Chapter 9

See alsoDigestive Organs;NutritionandDietetics.

1This aspect of the matter—“buccal digestion”—has been specially emphasized in recent years by Horace Fletcher of the United States, whose experience of the results of systematic “chewing,” confirmed by Sir M. Foster, Prof. Chittenden and others, has almost revolutionized the science of dietetics.

DYSTELEOLOGY,a modern word invented by Haeckel (Evolution of Man) for the doctrine of purposelessness, as opposed to the philosophical doctrine of design (Teleology).

DZUNGARIA,Dsongaria, orJungaria, a former Mongolian kingdom of Central Asia, raised to its highest pitch by Kaldan or Bushtu Khan in the latter half of the 17th century, but completely destroyed by Chinese invasion about 1757-1759. It has played an important part in the history of Mongolia and the great migrations of Mongolian stems westward. Now its territory belongs partly to the Chinese empire (east Turkestan and north-western Mongolia) and partly to Russian Turkestan (provinces of Semiryechensk and Semipalatinsk). It derived its name from the Dsongars, or Songars, who were so called because they formed the left wing (dson, left;gar, hand) of the Mongolian army. Its widest limit included Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, the whole region of the T’ien Shan, or Tian-shan, Mountains, and in short the greater proportion of that part of Central Asia which extends from 35° to 50° N. and from 72° to 97° E. The name, however, is more properly applied only to the present Chinese province of T’ien Shan-pei-lu and the country watered by the Ili. As a political or geographical term it has practically disappeared from the map; but the range of mountains stretching north-east along the southern frontier of the Land of the Seven Streams, as the district to the south-east of the Balkhash Lake is called, preserves the name of Dzungarian Range.

EThe fifth symbol in the English alphabet occupies also the same position in Phoenician and in the other alphabets descended from Phoenician. As the Semitic alphabet did not represent vowels, E was originally an aspirate. Its earliest form, while writing is still from right to left, is, the upright being continued some distance below the lowest of the cross-strokes. In some of the Greek alphabets it appears aswith the upright prolonged at both top and bottom, but it soon took the form with which we are familiar, though in the earlier examples of this form the cross-strokes are not horizontal but drop at an angle,. In Corinth and places under its early influence like Megara, or colonized from it like Corcyra, the symbol foretakes the formor, while at Sicyon in the 6th and 5th centuriesB.C.it is represented by. In early Latin it was sometimes represented by two perpendicular strokes of equal length,.

In the earliest Greek inscriptions and always in Latin the symbolrepresented both the short and the longe-sound. In Greek also it was often used for the close long sound which arose either by contraction of two shorte-sounds or by the loss of a consonant, after a shorte-sound, as inφιλεῖτε, “you love,” forφιλέετε, andφαεινός, “bright,” out of an earlierφαεσνός. The Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who had altogether lost the aspirate, were the first to use the symbolfor the longe-sound, and in official documents at Athens down to 403B.C., when the Greek alphabet as still known was adopted by the state,represented ε, η and the sound arising by contraction or consonant loss as mentioned above which henceforth was written with two symbols,ει, and being really a single sound is known as the “spurious diphthong.” There were some minor distinctions in usage of the symbolsandwhich need not here be given in detail. The ancient Greek name wasεἶ, notEpsilonas popularly supposed; the names of the Greek letters are given from Kallias, an earlier contemporary of Euripides, in Athenaeus x. p. 453 d.

In Greek the shorte-sound to whichwas ultimately limited was a close sound inclining more towardsithana; hence the representation of the contraction ofεεbyει. Its value in Latin was exactly the opposite, the Latin shortebeing open, and the long close. In English there has been a gradual narrowing of the long vowels,ābecoming approximatelyēiandēbecomingī(Sweet,History of English Sounds, §§ 781, 817 ff. 2nd ed.). In languages where the diphthongaihas become a monophthong, the resulting sound is some variety of longe. Often the gradual assimilation can be traced through the intermediate stage ofaetoē, as in the Old Latinaidilis, which in classical Latin isaedilis, and in medieval MSS.edilis.

The variety of spelling in English for the long and shorte-sounds is conveniently illustrated in Miss Soames’sIntroduction to the Study of Phonetics, pp. 16 and 20.

(P. Gi.)

