Chapter 4

“The auspicious court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea. What a sea! One cannot see its shore. If I have dived therein without finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the sea.”

He then gave a sealed paper to Ayāz, begging him to hand it to the sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed, and set off on his travels with no better equipment than his staff and a dervish’s cloak. At the expiration of the 20 days Ayāz gave the paper to the sultan, who on opening it found the celebrated satire which is now always prefixed to copies of theShāhnāma, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest and severest pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage, sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture, but he was already in comparative safety. Firdousī directed his steps to Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of Jorjan, who at first received him with great favour, and promised him his continued protection and patronage; learning, however, the circumstances under which he had left Ghazni, he feared the resentment of so powerful a sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew already coveted his kingdom, and dismissed the poet with a magnificent present. Firdousī next repaired to Bagdad, where he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic poem which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier gave Firdousī an apartment near himself, and related to the caliph the manner in which he had been treated at Ghazni. The caliph summoned him into his presence, and was so much pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which Firdousī composed in his honour, that he at once received him into favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to chronicling the renown of fire-worshipping Persians was, however, somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph’s eyes; in order therefore to recover his prestige, Firdousī composed another poem of 9000 couplets on the theme borrowed from the Koran of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife—Yūsuf and Zuleikha(edited by H. Ethé, Oxford, 1902; complete metrical translation by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem, though rare and little known, is still in existence—the Royal Asiatic Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time heard of his asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter menacing his liege lord, and demanding the surrender of the poet. Firdousī, to avoid further troubles, departed for Ahwaz, a province of the Persian Irak, and dedicated hisYūsuf and Zuleikhato the governor of that district. Thence he went to Kohistan, where the governor, Nasir Lek, was his intimate and devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon the frontier. Firdousī confided to him that he contemplated writing a bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the sultan of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of the latter, dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and remonstrated with Mahmud. Nasir Lek’s message and the urgent representations of Firdousī’s friends had the desired effect; and Mahmud not only expressed his intention of offering full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy Maimandi to death. The change, however, came too late; Firdousī, now a broken and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to Tūs, and, while wandering through the streets of his native town, heard a child lisping a verse from his own satire in which he taunts Mahmud with his slavish birth:—

“Had Mahmud’s father been what he is nowA crown of gold had decked this aged brow;Had Mahmud’s mother been of gentle blood,In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood.”

“Had Mahmud’s father been what he is now

A crown of gold had decked this aged brow;

Had Mahmud’s mother been of gentle blood,

In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood.”

He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was buried in a garden, but Abu’l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of Tūs, refused to read the usual prayers over his tomb, alleging that he was an infidel, and had devoted his life to the glorification of fire-worshippers and misbelievers. The next night, however, having dreamt that he beheld Firdousī in paradise dressed in the sacred colour, green, and wearing an emerald crown, he reconsidered his determination; and the poet was henceforth held to be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 411 of the Hegira (1020A.D.), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the meanwhile despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of gold to Firdousī, with a robe of honour and ample apologies for the past. But as the camels bearing the treasure reached one of the gates of the city, Firdousī’s funeral was leaving it by another. His daughter, to whom they brought the sultan’s present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister remembering his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for the river of Tūs, this work was completed in honour of the poet’s memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus.

Much of the traditional life, as given above, which is based upon that prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken byorder of Baisingar Khan, grandson of Timur-i-Leng (Timur), is rejected by modern scholars (see T. Nöldeke, “Das iranische Nationalepos,” in W. Geiger’sGrundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii. pp. 150-158).TheShāhnāmais based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans, a class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousī adhered faithfully to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect storehouse of the genuine traditions of the country.The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of the 19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French translation in a magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French government, by the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl. The size and number of the volumes, however, and their great expense, made them difficult of access, and Frau von Mohl published the French translation (1876-1878) with her illustrious husband’s critical notes and introduction in a more convenient and cheaper form. Other editions are by Turner Macan (Calcutta, 1829), J.A. Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden, 1877-1883). There is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London, 1832; reprinted 1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly rhymed and partly unrhymed, by A.G. and E. Warner (1905 foll.), with an introduction containing an account of Firdousī and the Shāhnāma; the version by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work. The episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers from Matthew Arnold’s poem. The only complete translation is Il Libro dei Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author of a history of Persian poetry.See also E.G. Browne’sLiterary History of Persia, i., ii. (1902-1906); T. Nöldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shāhnāma, editions, &c.; and H. Ethé, “Neupersische Litteratur,” in the same work.

