Social Life.—Edinburgh society still retains a certain old-fashioned Scottish exclusiveness. It has been said that the city is “east-windy” and the folk “west-endy.” But this criticism needs judicious qualification. The local patriotism and good taste of the citizens have regulated recreation and have also preserved in pristine vigour many peculiarly Scottish customs and pastimes. Classical concerts and concerts of the better sort, chiefly held in the M’Ewan and Music Halls, are well attended, and lectures are patronized to a degree unknown in most towns. In theatrical matters in the old days of stock companies the verdict of an Edinburgh audience was held to make or mar an actor or a play. This is no longer the case, but the Lyceum theatre in Grindlay Street and the Theatre Royal at the head of Leith Walk give good performances. Variety entertainments are also in vogue, and in Nicolson Street and elsewhere there are good music halls. Outdoor recreations have always been pursued with zest. The public golf-course on Braid Hills and the private courses of the Lothianburn club at Swanston and the Barnton club at Barnton are usually full on Saturdays and holidays. The numerous bowling-greens are regularly frequented and are among the best in Scotland—the first Australian team of bowlers that visited the mother country (in 1901) pronouncing the green in Lutton Place the finest on which they had played. Cricket is played by the university students, at the schools, and by private clubs, of which the Grange is the oldest and best. In winter the game of curling is played on Duddingston Loch, and Dunsappie, St Margaret’s Loch, Lochend and other sheets of water are covered with skaters. Rugby football is in high favour, Edinburgh being commonly the scene of the international matches when thevenuefalls to Scotland. Hockey claims many votaries, there usually being on New Year’s day a match at shinty, orcamanachd, between opposing teams of Highlanders resident in the city. The central public baths in Infirmary Street, with branch establishments in other parts of the town, including Portobello, are largely resorted to, and the proximity of the Firth of Forth induces the keener swimmers to visit Granton every morning. Facilities for boating are limited (excepting on the Forth), but rowing clubs find opportunity for practice and races on the Union Canal, where, however, sailing is scarcely possible. Edinburgh maintains few newspapers, but theScotsman, which may be said to reign alone, has enjoyed a career of almost uninterrupted prosperity, largely in consequence of a succession of able editors, like Charles Maclaren, Alexander Russel, Robert Wallace and Charles Cooper. TheEdinburgh Evening Newsand theEvening Dispatchare popular sheets. In the past theEdinburgh Evening Courant, the chief organ of the Tory party, of which James Hannay was editor for a few years, had a high reputation.The Witness, edited by Hugh Miller, theDaily Review, edited first by J.B. Manson and afterwards by Henry Kingsley, and theScottish Leader, were conducted more or less as Liberal organs with a distinct bias in favour of the then Free Church, but none of these was long-lived. Volunteering has always attracted the younger men, and the highest awards at Wimbledon and Bisley have been won by the Queen’s Edinburgh.
History.—In remote times the seaboard from the Tyne to the Forth was occupied by the Ottadeni, a Welsh tribe of the Brigantes, the territory immediately to the west of it being peopled by the Gadeni. It is probable that the Ottadeni built a fort or camp on the rock on which Edinburgh Castle now stands, which was thus the nucleus around which, in course of time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of the hill-fort, a native settlement was established on the ridge running down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another hamlet, according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest historian of Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north-western base of the rock, a district that afterwards became the parish of St Cuthbert, the oldest in the city. The Romans occupied the country for more than three hundred years, as is evidenced by various remains; but James Grant (1822-1887), inOld and New Edinburgh, doubts whether they ever built on the castle rock. When they withdrew, the British tribes reasserted their sway, and some authorities go so far as to suggest that Arthur was one of their kings. The southern Picts ultimately subdued the Britons, and the castle became their chief stronghold until they were overthrown in 617 (or 629) by the Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from whom the name of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it Edwinesburch, and includes the church of St Cuthbert within the bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin. This name is probably a translation of the Saxon name. James Grant’s view that it may have been the earlier name of the castle, fromdun(“the fort”), andedin(“on the slope”), conflicts with the more generally received opinion that the Britons knew the fortress asCastelh Mynedh Agnedh(“the hill of the plain”), a designation once wrongly interpreted as the “castle of the maidens” (castrum puellarum), in allusion to the supposed fact that the Pictish princesses were lodged within it during their education. In the 16th century the latinized form Edina was invented and has been used chiefly by poets, once notably by Burns, whose “Address” begins “Edina! Scotia’s darling seat.” Long after Edwin’s conquest the lowland continued to be debatable territory held by uncertain tenure, but at length it was to a large extent settled anew by Anglo-Saxon and Norman colonists under Malcolm Canmore and his sons.