EA(written by means of two signs signifying “house” and “water”), in the Babylonian religion, originally the patron deity of Eridu, situated in ancient times at the head of the Persian Gulf, but now, by reason of the constant accumulation of soil in the Euphrates valley, at some distance from the gulf. Eridu, meaning “the good city,” was one of the oldest settlements in the Euphrates valley, and is now represented by the mounds known as Abu Shahrein. In the absence of excavations on that site, we are dependent for our knowledge of Ea on material found elsewhere. This is, however, sufficient to enable us to state definitely that Ea was a water-deity, and there is every reason to believe that the Persian Gulf was the body of water more particularly sacred to him. Whether Ea (or A-e as some scholars prefer) represents the real pronunciation of his name we do not know. All attempts to connect Ea with Yah and Yahweh are idle conjectures without any substantial basis. He is figured as a man covered with the body of a fish, and this representation, as likewise the name of his temple E-apsu, “house of the watery deep,” points decidedly to his character as a god of the waters (seeOannes). Of his cult at Eridu, which reverts to the oldest period of Babylonian history, nothing definite is known beyond the fact that the name of his temple was E-saggila, “the lofty house”—pointing to a staged tower as in the case of the temple of Bel (q.v.) at Nippur, known as E-Kur,i.e.“mountain house”—and that incantations, involving ceremonial rites, in which water as a sacred element played a prominent part, formed a feature of his worship. Whether Eridu at one time also played an important political rôle is not certain, though not improbable. At all events, the prominence of the Ea cult led, as in the case of Nippur, to the survival of Eridu as a sacred city, long after it had ceased to have any significance as a political centre. Myths in which Ea figures prominently have been found in Assur-bani-pal’s library, indicating that Ea was regarded as the protector and teacher of mankind. He is essentially a god of civilization, and it was natural that he was also looked upon as the creator of man, and of the world in general. Traces of this view appear in the Marduk epic celebrating the achievements of this god, and the close connexion between the Ea cult at Eridu and that of Marduk also follows from two considerations: (1) that the name of Marduk’s sanctuary at Babylon bears the same name, E-saggila, as that of Ea in Eridu, and (2) that Marduk is generally termed the son of Ea, who derives his powers from the voluntary abdication of the father in favour of his son. Accordingly, the incantations originally composed for the Ea cult were re-edited by the priests of Babylon and adapted to the worship of Marduk, and, similarly, the hymns to Marduk betray traces of the transfer of attributes to Marduk which originally belonged to Ea.

It is, however, more particularly as the third figure in the triad, the two other members of which were Anu (q.v.) and Bel (q.v.), that Ea acquires his permanent place in the pantheon. To him was assigned the control of the watery element, and in this capacity he becomes theshar apsi,i.e.king of the Apsu or “the deep.” The Apsu was figured as an ocean encircling the earth, and since the gathering place of the dead, known as Arālu, was situated near the confines of the Apsu, he was also designated as En-Ki,i.e.“lord of that which is below,” in contrast to Anu, who was the lord of the “above” or the heavens. The cult of Ea extended throughout Babylonia and Assyria. We find temples and shrines erected in his honour,e.g.at Nippur, Girsu, Ur, Babylon, Sippar and Nineveh, and the numerous epithets given to him, as well as the various forms under which the god appears, alike bear witness to the popularity which he enjoyed from the earliest to the latest period of Babylonian-Assyrian history. The consort of Ea, known as Damkina, “lady of that which is below,” or Nin-Ki, having the same meaning, or Damgal-nunna, “great lady of the waters,” represents a pale reflection of Ea and plays a part merely in association with her lord.

(M. Ja.)

EABANI,the name of the friend of Gilgamesh, the hero in the Babylonian epic (seeGilgamesh, Epic of). Eabani, whose name signifies “Ea creates,” pointing to the tradition which made the god Ea (q.v.) the creator of mankind, is represented in the epic as the type of the primeval man. He is a wild man who lives with the animals of the field until lured away from his surroundings by the charms of a woman. Created to become a rival to Gilgamesh, he strikes up a friendship with the hero, and together they proceed to a cedar forest guarded by Khumbaba, whom they kill. The goddess Irnina (a form of Ishtar,q.v.) in revenge kills Eabani, and the balance of the epic is taken up with Gilgamesh’s lament for his friend, his wanderings in quest of a remote ancestor, Ut-Napishtim, from whom he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate of Eabani, and his finally learning from his friend of the sad fate in store for all mortals except the favourites of the god, likeUt-Napishtim, to whom immortal life is vouchsafed as a special boon.

(M. Ja.)