TheShāhnāmais based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans, a class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousī adhered faithfully to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect storehouse of the genuine traditions of the country.

The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of the 19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French translation in a magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French government, by the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl. The size and number of the volumes, however, and their great expense, made them difficult of access, and Frau von Mohl published the French translation (1876-1878) with her illustrious husband’s critical notes and introduction in a more convenient and cheaper form. Other editions are by Turner Macan (Calcutta, 1829), J.A. Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden, 1877-1883). There is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London, 1832; reprinted 1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly rhymed and partly unrhymed, by A.G. and E. Warner (1905 foll.), with an introduction containing an account of Firdousī and the Shāhnāma; the version by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work. The episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers from Matthew Arnold’s poem. The only complete translation is Il Libro dei Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author of a history of Persian poetry.

See also E.G. Browne’sLiterary History of Persia, i., ii. (1902-1906); T. Nöldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shāhnāma, editions, &c.; and H. Ethé, “Neupersische Litteratur,” in the same work.

(E. H. P.; X.)

1A sort of cuirass.

FIRE(in O. Eng.fýr; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutchvuur, Ger.Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskritpū,pāvaka, and Gr.πῦρ; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat.purus), the term commonly used for the visible effect of combustion (seeFlame), operating as a heating or lighting agency.

So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a question whether we have any authentic instance on record of a tribe altogether ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to be found in the voluminous literature of travel which would decide the question in the affirmative; but when they are carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be far from conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe in the southern part of Shoa who lived like monkeys in the bamboo jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no better authority has been found for the statement, and the story, which seems to be current in eastern Africa, may be nothing else than the propagation of fables about the Pygmies whom the ancients located around the sources of the Nile. Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring expedition of 1838-42, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island “there was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of fire,” and that the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks produced by flint and steel and the smoke emitted by those with cigars in their mouths. The presence of the wordafi, fire, in the Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the ethnographer of the expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as equivalent only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the supposition of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a missionary voyage in 1859, not only repeats the wordafiin his list for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin of fire, and describes some peculiar customs connected with its use. Alvaro de Saavedra, an old Spanish traveller, informs us that the inhabitants of Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific, showed great fear when they saw fire—which they did not know before. But that island has not been identified with certainty by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to the Ladrones or Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre Gobien, “till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants, burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts ablaze, their first thought was that fire was a beast which eats up wood. Some of them having approached the fire too near were burnt, and the others kept aloof, fearing to be torn or poisoned by the powerful breath of that terrible animal.” To this Freycinet objects that these Ladrone islanders made pottery before the arrival of Europeans, that they had words expressing the ideas of flame, fire, oven, coals, roasting and cooking. Let us add that in their country numerous graves and ruins have been found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus the question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing impossible in the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe, it cannot be said that such a tribe has been discovered.

It is useless to inquire in what way man first discovered that fire was subject to his control, and could even be called into being by appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon and its various aspects he must soon have become familiar. The volcano lit up the darkness of night and sent its ashes or its lava down into the plains; the lightning or the meteor struck the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less obvious cause produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is possible that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings save awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity as with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have bred confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary to suppose that the practical discovery of fire was made only at one given spot and in one given way; it is much more probable indeed that different tribes and races obtained the knowledge in a variety of ways.

It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable to rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers in Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman bearing always about with her a burning brand, which it is one of her principal duties to protect and foster; and it has been supposed that it was only ignorance which imposed on her the endless task. This is absurd. The Australian methods of producing fire by the friction of two pieces of wood are perfectly well known, and are illustrated in Howitt’sNative Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 771-773. To carry a brand saves a little trouble to the men.