In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the king’s palace. There his pious queen, Margaret, the grand-niece of Edward the Confessor, died in 1093. It continued to be a royal residence during the reigns of her three sons, and hence the first rapid growth of the upper town may be referred to the 12th century. The parish church of St Giles is believed to have been erected in the reign of Alexander I., about 1110, and the huge Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger brother, David I., continued to be known as David’s Tower till its destruction in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the Scottish throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which from an early date received the court as its guests. But notwithstanding the attractions of the abbey and the neighbouring chase, the royal palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress, and there both the Celtic and Stuart kings frequently resided. Edinburgh was long an exposed frontier town within a territory only ceded to Malcolm II. about 1020; and even under the earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a border stronghold. Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside the abbey of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient importance to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a judicatory for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as 1450, when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes eastwards from the castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary, and space therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide house-room by building dwellings of many storeys. These tall tenements on both sides of what is now High Street and Canongate are still a prominent characteristic of the Old Town. The streets were mostly very narrow, the main street from the castle to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone permitting the passage of wheeled carriages. In the narrow “wynds” the nobility and gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs, and proceeded in full dress to the assemblies and balls, which were conducted with aristocratic exclusiveness in an alley on the south side of High Street, called the Assembly Close, and in the assembly rooms in the West Bow. Beyond the walls lay the burghs of Calton, Easter and Wester Portsburgh, the villages of St Cuthbert’s,Moutrie’s Hill, Broughton, Canonmills, Silvermills and Deanhaugh—all successively swallowed up in the extension of the modern city. The seaport of Leith, though a distinct burgh, governed by its own magistrates, and electing its own representative to parliament, has also on its southern side become practically united to its great neighbour.
The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were Stirling, Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form the earliest existing collected body of Scots law. The determination of Edinburgh as the national capital, and as the most frequent scene of parliamentary assemblies, dates from the death of James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen parliaments summoned by that sovereign, only one, the last, was held at Edinburgh, but his assassination in the Blackfriars’ monastery at Perth led to the abrupt transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood Abbey instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up her residence, with the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen parliaments summoned during this reign, only one was held at Perth, five met at Stirling and the rest at Edinburgh; and, notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as a royal residence in the following reign, every one of the parliaments of James III. was held at Edinburgh. James II. conferred on the city various privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and privileges were granted by James III.; and by a precept of 1482, known as the Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost and magistrates the hereditary office of sheriff, with power to hold courts, to levy fines, and to impose duties on all merchandise landed at the port of Leith. Those privileges were renewed and extended by various sovereigns, and especially by a general charter granted by James VI. in 1603.
James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era which followed his son’s accession to the throne, the town reached the open valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief thoroughfare. But the death of James IV. in 1513, along with other disastrous results of the battle of Flodden, brought this era of prosperity to an abrupt close. The citizens hastened to construct a second line of wall, enclosing the Cowgate and the heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches and Heriot’s hospital, but still excluding the Canongate, as pertaining to the abbey of Holyrood. In the 16th century the movements connected with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, made Edinburgh a castle of much activity. With the departure, however, of the sixth James to fill the English throne in 1603, the town lost for a long period its influence and prestige. Matters were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a cellar in High Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and it was not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden (1746) that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch, when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular memory as the “dark age.”
By the accession of George III. (1760), Edinburgh showed signs of revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, connecting the Old Town with the sloping ground on which afterwards stood the Register House and the theatre in Shakespeare Square, was opened; a little later the Nor’ Loch was partially drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in 1785 encouraged expansion southwards. Towards the end of the 18th century the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal, lines which had been planned by James Craig (d. 1795), the architect, nephew of the poet Thomson, and the erection of Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place (formally opened in 1819 on the occasion of the visit of Prince Leopold, afterwards king of the Belgians) gave access to Calton Hill. The creation of Princes Street, one of the most beautiful thoroughfares in the world, led to further improvement. The earth and débris from the excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining streets had been “dumped” in the centre of the drained Nor’ Loch. This unsightly mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eye-sore, until the happy thought arose of converting it into a broad way joining the new road at Hanover Street with the Old Town at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which divides Princes Street and its gardens into east and west, and which received the title of the Mound, were erected the National Gallery and the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was resorted to by professional men—lawyers, doctors and artists,—and in its principal streets will be found the head offices of the leading banks and insurance offices, all lodged in buildings of remarkable architectural pretensions. The Commercial, the Union and the Clydesdale banks are in George Street, the National Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of Scotland, and the British Linen Company’s Bank are in St Andrew Square, the Bank of Scotland is at the head of the Mound. The extensive building operations engaged in by the town council in the early part of the 19th century resulted in the insolvency of the city in 1833. The property of the corporation was valued at £271,658 against a debt of £425,195, which was compounded for by the issue of 3% annuity bonds—the loss to the creditors amounting to 25% of their claims.
Meanwhile the progress of letters, science and learning manifested the recovery of the city. The names of Knox (d. 1572), Buchanan (1582), Alexander Montgomery (1605), Drummond of Hawthornden (1649), Allan Ramsay (1757), Smollett (1771), Fergusson (1774), and Burns (1796), carried on the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to the close of the 18th century, when various causes combined to give them new significance and value. The university was served by a body of teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent position among European schools. Then succeeded the era of Scott’sMarmionandThe Lady of the Lake, followed by the Waverley novels and the foundation ofBlackwood’s Magazineand theEdinburgh Review.