EACHARD, JOHN(1636?-1697), English divine, was born in Suffolk, and was educated at Catharine Hall, Cambridge, of which he became master in 1675 in succession to John Lightfoot. He was created D.D. in 1676 by royal mandate, and was twice (in 1679 and 1695) vice-chancellor of the university. He died on the 7th of July 1697. In 1670 he had published anonymously a humorous satire entitledThe Ground and Occasions of the Contempt of the Clergy enquired into in a letter to R. L., which excited much attention and provoked several replies, one of them being from John Owen. These were met bySome Observations, &c., in a second letter to R. L.(1671), written in the same bantering tone as the original work. Eachard attributed the contempt into which the clergy had fallen to their imperfect education, their insufficient incomes, and the want of a true vocation. His descriptions, which were somewhat exaggerated, were largely used by Macaulay in hisHistory of England. He gave amusing illustrations of the absurdity and poverty of the current pulpit oratory of his day, some of them being taken from the sermons of his own father. He attacked the philosophy of Hobbes in hisMr Hobb’s State of Nature considered; in a dialogue between Philautus and Timothy(1672), and in hisSome Opinions of Mr Hobbs considered in a second dialogue(1673). These were written in their author’s chosen vein of light satire, and Dryden praised them as highly effective within their own range. Eachard’s own sermons, however, were not superior to those he satirized. Swift (Works, xii. 279) alludes to him as a signal instance of a successful humorist who entirely failed as a serious writer.

A collected edition of his works in three volumes, with a notice of his life, was published in 1774. TheContempt of the Clergywas reprinted in E. Arber’sEnglish Garner.A Free Enquiry into the Causes of the very great Esteem that the Nonconforming Preachers are generally in with their Followers(1673) has been attributed to Eachard on insufficient grounds.

EADBALD(d. 640), king of Kent, succeeded to the throne on the death of his father Æthelberht in 616. He had not been influenced by the teaching of the Christian missionaries, and his first step on his accession was to marry his father’s widow. After his subsequent conversion by Laurentius, archbishop of Canterbury, he recalled the bishops Mellitus and Justus, and built a church dedicated to the Virgin at Canterbury. He arranged a marriage between his sister Æthelberg and Edwin of Northumbria, on whose defeat and death in 633 he received his sister and Paulinus, and offered the latter the bishopric of Rochester. Eadbald married Emma, a Frankish princess, and died on the 20th of January 640.

See Bede,Historia ecclesiastica(ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896);Saxon Chronicle(ed. J. Earle and C. Plummer, Oxford, 1899).

EADIE, JOHN(1810-1876), Scottish theologian and biblical critic, was born at Alva, in Stirlingshire, on the 9th of May 1810. Having taken the arts curriculum at Glasgow University, he studied for the ministry at the Divinity Hall of the Secession Church, a dissenting body which, on its union a few years later with the Relief Church, adopted the title United Presbyterian. In 1835 he became minister of the Cambridge Street Secession church in Glasgow, and for many years he was generally regarded as the leading representative of his denomination in Glasgow. As a preacher, though he was not eloquent, he was distinguished by good sense, earnestness and breadth of sympathy. In 1863 he removed with a portion of his congregation to a new church at Lansdowne Crescent. In 1843 Eadie was appointed professor of biblical literature and hermeneutics in the Divinity Hall of the United Presbyterian body. He held this appointment along with his ministerial charge till the close of his life. Though not a profound scholar, he was surpassed by few biblical commentators of his day in range of learning, and in soundness of judgment. In the professor’s chair, as in the pulpit, his strength lay in the tact with which he selected the soundest results of biblical criticism, whether his own or that of others, and presented them in a clear and connected form, with a constant view to their practical bearing. He received the degree of LL.D. from Glasgow in 1844, and that of D.D. from St Andrews in 1850.

His publications were connected with biblical criticism and interpretation, some of them being for popular use and others more strictly scientific. To the former class belong theBiblical Cyclopaedia, his edition ofCruden’s Concordance, hisEarly Oriental History, and his discourses on theDivine Loveand onPaul the Preacher; to the latter his commentaries on the Greek text of St Paul’s epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians and Galatians, published at intervals in four volumes. His last work was theHistory of the English Bible(2 vols., 1876). He rendered good service as one of the revisers of the authorized version. He died at Glasgow on the 3rd of June 1876. His valuable library was bought and presented to the United Presbyterian College.

EADMER,orEdmer(c.1060-c.1124), English historian and ecclesiastic, was probably, as his name suggests, of English, and not of Norman parentage. He became a monk in the Benedictine monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, where he made the acquaintance of Anselm, at that time visiting England as abbot of Bec. The intimacy was renewed when Anselm became archbishop of Canterbury in 1093; thenceforward Eadmer was not only his disciple and follower, but his friend and director, being formally appointed to this position by Pope Urban II. In 1120 he was nominated to the archbishopric of St Andrews, but as the Scots would not recognize the authority of the see of Canterbury he was never consecrated, and soon afterwards he resigned his claim to the archbishopric. His death is generally assigned to the year 1124.

