1779);Amyntor, eine Geschichte in Briefen(Berlin, 1782)—written with the view of counteracting the influence of those sceptical and Epicurean principles in religion and morals then so prevalent in France, and rapidly spreading amongst the higher ranks in Germany;Über die Zeichen der Aufklärung einer Nation, &c. (Halle, 1783);Theorie der schönen Künste und Wissenschaften, &c. (Halle, 1783, 3rd ed. 1790);Vermischte Schriften(Halle, 1784);Neue vermischte Schriften(ib.1786);Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie, &c. (Halle, 1788), 2nd ed. with a continuation and chronological tables (1796);Versuch einer allgemeinen-deutschen Synonymik(Halle and Leipzig, 1795-1802, 6 vols., 4th ed. 1852-1853), long reckoned the best work on the synonyms of the German language (an abridgment of it was published by the author in one large volume, Halle, 1802);Handbuch der Aesthetik(Halle, 1803-1805, 2nd ed. 1807-1820). He also edited thePhilosophisches Magazin(1788-1792) and thePhilosophisches Archiv(1792-1795).See F. Nicolai,Gedächtnisschrift auf J.A. Eberhard(Berlin and Stettin, 1810); also K.H. Jördens,Lexicon deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten.

See F. Nicolai,Gedächtnisschrift auf J.A. Eberhard(Berlin and Stettin, 1810); also K.H. Jördens,Lexicon deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten.

EBERLIN, JOHANN ERNST(1702-1762), German musician and composer, was born in Bavaria, and became afterwards organist in the cathedral at Salzburg, where he died. Most of his compositions were for the church (oratorios, &c.), but he also wrote some important fugues, sonatas and preludes; and his pieces were at one time highly valued by Mozart.

EBERS, GEORG MORITZ(1837-1898), German Egyptologist and novelist, was born in Berlin on the 1st of March 1837. At Göttingen he studied jurisprudence, and at Berlin oriental languages and archaeology. Having made a special study of Egyptology, he became in 1865docentin Egyptian language and antiquities at Jena, and in 1870 he was appointed professor in these subjects at Leipzig. He had made two scientific journeys to Egypt, and his first work of importance,Ägypten und die Bücher Moses, appeared in 1867-1868. In 1874 he edited the celebrated medical papyrus (“Papyrus Ebers”) which he had discovered in Thebes (translation by H. Joachim, 1890). Ebers early conceived the idea of popularizing Egyptian lore by means of historical romances.Eine ägyptische Königstochterwaspublished in 1864, and obtained great success. His subsequent works of the same kind—Uarda(1877),Homo sum(1878),Die Schwestern(1880),Der Kaiser(1881), of which the scene is laid in Egypt at the time of Hadrian,Serapis(1885),Die Nilbraut(1887), andKleopatra(1894), were also well received, and did much to make the public familiar with the discoveries of Egyptologists. Ebers also turned his attention to other fields of historical fiction—especially the 16th century (Die Frau Bürgermeisterin, 1882;Die Gred, 1887)—without, however, attaining the success of his Egyptian novels. Apart from their antiquarian and historical interest, Ebers’s books have not a very high literary value. His other writings include a descriptive work on Egypt (Ägypten in Wort und Bild, 2nd ed., 1880), a guide to Egypt (1886) and a life (1885) of his old teacher, the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius. The state of his health led him in 1889 to retire from his chair at Leipzig on a pension. He died at Tutzing in Bavaria, on the 7th of August 1898.

Ebers’sGesammelte Werkeappeared in 25 vols. at Stuttgart (1893-1895). Many of his books have been translated into English. For his life see hisDie Geschichte meines Lebens(Stuttgart, 1893); also R. Gosche,G. Ebers, der Forscher und Dichter(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1887).

EBERSWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, 28 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail; on the Finow canal. Pop. (1905) 23,876. The town has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a school of forestry, a gymnasium, a higher-grade girls’ school and two schools of domestic economy. It possesses a mineral spring, which attracts numerous summer visitors, and has various industries, which include iron-founding and the making of horse-shoe nails, roofing material and bricks. A considerable trade is carried on in grain, wood and coals. In the immediate neighbourhood are one of the chief brass-foundries in Germany and an extensive government paper-mill, in which the paper for the notes of the imperial bank is manufactured.

Eberswalde received its municipal charter in 1257. It was taken and sacked during the Thirty Years’ War. In 1747 Frederick the Great brought a colony of Thuringian cutlers to the town, but this branch of industry has entirely died out. About 4 m. to the north lies the old Cistercian monastery of Chorin, the fine Gothic church of which contains the tombs of several margraves of Brandenburg.

EBERT, FRIEDRICH ADOLF(1791-1834), German bibliographer, was born at Taucha, near Leipzig, on the 9th of July 1791, the son of a Lutheran pastor. At the age of fifteen he was appointed to a subordinate post in the municipal library of Leipzig. He studied theology for a short time at Leipzig, and afterwards philology at Wittenberg, where he graduated doctor in philosophy in 1812. While still a student he had already published, in 1811, a work on public libraries, and in 1812 another work entitledHierarchiae in religionem ac literas commoda. In 1813 he was attached to the Leipzig University library, and in 1814 was appointed secretary to the Royal library of Dresden. The same year he publishedF. Taubmanns Leben und Verdienste, and in 1819Torquato Tasso, a translation from Pierre Louis Ginguené with annotations. The rich resources open to him in the Dresden library enabled him to undertake the work on which his reputation chiefly rests, theAllgemeines bibliographisches Lexikon, the first volume of which appeared in 1821 and the second in 1830. This was the first work of the kind produced in Germany, and the most scientific published anywhere. From 1823 to 1825 Ebert was librarian to the duke of Brunswick at Wolfenbüttel, but returning to Dresden was made, in 1827, chief librarian of the Dresden Royal library. Among his other works are—Die Bildung des Bibliothekars(1820),Geschichte und Beschreibung der königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek in Dresden(1822),Zur Handschriftenkunde(1825-1827), andCulturperioden des obersächsischen Mittelalters(1825). Ebert was a contributor to various journals and took part in the editing of Ersch and Gruber’s great encyclopaedia. He died at Dresden on the 13th of November 1834, in consequence of a fall from the ladder in his library.

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