Modern conditions have changed the character of Edinburgh society. In Scott’s early days a journey to London was beset with difficulties and even dangers; but railways have now brought it within a few hours’ distance, and Scottish artists and literary men are tempted to seek a wider field. Nevertheless, the influence of the past survives in many ways. Edinburgh is not markedly a manufacturing city, but preserves its character as the Scottish capital.
Authorities.—James Grant,Old and New Edinburgh(London, 1880 et seq.); W. Maitland,History of Edinburgh(1753); Hugo Arnot,History of Edinburgh(1789); B. Chambers,Traditions of Edinburgh(1824); D. Wilson,Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time(1846-1848); O. Smeaton,Edinburgh and its Story(1904).The Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean of Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895);Royal Edinburgh, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid, R.S.A. (London, 1890).
Authorities.—James Grant,Old and New Edinburgh(London, 1880 et seq.); W. Maitland,History of Edinburgh(1753); Hugo Arnot,History of Edinburgh(1789); B. Chambers,Traditions of Edinburgh(1824); D. Wilson,Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time(1846-1848); O. Smeaton,Edinburgh and its Story(1904).The Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean of Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895);Royal Edinburgh, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid, R.S.A. (London, 1890).
1The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one took its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as a prison, and was removed in 1817.2James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manufacturer, and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested as a motto the homely couplet:—“Wha wad hae thocht it,That noses wad bocht it?”3James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed nearly the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital for poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half of the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb.
1The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one took its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as a prison, and was removed in 1817.
2James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manufacturer, and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested as a motto the homely couplet:—
“Wha wad hae thocht it,That noses wad bocht it?”
“Wha wad hae thocht it,
That noses wad bocht it?”
3James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed nearly the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital for poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half of the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb.
EDINBURGHSHIRE,orMidlothian, a county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. by the shires of Haddington, or East Lothian, and Berwick, S.E. by Roxburghshire, S. by Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and Lanarkshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire, and W. by Linlithgowshire or West Lothian. Its area is 234,339 acres or 3662 sq. m. The island of Cramond belongs to the county. There are no mountains, but the Pentland Hills advance boldly from the south-west to within 5 m. of the sea. The loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 ft.), Carnethy (1881), West and East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806). They are generally of rounded form, and covered with heath or grass. The Moorfoot Hills, in the south-east, are a continuation of the Lammermuirs, and attain in Blackhope Scar a height of 2136 ft. Of more or less isolated eminences there are the Braid Hills (698 ft.), Blackford Hill (500), Arthur’s Seat (822), Corstorphine Hill (500)—all practically within Edinburgh—and Dalmahoy Craig (800), 7 m. south-west of the city. Of the rivers the Gala rises on the south-east of the Moorfoot Hills and flows south to join the Tweed, and the Tyne after a course of 7 m. passes into Haddingtonshire. All the others flow into the Firth of Forth. Of these the Esk, which is the longest, drains the district between the Pentlands and the Moorfoot Hills, and empties into the sea at Musselburgh. The southern branch has its source near Blackhope Scar, receives on its right Gore Waterand, on its left, Dalhousie Burn, and flows past Newbattle Abbey; the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds through much picturesque scenery past Penicuik, Roslin, Hawthornden and Lasswade; the two streams uniting within the grounds of Dalkeith Palace. Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between the Braid Hills and Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Portobello. The Water of Leith, with its head streams on the western slope of the Pentlands, flows past Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green, Colinton, Edinburgh and Leith. The Almond, rising in Lanarkshire, and its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, form the boundary between Midlothian and Linlithgowshire. Several of these streams, especially the Esk and the Water of Leith, furnish much water power. The only loch is that at Duddingston, but there are several large reservoirs connected with the water supply of Edinburgh. Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the head of Bog Burn, a tributary of the Almond, is used for the supply of the Union Canal connecting the Forth with the Clyde.