Eadmer left a large number of writings, the most important of which is hisHistoriae novorum, a work which deals mainly with the history of England between 1066 and 1122. Although concerned principally with ecclesiastical affairs scholars agree in regarding theHistoriaeas one of the ablest and most valuable writings of its kind. It was first edited by John Selden in 1623 and, with Eadmer’sVita Anselmi, has been edited by Martin Rule for the “Rolls Series” (London, 1884). TheVita Anselmi, first printed at Antwerp in 1551, is probably the best life of the saint. Less noteworthy are Eadmer’s lives of St Dunstan, St Bregwin, archbishop of Canterbury, and St Oswald, archbishop of York; these are all printed in Henry Wharton’sAnglia Sacra, part ii. (1691), where a list of Eadmer’s writings will be found. The manuscripts of most of Eadmer’s works are preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

See M. Rule,On Eadmer’s Elaboration of the first four Books of “Historiae novorum”(1886); and Père Ragey,Eadmer(Paris, 1892).

EADS, JAMES BUCHANAN(1820-1887), American engineer, was born at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on the 23rd of May 1820. His first engineering work of any importance was in raising sunken steamers. In 1845 he established glass works in St Louis. During the Civil War he constructed ironclad steamers and mortar boats for the Federal government. His next important engineering achievement was the construction of the great steel arch bridge across the Mississippi at St Louis (seeBridge, fig. 29), upon which he was engaged from 1867 till 1874. The work, however, upon which his reputation principally rests was his deepening and fixing the channel at the mouths of the Mississippi by means of jetties, whereby the narrowed stream was made to scour out its own channel and carry the sediment out to sea. Shortly before his death he projected a scheme for a ship railway across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in lieu of an isthmian canal. He died at Nassau, in the Bahamas, on the 8th of March 1887.

EAGLE(Fr.aigle, from the Lat.aquila), the name generally given to the larger diurnal birds of prey which are not vultures; but the limits of the subfamilyAquilinaehave been very variously assigned by different writers on systematic ornithology, and there are eagles smaller than certain buzzards. By some authorities theLaemmergeierof the Alps, and other high mountains of Europe, North Africa and Asia, is accounted an eagle, but by others the genusGypaetusis placed with theVulturidaeas itscommon English name (bearded vulture) shows. There are also other forms, such as the South AmericanHarpyiaand its allies, which though generally called eagles have been ranked as buzzards. In the absence of any truly scientific definition of the familyAquilinaeit is best to leave these and many other more or less questionable members of the group—such as the generaSpizaetus,Circaetus,Spilornis,Helotarsus, and so forth—and to treat here of those whose position cannot be gainsaid.

True eagles inhabit all the regions of the world, and some seven or eight species at least are found in Europe, of which two are resident in the British Islands. In England and in the Lowlands of Scotland eagles only exist as stragglers; but in the Hebrides and some parts of the Highlands a good many may yet be found, and their numbers appear to have rather increased of late years than diminished; for the foresters and shepherds, finding that a high price can be got for their eggs, take care to protect the owners of the eyries, which are nearly all well known, and to keep up the stock by allowing them at times to rear their young. There are also now not a few occupiers of Scottish forests who interfere so far as they can to protect the king of birds.1In Ireland the extirpation of eagles seems to have been carried on almost unaffected by the prudent considerations which in the northern kingdom have operated so favourably for the race, and except in the wildest parts of Donegal, Mayo and Kerry, eagles in the sister island are almost birds of the past.

Of the two British species the erne (Icel.Œrn) or sea-eagle (by some called also the white-tailed and cinereous eagle)—Haliaetus albicilla—affects chiefly the coast and neighbourhood of inland waters, living in great part on the fish and refuse that is thrown up on the shore, though it not unfrequently takes living prey, such as lambs, hares and rabbits. On these last, indeed, young examples mostly feed when they wander southward in autumn, as they yearly do, and appear in England. The adults (fig. 1) are distinguished by their prevalent greyish-brown colour, their pale head, yellow beak and white tail—characters, however, wanting in the immature, which do not assume the perfect plumage for some three or four years. The eyry is commonly placed in a high cliff or on an island in a lake—sometimes on the ground, at others in a tree—and consists of a vast mass of sticks in the midst of which is formed a hollow lined withLuzula sylvatica(as first observed by John Wolley) or some similar grass, and here are laid the two or three white eggs. In former days the sea-eagle seems to have bred in several parts of England—as the Lake district, and possibly even in the Isle of Wight and on Dartmoor. This species inhabits all the northern part of the Old World from Iceland to Kamchatka, and breeds in Europe so far to the southward as Albania. In the New World, however, it is only found in Greenland, being elsewhere replaced by the white-headed or bald eagle,H. leucocephalus, a bird of similar habits, and the chosen emblem of the United States of America. In the far east of Asia occurs a still larger and finer sea-eagle,H. pelagicus, remarkable for its white thighs and upper wing-coverts. South-eastern Europe and India furnish a much smaller species,H. leucoryphus, which has its representative,H. leucogaster, in the Malay Archipelago and Australia, and, as allies in South Africa and Madagascar,H. vociferandH. vociferoidesrespectively. All these eagles may be distinguished by their scaly tarsi, while the group next to be treated of have the tarsi feathered to the toes.