The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably in detail, but are for the most part merely modified applications of concussion or friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the working up of stone into implements must have been followed sooner or later by the discovery of fire; for in the process of chipping sparks were elicited, and in the process of polishing heat was generated. The first or concussion method is still familiar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians take two pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur, strike them together till the sulphur catches fire, and then transfer the flame to a heap of dry grass over which a few feathers have been scattered. Instead of two pieces of quartz the Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of iron pyrites. Mr Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken china violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same process in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China two pieces of bamboo are considered sufficient, the silicious character of the outside layer rendering it as good as native flint. The friction methods are more various. One of the simplest is what E.B. Tylor calls the stick and groove—“a blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own making in a piece of wood lying on the ground.” Much, of course, depends on the quality of the woods and the expertness of the manipulator. In Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce fire in a few seconds, but only succeeded himself after much labour. The same device was employed in New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak Islands. Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the stationary piece of wood—thus making what Tylor has happily designated a fire-drill. This device has been observed in Australia, Kamchatka, Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs of Ceylon, throughout a great part of southern Africa, among the Eskimo and Indian tribes of North America, in the West Indies, in Central America, and as far south as the Straits of Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient Mexicans, andTylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a Mexican MS.—a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick to rotate between the palms of his hands. This simple method of rotation seems to be very generally in use; but various devices have been resorted to for the purpose of diminishing the labour and hastening the result. The Gaucho of the Pampas takes “an elastic stick about 18 in. long, presses one end to his breast and the other in a hole in a piece of wood, and then rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter’s centre-bit.” In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord or thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end and that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others put the upper end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold firmly in their mouth. A further advance was made by the Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who applied the principle of the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious pump-drill was used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of these instruments and a rich variety of details connected with fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor’s valuable chapter in hisResearches. These methods of producing fire are but rarely used in Europe, and only in connexion with superstitious observances. We read in Wuttke that some time ago the authorities of a Mecklenburg village ordered a “wild fire” to be lit against a murrain amongst the cattle. For two hours the men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was not to be ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, objecting to the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such a fire, to be efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded female was compelled to give in; fire was obtained—-but of bad quality, for it did not stop the murrain.

It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be concentrated by a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes mentions the burning-lens inThe Clouds, and the story of Archimedes using a mirror to fire the ships at Syracuse is familiar to every schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be trusted as an authority the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the sacred fire with a concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the burning-glass is in common use.

To the inquiry how mankind became possessed of fire, the cosmogonies, those records of pristine speculative thought, do not give any reply which would not be found in the relations of travellers and historians.

They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes is likewise the god of fire. At Mangaïa it is told that the great Maui went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the tale differently. Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands. Wishing to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out, and so he obtained fire from her great toe. It was so fierce that every thing melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother herself were already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven, saved the hero and the perishing world; but before the waters extinguished all the blaze, Mahuika shut a few sparks into some trees, and thence men draw it now. The Maoris have also the legend that thunder is the noise of Tawhaki’s footsteps, and that lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western Point, Victoria, the Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened the door of the sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that Karakorok, the good man’s good daughter, seeing the earth to be full of serpents, went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had killed them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame burst out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the PersianShahnamaalso fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter. Hushenk, the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone, which, evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it. “Light shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out in glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world.” The snake escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed.North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same idea in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have been, among many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on the Akmon or hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that their ancestor obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther struck with its claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was, like the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri, the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the lightning by hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are his children. Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed “the secret of the stone’s edge and the iron’s hardness.” The Slavonian god of thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or even protruding from his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his hammer upon his own head; the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet in one hand, a flint in the other. Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head a huge mace surrounded by six little ones. Finnish poems describe how “fire, the child of the sun, came down from heaven, where it was rocked in a tub of yellow copper, in a large pail of gold.” Ukko, the Esthonian god, sends forth lightnings, as he strikes his stone with his steel. According to the Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck his sword against his nail, and from the nail issued the “fiery babe.” He gave it to the Wind’s daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden let it fall in the sea, where it was swallowed by the great pike, and fire would have been lost for ever if the child of the sun had not come to the rescue. He dragged the great pike from the water, drew out his entrails, and found there the heavenly spark still alive. Prometheus brought to earth the torch he had lighted at the sun’s chariot.

North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same idea in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have been, among many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on the Akmon or hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that their ancestor obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther struck with its claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.

Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was, like the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri, the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the lightning by hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are his children. Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed “the secret of the stone’s edge and the iron’s hardness.” The Slavonian god of thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or even protruding from his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his hammer upon his own head; the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet in one hand, a flint in the other. Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head a huge mace surrounded by six little ones. Finnish poems describe how “fire, the child of the sun, came down from heaven, where it was rocked in a tub of yellow copper, in a large pail of gold.” Ukko, the Esthonian god, sends forth lightnings, as he strikes his stone with his steel. According to the Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck his sword against his nail, and from the nail issued the “fiery babe.” He gave it to the Wind’s daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden let it fall in the sea, where it was swallowed by the great pike, and fire would have been lost for ever if the child of the sun had not come to the rescue. He dragged the great pike from the water, drew out his entrails, and found there the heavenly spark still alive. Prometheus brought to earth the torch he had lighted at the sun’s chariot.

Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which the uses increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save the labour expended on the initial process of procuring light, or on carrying it about constantly, primitive men hit on the expedient of a fire which should burn night and day in a public building. The Egyptians had one in every temple, the Greeks, Latins and Persians in all towns and villages. The Natchez, the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their “national fires” burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the “eternal lamps” in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic churches, may be a survival. The “Regia,” Rome’s sacred centre, supposed to be the abode of Vesta, stood close to a fountain; it was convenient to draw from the same spot the two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and political interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was at once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort: all public business and most private affairs were transacted by the light and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder that its flagstones should become sacred. Primitive communities consider as holy everything that ensures their existence and promotes their welfare, material things such as fire and water not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew into a religious institution. And if we hear a little more of fire worship than of water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole more difficult to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the Roman temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all authority, all public or private business had to stop immediately. The connexion between heaven and earth had been broken, and it had to be restored in some way or other—either by Jove sending down divine lightning on his altars, or by the priests making a new fire by the old sacred method of rubbing two pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun in a concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier without carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum burned night and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the emigrants took with them living coals from the altar of Hestia, and had in their new country a fire lit as a representative of that burning in the mother country.1Not before the three curiae united their fires into one could Rome become powerful; andAthens became a shining light to the world only, we are told, when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought each its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated, making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated around Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.

Periodic Fires.—Because the sun loses its force after noon, and after midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the ancients inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that, as time goes on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline. Therefore men set about renewing the fires in the temples and on the hearth on the longest day of summer or at the beginning of the agricultural year. The ceremony was attended with much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites. Houses were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels were made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by the creditor; criminals were released by the civil authorities in imitation of the heavenly judges, who were believed to grant on the same day a general remission of sins. All things were made new; each man turned over a new page in the book of his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in the Old World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried these ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated with magnificent ceremonies the renewal of thesaecula, or astronomic periods, which might be shorter or longer than a century. Some details of the festival among the Aztecs have been preserved. On the last night of every period (52 years) every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling, the priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if they had a vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and stars, had been wound up like a clock for a definite period of time. And had they failed to raise the vital spark, they would have believed that it was because the great fire was being extinguished at the central hearth of the world. The Stoics and many other ancient philosophers thought that the world was doomed to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose, how the cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying everything. The Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is also found in the Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha (2 Esdras xvi. 15).

See Dupuis,Origine de tous les cultes(1794); Burnout,Science des religions; Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie, cap. xx. (1835); Adalbert Kuhn.Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks(1859); Steinthal,Über die ursprüngliche Form der Sage von Prometheus(1861); Albert Reville, “Le Mythe de Prométhée,” inRevue des deux mondes(August 1862); Michel Bréal,Hercule et Cacus(1863); Tylor,Researches into the Early History of Mankind, ch. ix. (1865); Bachofen,Die Sage von Tanaquil(1870); Lord Avebury,Prehistoric Times(6th ed., 1900); Haug,Religion of the Parsis(1878).

(E. Re.)

1Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among the Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people with a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care of a so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home. The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez, had each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die out, they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis, Pueblos and Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Redskins discussed important affairs of state at the “council fires,” around which eachsachemmarched three times, turning to it all the sides of his person. “It was a saying among our ancestors,” said an Iroquois chief in 1753, “that when the fire goes out at Onondaga”—the Delphi of the league—“we shall no longer be a people.”

FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION.Fire is considered in this article, primarily, from the point of view of the protection against fire that can be accorded by preventive measures and by the organization of fire extinguishing establishments.

History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in towns and cities of nearly every country in the civilized world. The following is a list of notable fires of early days:—