Geology.—The southern portion of the county, embracing the Moorfoot Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala Water, lies within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland. From Bowland northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the Silurian strata are mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes, grits, flags and shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites sparingly. To the north of this area, older sediments, comprising Arenig cherts, black shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age, rise from underneath the Tarannon strata and spread over the hills north to the margin of the tableland. In some of the folds of Arenig cherts diabase lavas appear, which occupy small lenticular areas. All the Silurian strata are repeated by folds striking north-east and south-west and frequently dipping in one direction, to the north-west as in the Gala valley. North of the Silurian tableland and within the area occupied by the younger palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are various inliers of Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur (1) in the North Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near Bavelaw Castle, and (4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk is by far the most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and Downtonian rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds in the Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite of organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red Sandstone rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones, which are succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending from the West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous rocks include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs, which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by several vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston.The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the north-west slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean reservoir, where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They occupy the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the lower slope of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmillar and Liberton towards Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved by the discovery of fish remains (Holoptychius), a zonal form of the Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing the fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the basin of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various igneous rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills, formed of older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge, throwing off the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-east. In the former direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series is represented, and in the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are well developed. The lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone series, consisting of sandstones, red and green shales, marls and cement-stones, appears in the ridge of the old part of the city between the Castle and Holyrood, in the Hunter’s Bog and on the north-west side of the Pentland Hills. Intercalated in this series near the top, there are interbedded volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts, mugearites, tuffs and agglomerates, which form conspicuous features on Arthur’s Seat, on Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill south of Mid Calder. Next in order come the Granton sandstones and Wardie shales, which are best seen on the shore at Granton, and extend up the Water of Leith in the direction of Colinton, where they are succeeded by the Hailes sandstone. The upper portion of the Calciferous Sandstone series, overlying the Hailes sandstone, embraces the valuable oil-shales, which give rise to one of the chief industries of the Lothians. Recently, however, it has been proved that some of the bands in the Wardie shales give a low yield of oil and sulphate of ammonia. The oil-shale-fields in the county lie partly along its west margin from Mid Calder south to Breich and also on the south-east side of the Pentland Hills between Straiton and Carlops along the west side of the Midlothian basin. From an economic point of view the Midlothian coalfield is of special importance, the strata being arranged in a syncline, the long axis of which trends north-north-east and south-south-west. In the centre of the basin lie the Coal-Measures covered by the barren red sandstone of Dalkeith, probably on the same horizon as the red sandstones of Wemyss in Fife (Middle Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing group rise from underneath the Coal-Measures, forming parallel bands curving round the basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the strata dip at high angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical and even in some cases inverted, while in the centre they become flat and rise at gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures and the coal-bearing group of the Carboniferous Limestone series contain numerous valuable coals and ironstones, and there still remains a large field for development. The intrusive igneous rocks forming prominent features in the county are divisible into two main groups, which are separated from each other by a considerable interval of time. The coarse agglomerate filling the old volcano on the top of Arthur’s Seat is associated with the eruption of the volcanic rocks of Calciferous Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained basalt appearing as a plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the basalt on the top of Arthur’s Seat, and is likewise of the same age. The intrusive sheets of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill composed of olivine-dolerite belong to the same general period. But the quartz-dolerites represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability of late Carboniferous age.
Geology.—The southern portion of the county, embracing the Moorfoot Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala Water, lies within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland. From Bowland northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the Silurian strata are mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes, grits, flags and shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites sparingly. To the north of this area, older sediments, comprising Arenig cherts, black shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age, rise from underneath the Tarannon strata and spread over the hills north to the margin of the tableland. In some of the folds of Arenig cherts diabase lavas appear, which occupy small lenticular areas. All the Silurian strata are repeated by folds striking north-east and south-west and frequently dipping in one direction, to the north-west as in the Gala valley. North of the Silurian tableland and within the area occupied by the younger palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are various inliers of Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur (1) in the North Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near Bavelaw Castle, and (4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk is by far the most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and Downtonian rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds in the Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite of organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red Sandstone rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones, which are succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending from the West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous rocks include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs, which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by several vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston.
The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the north-west slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean reservoir, where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They occupy the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the lower slope of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmillar and Liberton towards Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved by the discovery of fish remains (Holoptychius), a zonal form of the Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing the fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the basin of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various igneous rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills, formed of older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge, throwing off the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-east. In the former direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series is represented, and in the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are well developed. The lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone series, consisting of sandstones, red and green shales, marls and cement-stones, appears in the ridge of the old part of the city between the Castle and Holyrood, in the Hunter’s Bog and on the north-west side of the Pentland Hills. Intercalated in this series near the top, there are interbedded volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts, mugearites, tuffs and agglomerates, which form conspicuous features on Arthur’s Seat, on Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill south of Mid Calder. Next in order come the Granton sandstones and Wardie shales, which are best seen on the shore at Granton, and extend up the Water of Leith in the direction of Colinton, where they are succeeded by the Hailes sandstone. The upper portion of the Calciferous Sandstone series, overlying the Hailes sandstone, embraces the valuable oil-shales, which give rise to one of the chief industries of the Lothians. Recently, however, it has been proved that some of the bands in the Wardie shales give a low yield of oil and sulphate of ammonia. The oil-shale-fields in the county lie partly along its west margin from Mid Calder south to Breich and also on the south-east side of the Pentland Hills between Straiton and Carlops along the west side of the Midlothian basin. From an economic point of view the Midlothian coalfield is of special importance, the strata being arranged in a syncline, the long axis of which trends north-north-east and south-south-west. In the centre of the basin lie the Coal-Measures covered by the barren red sandstone of Dalkeith, probably on the same horizon as the red sandstones of Wemyss in Fife (Middle Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing group rise from underneath the Coal-Measures, forming parallel bands curving round the basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the strata dip at high angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical and even in some cases inverted, while in the centre they become flat and rise at gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures and the coal-bearing group of the Carboniferous Limestone series contain numerous valuable coals and ironstones, and there still remains a large field for development. The intrusive igneous rocks forming prominent features in the county are divisible into two main groups, which are separated from each other by a considerable interval of time. The coarse agglomerate filling the old volcano on the top of Arthur’s Seat is associated with the eruption of the volcanic rocks of Calciferous Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained basalt appearing as a plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the basalt on the top of Arthur’s Seat, and is likewise of the same age. The intrusive sheets of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill composed of olivine-dolerite belong to the same general period. But the quartz-dolerites represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability of late Carboniferous age.