The golden or mountain eagle,Aquila chrysaetus, is the second British species. This also formerly inhabited England, and a nest, found in 1668 in the Peak of Derbyshire, is well described by Willughby, in whose time it was said to breed also in the Snowdon range. It seldom if ever frequents the coast, and is more active on the wing than the sea-eagle, being able to take some birds as they fly, but a large part of its sustenance is the flesh of animals that die a natural death. Its eyry is generally placed and built like that of the other British species,2but the neighbourhood ofwater is not requisite. The eggs, from two to four in number, vary from a pure white to a mottled, and often highly coloured, surface, on which appear different shades of red and purple. The adult bird (fig. 2) is of a rich dark brown, with the elongated feathers of the neck, especially on the nape, light tawny, in which imagination sees a “golden” hue, and the tail marbled with brown and ashy-grey. In the young the tail is white at the base, and the neck has scarcely any tawny tint. The golden eagle does not occur in Iceland, but occupies suitable situations over the rest of the Palaearctic Region and a considerable portion of the Nearctic—though the American bird has been, by some, considered a distinct species. Domesticated, it has many times been trained to take prey for its master in Europe, and to this species is thought to belong an eagle habitually used by the Kirghiz Tatars, who call itBergutorBearcoot, for the capture of antelopes, foxes and wolves. It is carried hooded on horseback or on a perch between two men, and released when the quarry is in sight. Such a bird, when well trained, is valued, says P.S. Pallas, at the price of two camels. It is quite possible, however, that more than one kind of eagle is thus used, and the services ofA. heliaca(which is the imperial eagle of some writers3) and ofA. mogilnik—both of which are found in central Asia, as well as in south-eastern Europe—may also be employed.

A smaller form of eagle, which has usually gone under the name ofA. naevia, is now thought by the best authorities to include three local races, or, in the eyes of some, species. They inhabit Europe, North Africa and western Asia to India, and two examples of one of them—A. clanga, the form which is somewhat plentiful in north-eastern Germany—have occurred in Cornwall. The smallest true eagle isA. pennata, which inhabits southern Europe, Africa and India. Differing from other eagles of their genus by its wedge-shaped tail, though otherwise greatly resembling them, is theA. audaxof Australia. Lastly may be noticed here a small group of eagles, characterized by their long legs, forming the genusNisaetus, of which one species,N. fasciatus, is found in Europe.

(A. N.)

1Lord Breadalbane (d. 1871) was perhaps the first large landowner who set the example that has been since followed by others. On his unrivalled forest of Black Mount, eagles—elsewhere persecuted to the death—were by him ordered to be unmolested so long as they were not numerous enough to cause considerable depredations on the farmers’ flocks. He thought that the spectacle of a soaring eagle was a fitting adjunct to the grandeur of his Argyllshire mountain scenery, and a good equivalent for the occasional loss of a lamb, or the slight deduction from the rent paid by his tenantry in consequence.2As already stated, the site chosen varies greatly. Occasionally placed in a niche in what passes for a perpendicular cliff to which access could only be gained by a skilful cragsman with a rope, the writer has known a nest to within 10 or 15 yds. of which he rode on a pony. Two beautiful views of as many golden eagles’ nests, drawn on the spot by Joseph Wolf, are given in theOotheca Wolleyana, and a fine series of eggs is also figured in the same work.3Which species may have been the traditional emblem of Roman power, and theAles Jovis, is very uncertain.

2As already stated, the site chosen varies greatly. Occasionally placed in a niche in what passes for a perpendicular cliff to which access could only be gained by a skilful cragsman with a rope, the writer has known a nest to within 10 or 15 yds. of which he rode on a pony. Two beautiful views of as many golden eagles’ nests, drawn on the spot by Joseph Wolf, are given in theOotheca Wolleyana, and a fine series of eggs is also figured in the same work.

3Which species may have been the traditional emblem of Roman power, and theAles Jovis, is very uncertain.

EAGLEHAWK,a borough of Bendigo county, Victoria, Australia, 105 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne and 4 m. from Bendigo, with which it is connected by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 8130. It stands on the Bendigo gold-bearing reef, and its mines are important.

EAGRE(a word of obscure origin; the earliest form seems to behigre, Latinized ashigra, which William of Malmesbury gives as the name of the bore in the Severn; theNew English Dictionaryrejects the usual derivations from the O. Eng.eagororegor, which is seen in compounds meaning “flood,” and also the connexion with the Norse sea-godAegir), a tide wave of great height rushing up an estuary (seeBore), used locally of the Humber and Trent.

EAKINS, THOMAS(1844- ), American portrait and figure painter, was born at Philadelphia, on the 25th of July 1844. A pupil of J.L. Gérôme, in the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, and Also of Léon Bonnat, besides working in the studio of the sculptor Dumont, he became a prolific portrait painter. He also painted genre pictures, sending to the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876, the “Chess Players,” now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. A large canvas, “The Surgical Clinic of Professor Gross,” owned by Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, contains many life-sized figures. Eakins, with his pupil Samuel Murray (b. 1870), modelled the heroic “Prophets” for the Witherspoon Building, Philadelphia, and his work in painting has a decided sculptural quality. He was for some years professor of anatomy at the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia. A man of great inventiveness, he experimented in many directions, depicting on canvas modern athletic sports, the negro, and early American life, but he is best known by his portraits. He received awards at the Columbian (1893), Paris (1900), Pan-American (1900), and the St Louis (1904), Expositions; and won the Temple medal in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and the Proctor prize of the National Academy of Design.

EALING,a municipal borough in the Ealing parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 9 m. W. of St Paul’s cathedral. Pop. (1891) 23,979; (1901) 33,031. The nucleus of the town, the ancient village, lies south of the highroad to Uxbridge, west of the open Ealing Common. The place is wholly residential. At St Mary’s church, almost wholly rebuilt c. 1870, are buried John Oldmixon, the historian (d. 1742), and Horne Tooke (d. 1812). The church of All Saints (1905) commemorates Spencer Perceval, prime minister, who was assassinated in the House of Commons in 1812. It was erected under the will of his daughter Frederica, a resident of Ealing. Gunnersbury Park, south of Ealing Common, is a handsome Italian mansion. Among former owners of the property was Princess Amelia, daughter of George II., who lived here from 1761 till her death in 1786. The name of Gunnersbury is said to be traceable to the residence here of Gunilda, niece of King Canute. The manor of Ealing early belonged to the see of London, but it is not mentioned in Domesday and its history is obscure.

EAR(common Teut.; O.E.éare, Ger.Ohr, Du.oor, akin to Lat.auris, Gr.οὖς), in anatomy, the organ of hearing. The human ear is divided into three parts—external, middle and internal. The external ear consists of the pinna and the external auditory meatus. The pinna is composed of a yellow fibro-cartilaginous framework covered by skin, and has an external and an internal or cranial surface. Round the margin of the external surface in its upper three quarters is a rim called the helix (fig. 1,a), in which is often seen a little prominence known as Darwin’s tubercle, representing the folded-over apex of a prick-eared ancestor. Concentric with the helix and nearer the meatus is the antihelix (c), which, above, divides into two limbs to enclose the triangular fossa of the antihelix. Between the helix and the antihelix is the fossa of the helix. In front of the antihelix is the deep fossa known as the concha (fig. 1,d), and from the anterior part of this the meatus passes inward into the skull. Overlapping the meatus from in front is a flap called the tragus, and below and behind this is another smaller flap, the antitragus. The lower part of the pinna is the lobule (e), which contains no cartilage. On the cranial surface of the pinna elevations correspond to the concha and to the fossaeof the helix and antihelix. The pinna can be slightly moved by the anterior, superior and posterior auricular muscles, and in addition to these there are four small intrinsic muscles on the external surface, known as the helicis major and minor, the tragicus and the antitragicus, and two on the internal surface called the obliquus and transversus. The external auditory meatus (fig. 1,n) is a tube running at first forward and upward, then a little backward and then forward and slightly downward; of course all the time it is also running inward until the tympanic membrane is reached. The tube is about an inch long, its outer third being cartilaginous and its inner two-thirds bony. It is lined by skin in its whole length, the sweat glands of which are modified to secrete the wax or cerumen.

a, Helix.

b, Antitragus.

c, Antihelix.

d, Concha.

e, Lobule.

f, Mastoid process.

g, Portio dura.

h, Styloid process.

k, Internal carotid artery.

l, Eustachian tube.

m, Tip of petrous process.

n, External auditory meatus.

o, Membrana tympani.

p, Tympanum.