Climate and Agriculture.—In the hill country the average rainfall is 37.4 in., but on the coast only 28.4 in. The average temperature ranges from 38° F. in January to 59°.5 in July, the mean for the year being 47.7. The north-east and easterly winds prevailing in spring are, especially in Edinburgh and its vicinity, remarkable for their cold and blighting character. Excepting in the uplands, snow seldom lies long, but frosts sometimes occur at night as late as the beginning of June, and severe enough to destroy the young shoots of seedling trees in nurseries. But the winter is often astonishingly mild. The common snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) blossoms as early as the 25th of January, the kidney liverleaf (Hepatica triloba) by the 31st of January and the rhododendron (R. nobleanum) by the 25th of February. On the shores of the Forth along the Almond and the Esk, and on some of the richer flats, grain crops ripen early; 2 m. nearer the hills and 200 ft. higher the harvest is ten days later; and at 600 ft. still another week later. High farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which wheat can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however, is the predominant grain crop, though barley is also raised. Turnips and potatoes are the chief roots, and beans are grown to a limited extent. A large area is occupied by pasture and sown grasses, fallow land having practically disappeared. Near Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely developed. There are 200 acres at Craigentinny between Restalrig and the Forth, besides smaller tracts under similar treatment at Lochend, Dalry and the Grange. The produce consists principally of natural grasses. Sheep and cattle raising is an important pursuit. In the neighbourhood of the capital dairy farming is conducted on an extensive scale. Horse breeding flourishes, several of the studs being of excellent character, Clydesdales predominating. Pig-keeping has grown considerably and poultry-farming is carried on near Edinburgh. The nursery gardens are extensive, and, besides market gardening, which prospers near the capital, there are many orchards.
Other Industries.—Though as a whole not a mining county, Midlothian possesses some mineral wealth. Coal is extensively mined at various points on the North Esk, like Penicuik, Loanhead, Bonnyrigg, Eskbank and at Gorebridge, Newbattle, Newbigging, Niddrie, Gilmerton, Mid and West Calder. Ironstone is obtained chiefly at Lasswade and Penicuik and fire-clay occurs at various points. In the vicinity of West Calder there is a large amount of valuable oil-bearing shale. Limestone is of frequent occurrence—at Esperston, Cousland, Crichton near Dalkeith, Burdiehouse, Gilmerton near Edinburgh, the Camps in Kirknewton parish, and at Muirieston and Leven Seat in the south-west. Freestone is quarried at Craigleith, Hailes, Redhall and Craigmillar. It is used for pavements and stairs, and for the great docks at Leith. Barnton Mount supplies large blocksof whinstone, also used for docks and for fortifications; the causeway stones for the streets of Edinburgh are mainly procured from the quarries at Ratho; and a number of smaller quarries for the supply of road-material are scattered throughout the county. Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publishing in the metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Midlothian is paper-making. Most of the mills are extensive and equipped with the most modern processes and have an enormous yearly output. The most important mills, some of them dating from the beginning of the 18th century, are situated on the North Esk between Penicuik and Musselburgh, and on the South Esk at Newbattle. At Balerno, Currie, Colinton and elsewhere on the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well as near Mid Calder and at Portobello. The ancient vat-mill called Peggy’s Mill, at Cramond, produces handmade papers. There are carpet factories on the Esk at Roslin and at Lasswade. The manufacture of gunpowder is also carried on at Roslin, the works being distributed in recesses on the Esk. Iron foundries exist at Dalkeith, Westfield, Loanhead, Penicuik, Millerhill and in the suburbs of Edinburgh; brick and tile works at Portobello, Millerhill, Newbattle, Bonnyrigg and Rosewell; and candle works at Dalkeith and Loanhead. Leather also is tanned at Edinburgh and Dalkeith. The shipping trade is concentrated at Leith and Granton, and Newhaven is still an important fishery centre, while there are also fleets at Fisherrow and Granton.
Population and Government.—The population in 1891 was 434,276, and in 1901 488,796, of whom 5765 spoke both Gaelic and English, and 75 Gaelic only. The chief towns, besides Edinburgh, the capital (pop. in 1901, 316,837), are Bonnyrigg (1924), Dalkeith (6812), Leith (77,439), Loanhead (3071), Musselburgh (11,711), Newton Grange (2406), Penicuik (3574), and West Calder (2652). The county forms a single parliamentary constituency, exclusive of Edinburgh city and Leith burghs. It has been divided by the county council into four county districts (Calder, Gala Water, Lasswade, Suburban) for the purposes of the Roads and Bridges Act 1878, and the Public Health Acts. The management of special districts formed for water supply, drainage and other sanitary purposes is entrusted to sub committees appointed by the respective district committees. The grant under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act is administered by the Technical Education Committee appointed by the Council; and, subject to the same authority, the Secondary Education Committee provides for the distribution of the grant under the Local Taxation (Scotland) Act. In respect of education the shire is under school-board jurisdiction.
History and Antiquities.—Cramond was once a Roman seaport, and various objects of Roman art and workmanship have been discovered in its vicinity and along the banks of the Almond. On several heights are remains of early military works—the most important being that on Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in the parish of Penicuik, and Castle Greg on the Harburn estate in Mid Calder parish. Picts’ houses are found at Crichton Mains, at Borthwick Castle, near Middleton House and elsewhere, the first being especially interesting from the fact that some of the stones bear marks of Roman masonry. There are hut-circles and a fort on Kaimes Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with three upright stones, at Old Liston; a smaller tumulus at Newbattle; a cistvaen or stone burial chest at Carlowrie; and standing stones at Lochend, at Comiston (the Caiy stone), and the “Cat Stane” near Kirkliston. Temple, on the South Esk, was at one time the chief seat of the Knights Templars in Scotland for whom David I. here built a church, now in ruins.
The history of the county is almost identical with that of the capital. Traces of Celtic occupation are obvious in such names as Inveresk, Almond, Leith, Dalry, Dalmahoy, Dalkeith and others; though most of the villages, hamlets and castles received their present designation from Saxon possessors. The terminationtonis very frequent. Following upon the withdrawal of the Romans the land was the scene of intertribal strife, but it was in a measure subdued by the Saxons and passed under the rule of the Northumbrian kings, who held it till 1020, when the Lothians were handed over to the Scottish king, Malcolm II. The people of the Lothians, however, stipulated that they were to retain their manners and customs, and in this way the south-eastern lowlands became the centre from which Anglo-Saxon and Norman civilization gradually spread throughout Scotland, and hence, too, was assured the pre-eminence of Edinburgh. Within the county lie the battlefields of Roslin, where (in 1303) the English suffered three reverses in one day; Burghmuir, where the English were defeated by the earl of Moray in 1334; Pinkie near Inveresk, where (in 1547) the duke of Somerset inflicted heavy loss upon the Scots; and Rullion Green, on the eastern slopes of the Pentlands, where (in 1666) the Covenanters were routed by the royal troops under General Dalziel.
See James Grant,Old and New Edinburgh(London, 1880 et seq.); Miss Warrender,Walks near Edinburgh(Edinburgh, 1890); J.C. Oliphant,Rambles round Edinburgh(Edinburgh, 1892); J.M. Bell,Castles of the Lothians(Edinburgh, 1893); W. Baird,Annals of Duddingston and Portobello(Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie,The Water of Leith(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson,Ruined Castles of Midlothian(Edinburgh, 1895);The Islands of the Forth(Edinburgh 1899).
See James Grant,Old and New Edinburgh(London, 1880 et seq.); Miss Warrender,Walks near Edinburgh(Edinburgh, 1890); J.C. Oliphant,Rambles round Edinburgh(Edinburgh, 1892); J.M. Bell,Castles of the Lothians(Edinburgh, 1893); W. Baird,Annals of Duddingston and Portobello(Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie,The Water of Leith(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson,Ruined Castles of Midlothian(Edinburgh, 1895);The Islands of the Forth(Edinburgh 1899).
EDISON, THOMAS ALVA(1847- ), American inventor, was born on the 11th of February 1847, at Milan, Erie county, Ohio, of mixed Dutch and Scottish descent; but his parents moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he was seven years old. At the age of twelve he became a train news-boy on the railway to Detroit, and managed to gratify his youthful interest in chemistry by performing experiments while travelling. At fifteen he became a telegraph operator, and was employed in many cities in the United States and Canada, but frequently neglected his duties in order to carry on studies and experiments in electrical science. Before he was twenty-one he had constructed an automatic repeater, by means of which a message could be transferred from one wire to another without the aid of an operator; and he had also directed his attention to the problem of duplex telegraphy, of which he later invented a successful system. In 1869 Edison came to New York city, and soon afterwards became connected with the Gold & Stock Company. He invented an improved printing telegraph for stock quotations, for which he received $40,000. He then established a laboratory and factory in Newark, N.J., for further experiments and for the manufacture of his inventions. In 1876 he removed to Menlo Park, and later to West Orange, N.J., where he continued his experiments. Since then his name has been prominently associated with all kinds of novelties in practical electricity. Among his principal inventions are his system of duplex telegraphy, which he later developed into quadruplex and sextuplex transmission; his carbon telephone transmitter; the microtasimeter, for the detection of small variations in temperature; the phonograph, which records and reproduces all manner of sounds; the cinematograph, which his improvements made practicable; and his method of preparing carbon filaments for the incandescent electric lamp. In 1878 Edison was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour by the French government.