1, points to malleus.

2, to incus.

3, to stapes.

4, to cochlea.

5, 6, 7, the three semicircular canals.

8 and 9, facial and auditory nerves.

The middle ear or tympanum (fig. 1,p) is a small cavity in the temporal bone, the shape of which may perhaps be realized by imagining a hock bottle subjected to lateral pressure in such a way that its circular section becomes triangular, the base of the triangle being above. The neck of the bottle, also laterally compressed, will represent the Eustachian tube (fig. 1,l), which runs forward, inward and downward, to open into the naso-pharynx, and so admits air into the tympanum. The bottom of the bottle will represent the posterior wall of the tympanum, from the upper part of which an opening leads backward into the mastoid antrum and so into the air-cells of the mastoid process. Lower down is a little pyramid which transmits the stapedius muscle, and at the base of this is a small opening known as the iter chordae posterius, for the chorda tympani to come through from the facial nerve. The roof is formed by a very thin plate of bone, called the tegmen tympani, which separates the cavity from the middle fossa of the skull. Below the roof the upper part of the tympanum is somewhat constricted off from the rest, and to this part the term “attic” is often applied. The floor is a mere groove formed by the meeting of the external and internal walls. The outer wall is largely occupied by the tympanic membrane (fig. 1,o), which entirely separates the middle ear from the external auditory meatus; it is circular, and so placed that it slopes from above, downward and inward, and from behind, forward and inward. Externally it is lined by skin, internally by mucous membrane, while between the two is a firm fibrous membrane, convex inward about its centre to form the umbo. Just in front of the membrane on the outer wall is the Glaserian fissure leading to the glenoid cavity, and close to this is the canal of Huguier for the chorda tympani nerve. The inner wall shows a promontory caused by the cochlea and grooved by the tympanic plexus of nerves; above and behind it is the fenestra ovalis, while below and behind the fenestra rotunda is seen, closed by a membrane. Curving round, above and behind the promontory and fenestrae, is a ridge caused by the aqueductus Fallopii or canal for the facial nerve. The whole tympanum is about half an inch from before backward, and half an inch high, and is spanned from side to side by three small bones, of which the malleus (fig. 1, 1) is the most external. This is attached by its handle to the umbo of the tympanic membrane, while its head lies in the attic and articulates posteriorly with the upper part of the next bone or incus (fig. 1, 2). The long process of the incus runs downward and ends in a little knob called the os orbiculare, which is jointed on to the stapes or stirrup bone (fig. 1, 3). The two branches of the stapes are anterior and posterior, while the footplate fits into the fenestra ovalis and is bound to it by a membrane. It will thus be seen that the stapes lies nearly at right angles to the long process of the incus. From the front of the malleus a slender process projects forward into the Glaserian fissure, while from the back of the incus the posterior process is directed backward and is attached to the posterior wall of the tympanum. These two processes form a fulcrum by which the lever action of the malleus and incus is brought about, so that when the handle of the malleus is pushed in by the membrane the head moves out; the top of the incus, attached to it, also moves out, and the os orbiculare moves in, and so the stapes is pressed into the fenestra ovalis. The stapedius and tensor tympanic muscles, the latter of which enters the tympanum in a canal just above the Eustachian tube to be attached to the malleus, modify the movements of the ossicles.

The mucous membrane lining the tympanum is continuous through the Eustachian tube with that of the naso-pharynx, and is reflected on to the ossicles, muscles and chorda tympani nerve. It is ciliated except where it covers the membrana tympani, ossicles and promontory; here it is stratified.

DC, Ductus cochlearis.

dr, Ductus reuniens.

S, Sacculus.

U, Utriculus.

dv, Ductus endolymphaticus.

SC, Semicircular canals.

(After Waldeyer.)