EDMONTON,the capital city of the province of Alberta, Canada, which was constituted in 1905. Pop. (1901) 2652; (1906) 11,167. It is picturesquely situated on the north bank of the North Saskatchewan river in 113° 37′ W. and 53° 32′ N. It is on a high tableland which rises 200 ft. above the river, and overlooks the thickly wooded valley of the North Saskatchewan river—at this point a mile in width, the river itself being one-eighth of a mile wide. Directly opposite Edmonton on the south bank of the river stands Strathcona, a town with a population of 2927. The streets of Edmonton are wide and laid out in rectangular form. Its excellent drainage makes street grading an easy matter. In 1896 it was scarcely a village; in 1901 it assumed some importance, but three-quarters of the city were built between 1901 and 1906. Its choice as capital in 1905 gave it a great impetus. The buildings, largely of brick, give a substantial appearance to the place. The public school buildings, high school and Alberta College are attractive. The church buildings, many in number, include several architecturally beautiful. Three well planned and commodious hospitalbuildings represent the benevolent work of the community. The banks and the wholesale warehouses are well built, and many beautiful private residences are worthy of note. Its growth may be realized from the fact that during a part of 1906, $806,015 worth of building permits were granted; the customs receipts, $57,994 in 1905, grew to $104,416 in 1906; the mail parcels handled increased from 6800 to 12,079; and the express parcels handled from 1277 to 2347. Edmonton is the depot of the fur traders for the great region on the north and west. The Hudson’s Bay Company has great interest in Edmonton, but is vigorously opposed by a strong French firm, Revillon Frères of Paris. These two companies have their posts wide spread over the north country. The city, being incorporated, is governed by a mayor and a board of aldermen. It operates its own water service, electric light plant, and telephone system. Its schools are managed by an elected public school board.
Edmonton was begun as a post of the North West Company about the year 1778. Early in the 19th century the Hudson’s Bay Company also established a fort at this point. On the union of the two companies under the name of the latter, Fort Edmonton sprang into new importance. It became a north-western centre, and in its neighbourhood many employees of the fur company, both Scottish and French, took up land as settlers. As freighters for the Hudson’s Bay Company many of these settlers made, with their ox or pony carts, the long journey over the natural prairie roads to Fort Garry, fording or swimming the streams, carrying furs for a thousand miles or more on the eastern trip, and returning brought loads of merchandise for the company. Its inaccessibility made the Edmonton settlement grow very slowly, so that its great increase in population belongs to the period subsequent to 1896.
EDMONTON,an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 7½ m. N. of London Bridge, on the Old North Road, on the west side of the Lea Valley. Pop. (1891) 25,381; (1901) 46,899. There are numerous factories in the valley, and Edmonton consists largely of the cottages of artisans. The church of All Saints has been extensively restored, but retains part of the ancient fabric of Perpendicular and earlier date. It contains brasses of interest, and in the churchyard is the memorial of Charles Lamb, who lived and died (1834) at Edmonton, and his sister. Cowper and Keats were also residents, and the Bell Inn is famed through Cowper’s poemJohn Gilpin.
EDMUND, SAINT[Edmund Rich] (d. 1240), English saint and archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Abingdon, near Oxford, about 1175. His father was a merchant of that town who retired, with his wife’s consent, to the monastery of Eynsham, leaving in her hands the education of their family. Her name was Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic life and encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters took the veil; three of her sons served the church in different capacities. Edmund, her first-born, began his education in a grammar school at Oxford. Of weak health and a contemplative disposition, he showed, from his earliest years, a remarkable taste for learning and religious exercises. He saw visions while still at school, and at the age of twelve took a vow of perpetual chastity in the Virgin’s church at Oxford. Later he was sent, with his brother Robert, to study the liberal arts at Paris. His mother’s death and family affairs recalled him for a time to England; but he afterwards graduated at Paris. For six years he lectured in the liberal arts, partly in Paris and partly in Oxford; his career as an Oxford teacher commenced before 1205, and is noteworthy for the fact that he was the first who lectured there on Aristotle. He then returned to Paris for a course of theological studies, and rapidly made himself proficient in that branch of learning.
After spending a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons of Merton (Surrey) he became a theological lecturer in Oxford. In this capacity he gained some reputation, and it is related that his audience were often moved to tears by his eloquence. He spent the fees which he received in charity, and refused to spend upon himself the revenues which he derived from several benefices. He not infrequently retired for solitude to Reading Abbey; it is probable that he would have become a monk if that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a preacher and expositor. As his fame increased he became alarmed by the temptations which it threw in his way. He ceased to lecture in Oxford, and about 1222 accepted, at the invitation of Bishop Richard Poore, the treasurership of Salisbury cathedral. Little is known of his life for the next ten years. But he attracted the notice of the Roman court, and was appointed in 1227 to preach the Crusade in England; he formed a friendship with Ella, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William Longsword, and he won general admiration by his works of charity and the austerity of his life.