The internal ear or labyrinth consists of a bony and a membranous part, the latter of which is contained in the former. The bony labyrinth is composed of the vestibule, the semicircular canals and the cochlea. The vestibule lies just internal to the posterior part of the tympanum, and there would be a communication between the two, through the fenestra ovalis, were it not that the footplate of the stapes blocks the way. The inner wall of the vestibule is separated from the bottom of the internal auditory meatus by a plate of bone pierced by many foramina for branches of the auditory nerve (fig. 1, 9), while at the lower part is the opening of the aqueductus vestibuli, by means of which a communication is established with the posterior cranial fossa. Posteriorly the three semicircular canals open into the vestibule; of these the external (fig. 1, 7) has two independent openings, but the superior and posterior (fig. 1, 5 and 6) join together at one end and so have a common opening, while at their other ends they open separately. The three canals have therefore five openings into the vestibule instead of six. One end of each canal is dilated to form its ampulla. The superior semicircular canal is vertical, and the two pillars of its arch are nearly external and internal; the external canal is horizontal, its two pillars being anterior and posterior, while the convexity of the arch of the posterior canal is backward and its two pillars are superior and inferior. Anteriorly the vestibule leads into the cochlea (fig. 1, 4), which is twisted two and a half times round a central pillar called the modiolus, the whole cochlea forming a rounded cone something like the shell of a snail though it is only about 5 mm. from base to apex. Projecting from the modiolus is a horizontal plate which runs round it from base to apex like a spiral staircase; this is known as the lamina spiralis, and it stretches nearly half-way across the canal of the cochlea. At the summit it ends in a little hook named the hamulus. The modiolus is pierced by canals which transmit branches of the auditory nerve to the lamina spiralis.

The membranous labyrinth lies in the bony labyrinth, but does not fill it; between the two is the fluid called perilymph, while inside the membranous labyrinth is the endolymph. In the bony vestibule lie two membranous bags, the saccule (fig. 2, S) in front, and the utricle (fig. 2, U) behind; each of these has a special patch or macula to which twigs of the auditory nerve are supplied, and in the mucous membrane of which specialized hair cells are found (fig. 3,p).

Attached to the maculae are crystals of carbonate of lime called otoconia. The membranous semicircular canals are very much smaller in section thanthebony; in the ampulla of each is a ridge, the crista acustica, which is covered by a mucousmembrane containing sensory hair cells like those in the maculae. All the canals open into the utricle. From the lower part of the saccule a small canal called the ductus endolymphaticus (fig. 2,dv) runs into the aqueductus vestibuli; it is soon joined by a small duct from the utricle, and ends, close to the dura mater of the posterior fossa of the cranium, as the saccus endolymphaticus, which may have minute perforations through which the endolymph can pass. Anteriorly the saccule communicates with the membranous cochlea or scala media by a short ductus reuniens (fig. 2,dr). A section through each turn of the cochlea shows the bony lamina spiralis, already noticed, which is continued right across the canal by the basilar membrane (fig. 4,bm), thus cutting the canal into an upper and lower half and connected with the outer wall by the strong spiral ligament (fig. 4,sl). Near the free end of the lamina spiralis another membrane called the membrane of Reissner (fig. 4,mR) is attached, and runs outward and upward to the outer wall, taking a triangular slice out of the upper half of the section. There are now three canals seen in section, the upper of which is the scala vestibuli (fig. 4, SV), the middle and outer the scala media, ductus cochlearis or true membranous cochlea (fig. 4, DC), while the lower is the scala tympani (fig. 4, ST). The scala vestibuli and scala tympani communicate at the apex of the cochlea by an opening known as the helicotrema, so that the perilymph can here pass from one canal to the other. At the base of the cochlea the perilymph in the scala vestibuli is continuous with that in the vestibule, but that in the scala tympani bathes the inner surface of the membrane stretched across the fenestra rotunda, and also communicates with the subarachnoid space through the aqueductus cochleae, which opens into the posterior cranial fossa. The scala media containing endolymph communicates, as has been shown, with the saccule through the canalis reuniens, while, at the apex of the cochlea, it ends in a blind extremity of considerable morphological interest called the lagena.

m, Modiolus.

0, Outer wall of cochlea.

SV, Scala vestibuli.

ST, Scala tympani.

DC, Ductus cochlearis.

mR, Membrane of Reissner.

bm, Basilar membrane.

cs, Crista spiralis.

sl, Spiral ligament.

sg, Spiral ganglion of auditory nerve.

oc, Organ of Corti.

The scala media contains the essential organ of hearing or organ of Corti (fig. 4,oc), which lies upon the inner part of the basilar membrane; it consists of a tunnel bounded on each side of the inner and outer rods of Corti; on each side of these are the inner and outer hair cells, between the latter of which are found the supporting cells of Deiters. Most externally are the large cells of Hensen. A delicate membrane called the lamina reticularis covers the top of all these, and is pierced by the hairs of the hair cells, while above this is the loose membrana tectoria attached to the periosteum of the lamina spiralis, near its tip, internally, and possibly to some of Deiter’s cells externally. The cochlear branch of the auditory nerve enters the lamina spiralis, where a spiral ganglion (fig. 4,sg) is developed on it; after this it is distributed to the inner and outer hair cells.

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