In 1233 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury at the express suggestion of Gregory IX., after the monks of Canterbury had in vain suggested three other candidates for the pope’s approval. Edmund at once leaped into prominence by the outspoken manner in which he rebuked the king for following the advice of foreign favourites. In common with the baronial opposition he treated Henry III. as responsible for the tragic fate of Richard Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and threatened the king with excommunication. The king bowed before the storm, dismissed the foreign counsellors, made peace with Marshal’s adherents, and was publicly reconciled with the barons. But the new ministers were as unpopular as the old; nor was the archbishop allowed that political influence which he claimed in virtue of his office. It was with the object of emancipating himself from Edmund’s control that the king asked the pope to send him a legate (1236). On the arrival of Cardinal Otho (1237) the archbishop found himself thwarted and insulted at every point. The marriage between Simon de Montfort and the Princess Eleanor, which Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified at Rome upon appeal. The king and legate upheld the monks of Canterbury in their opposition to the archbishop’s authority. On all public occasions the legate took precedence of the archbishop. By the advice of his suffragans Edmund laid a protest before the king, and excommunicated in general terms all who had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures led to no result; nor could the pope be moved to reverse the legate’s decisions. Edmund complained that the discipline of the national church was ruined by this conflict of powers, and began to meditate retiring. He was confirmed in this intention by the papal encroachments of the year 1240, when the English clergy were required to pay a subsidy of a fifth for the war against Frederick II., and simultaneously three hundred Romans were “provided” with English benefices in return for their political services to the Holy See. Edmund withdrew to Pontigny in the summer of 1240. A little later the state of his health compelled him to seek the cooler air of Soissy (near Provins). Here he died on the 16th of November 1240.
His canonization was at once demanded by his admirers, and only delayed (till 1247) through the opposition of Henry III. The honour was well deserved. He is one of the most saintly and attractive figures in the history of the English church. It was his misfortune to be placed at the head of the national hierarchy in a crisis for which he had not been prepared by practical training or experience. As archbishop he showed no great capacity or force of character; but the purity of his motives and the loftiness of his ideals commanded universal respect.
See the Life printed by Martène and Durand in theThesaurus novus anecdotorum(1717). Other lives of importance exist in manuscript at the British Museum, in the Cambridge University library and in that of St John’s College, Cambridge. The last-named is printed by W. Wallace in the appendix to hisLife of St Edmund(1893). An account of the manuscript lives and many extracts (translated) will be found in the Rev. B. Ward’sSt Edmund(1903). See alsoSt Edmund of Abingdon(1898), by the Baroness Paravicini; and theEnglish Historical Review, xxii. pp. 84 ff.
See the Life printed by Martène and Durand in theThesaurus novus anecdotorum(1717). Other lives of importance exist in manuscript at the British Museum, in the Cambridge University library and in that of St John’s College, Cambridge. The last-named is printed by W. Wallace in the appendix to hisLife of St Edmund(1893). An account of the manuscript lives and many extracts (translated) will be found in the Rev. B. Ward’sSt Edmund(1903). See alsoSt Edmund of Abingdon(1898), by the Baroness Paravicini; and theEnglish Historical Review, xxii. pp. 84 ff.
(H. W. C. D.)
EDMUND,king of East Anglia (c.840-870), succeeded to the East Anglian throne in 855 while he was yet but a boy. According to Abbo, followed by Florence of Worcester, he was “ex antiquorum Saxonum prosapia,” which would seem to mean that he was of foreign origin and that he belonged to the OldSaxons of the continent. This very doubtful tradition was expanded later into a fuller legend which spoke of his Old Saxon parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his nomination as successor to Offa, king of East Anglia, and his landing at Hunstanton to claim his kingdom. His coronation took place in the next year at “Burna” (i.e.probably Bures St Mary, Suffolk), which was then the royal capital.
Of the life of St Edmund during the next fourteen years we know nothing. In the year 870 the Danes, who had been wintering at York, marched through Mercia into East Anglia and took up their quarters at Thetford. Edward engaged them fiercely in battle, but the Danes under their leaders Ubba and Inguar were victorious and remained in possession of the field of battle. The king himself was slain, whether on the actual field of battle or in later martyrdom is not certain, but the widely current version of the story which makes him fall a martyr to the Danish arrows when he had refused to renounce his faith or hold his kingdom as a vassal from the heathen overlords, may very probably be true. The story is a very old one, and according to Abbo of Fleury (945-1004), St Edmund’s earliest biographer, it was told him by Dunstan, who heard it from the lips of Edmund’s own standard-bearer. This is chronologically just possible, but that is all. The battle was fought at Hoxne, some 20 m. south-east of Thetford, and the king’s body was ultimately interred at Beadoricesworth, the modern Bury St Edmunds. The shrine of Edmund soon became one of the most famous in England and the reputation of the saint was European. The date of his canonization is unknown, but churches dedicated to his memory are found all over England.
SeeAsser’s Life of Alfred, ed. W.H. Stevenson;Annals of St Neots;Saxon Chronicle;Memorials of St Edmund’s Abbey(Rolls Series), including thePassio Sancti Edmundiof Abbo of Fleury; and theCorolla Sancti Eadmundi, edited by Lord Francis Hervey (1907).
SeeAsser’s Life of Alfred, ed. W.H. Stevenson;Annals of St Neots;Saxon Chronicle;Memorials of St Edmund’s Abbey(Rolls Series), including thePassio Sancti Edmundiof Abbo of Fleury; and theCorolla Sancti Eadmundi, edited by Lord Francis Hervey (1907).