Great Britain and Ireland798.London, nearly destroyed.982.London, greater part of the city burned.1086.London, all houses and churches from the east to the west gate burned.1212.London, greater part of the city burned.1666.London, “The Great Fire,” September 2-6.It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres, 400 streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul’s church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall, the royal exchange, the custom-house, many hospitals and libraries, 52 companies’ halls, and a vast number of other stately edifices, together with three of the city gates, four stone bridges, and the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the Poultry and Wood Street Compters. The fire swept from the Tower to Temple church, and from the N.E. gate to Holborn bridge. Six persons were killed. The total loss of property was estimated at the time to be £10,731,500.1794.London, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above £1,000,000.1834.London, Houses of Parliament burned.1861.London, Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated at £2,000,000.1873.London, Alexandra palace destroyed.1137.York, totally destroyed.1184.Glastonbury, town and abbey burned.1292.Carlisle, destroyed.1507.Norwich, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.1544.Leith, burned.1598.Tiverton, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; 33 persons killed. Loss, £150,000.1612.Tiverton, 600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000.1731.Tiverton, 300 houses burned.1700.Edinburgh, “the Great Fire.”1612.Cork, greater part burned, and again in 1622.1613.Dorchester, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000.1614.Stratford-on-Avon, burned.1644.Beaminster, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.1675.Northampton, almost totally destroyed.1683.Newmarket, large part of the town burned.1694.Warwick, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.1707.Lisburn, burned.1727.Gravesend, destroyed.1738.Wellingborough, 800 houses burned.1743.Crediton, 450 houses destroyed.1760.Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000.1770.Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, £100,000.1802.Liverpool, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000.1827.Sheerness, 50 houses and much property destroyed.1854.Gateshead, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000.1875.Glasgow. Great fire. Loss, £300,000.France59.Lyons, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.1118.Nantes, greater part of the city destroyed.1137.Dijon, burned.1524.Troyes, nearly destroyed.1720.Rennes, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.1784.Brest. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000.1862.Marseilles, destructive fire.1871.Paris. Communist devastations. Property destroyed, £32,000,000.Central and Southern Europe64.Romeburned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city were destroyed.1106.Venice, greater part of the city was burned.1577. “ fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by an explosion.1299.Weimar, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.1379.Memelwas in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540, 1678, 1854.1405.Bernwas destroyed.1420.Leipziglost 400 houses.1457.Dort, cathedral and large part of the town burned.1491.Dresdenwas destroyed.1521.Oviedo, large part of the city destroyed.1543.Komornwas burned.1634.Fürthwas burned by Austrian Croats.1680.Fürthwas again destroyed.1686.Landauwas almost destroyed.1758.Pirnawas burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.1762.Munichlost 200 houses.1764.Königsberg, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, £600,000.1769.Königsberg, almost destroyed.1784.Rokitzan(Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, £300,000.1801.Brody, 1500 houses destroyed.1859.Brody, 1000 houses destroyed.1803.Posen, large part of older portion of city burned.1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.1818.Salzburgwas partly destroyed.1842.Hamburg. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219 buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed. One-fifth of the population was made homeless, and 100 persons lost their lives. The total loss amounted to £7,000,000. After the fire, contributions from all Germany came in to help to rebuild the city.1861.Glarus(Switzerland), 500 houses burned.Northern Europe1530.Aalborg, almost entirely destroyed.1541.Aarhuus, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.1624.Opslo, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.1702.Bergen, greater part of the town destroyed.1728.Copenhagen, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.1794.Copenhagen, royal palace with contents burned.1795.Copenhagen, 50 streets, 1563 houses burned.1751.Stockholm, 1000 houses destroyed.1759.Stockholm, 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.1775.Åbo, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.1827.Åbo, 780 houses burned, with the university.1790.Carlscrona, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.1802.Gothenburg, 178 houses burned.1858.Christiania. Loss estimated at £250,000.1865.Carlstadt(Sweden), everything burned except the bishop’s residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.Russia1736.St Petersburg, 2000 houses burned.1862.St Petersburg, great fire. Loss, £1,000,000.1752.Moscow, 18,000 houses burned.1812.Moscow, The Russians fired the city on September 14 to drive out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued five days. Nine-tenths of the city was destroyed. Number of houses burned, 30,800. Loss, £30,000,000.1753.Archangel, 900 houses burned.1793.Archangel, 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.1786.Tobolsk, nearly destroyed.1788.Milau, nearly destroyed.1812.Riga, partly destroyed.1834.Tula, destructive fire.1848.Orel, large part of the town destroyed.1850.Cracow, large part of the town burned.1864.Novgorod, large amount of property destroyed.TurkeyThe following fires have occurred atConstantinople:—1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.1745. A fire lasted five days.1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later in the year 10,000 houses were destroyed.1751. 4000 houses were burned.1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years 1761, 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m. in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and nearly 650 houses were destroyed.1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.1778. 2000 houses were burned.1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50 mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. In February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000 houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of 1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated at 2,000,000 florins.1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been burned, and as many in 1795.1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many magnificent buildings.1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter were destroyed.1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at £3,000,000.1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c. Over 22,000 people were left homeless.1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population and native Christians, was swept by a fire which destroyed over 7000 buildings, many of them among the best in the city, including the residence of the foreign legations. Loss estimated at nearly £5,000,000.1797.Scutari, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.1763.Smyrna, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, £200,000.1772.Smyrna, 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c. consumed. Loss, £4,000,000.1796.Smyrna, 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.1841.Smyrna, 12,000 houses were burned.India1631.Rajmahal. Palace and great part of the town burned.1799.Manilla, vast storehouses were burned.1833.Manilla, 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.1803.Madras, more than 1000 houses burned.1803.Bombay. Loss by fire of £600,000.China and Japan1822.Cantonwas nearly destroyed by fire.1866.Yokohama, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the foreign settlement destroyed.1872.Yeddo. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind, destroying buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m. 20,000 persons were made homeless.1873.Yeddo. A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.United States1679.Boston. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels in the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £200,000.1760.Boston. A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000.1787.Boston. A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.1794.Boston. 96 buildings were burned. Loss, £42,000.1872.Boston. Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest quarter of Boston was destroyed.The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and Kingston streets. The area burned over was 65 acres. 776 buildings, comprising the largest granite and brick warehouses of the city, filled with merchandise, were burned. The loss was about £15,000,000. Before the end of the year 1876 the burned district had been rebuilt more substantially than ever.1778.Charleston(S.C.). A fire caused the loss of £100,000.1796.Charleston, 300 houses were burned.1838.Charleston. One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158 buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000.1802.Portsmouth(N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.1813.Portsmouth, 397 buildings destroyed.1820.Savannah, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, £800,000.1835.New York. The great fire of New York began in Merchant Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings in the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile firms lost their places of business. The area burned over was 52 acres. The loss was £3,000,000.1845.New York. A fire in the business part of the city, July 20, destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was £1,500,000. 35 persons were killed.1845.Pittsburg. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20 squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000.1846.Nantucketwas almost destroyed.1848.Albany. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over 37 acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000.1849.St Louis. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or part of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. Loss, £600,000.1851.St Louis. More than three-quarters of the city was burned, May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000.1851.St Louis, 500 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000.1850.Philadelphia. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost. Loss, £200,000.1865.Philadelphia. 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons killed. Loss, £100,000.1851.Washington. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the Congressional Library were burned.1851.San Francisco. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings. A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In June another fire burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at £600,000.1857.Chicago. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost.1859.Chicago. Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15.1866.Chicago. Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss, £100,000 each.1871.Chicago. The greatest fire of modern times.It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres, or 31⁄3sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430 buildings were consumed. The buildings were one-third in number and one-half in value of the buildings of the city. Before the end of 1875 the whole burned district had been rebuilt. The loss was estimated at £39,000,000.1862.Troy(N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.1866.Portland(Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were blown up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, £2,000,000 to £2,250,000.1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan. 15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss estimated at £600,000.British North America1815.Quebecwas injured to the extent of £260,000.1845.Quebec, 1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to £750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300 dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30 streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770.1866.Quebec, 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.1825.New Brunswick. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than 100 m. in length, was burned over; it included many towns. 160 persons killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 buildings burned. Loss, about £60,000. Towns of Newcastle, Chatham and Douglastown destroyed.1837.St John(New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, and nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, £1,000,000.1877.St. John.Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was 200 acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed; 10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives lost. Total loss, £2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city burned.1846.St John’s(Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. Two whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss estimated at £1,000,000.1850.Montreal. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on June 7. 200 houses were burned.1852.Montreal. A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute. The space burned was 1 m. in length by ½ m. in width, including 1200 houses. Loss, £1,000,000.South America1536.Cuzcowas nearly consumed.1861.Mendoza. A great fire followed an earthquake which had destroyed 10,000 people.1862.Valparaisowas devastated by fire.1863.Santiago. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly women and children, perished.West Indies1752.Pierre(Martinique) had 700 houses burned.1782.Kingston(Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000.1795.Montego Bay(Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000.1805.St Thomas.900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,000,000.1808.Spanish Town(Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated at £1,500,000.1828.Havanalost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.1843.Port Republicain(Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was burned.

Great Britain and Ireland

798.London, nearly destroyed.982.London, greater part of the city burned.1086.London, all houses and churches from the east to the west gate burned.1212.London, greater part of the city burned.1666.London, “The Great Fire,” September 2-6.

798.London, nearly destroyed.

982.London, greater part of the city burned.

1086.London, all houses and churches from the east to the west gate burned.

1212.London, greater part of the city burned.

1666.London, “The Great Fire,” September 2-6.

It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres, 400 streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul’s church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall, the royal exchange, the custom-house, many hospitals and libraries, 52 companies’ halls, and a vast number of other stately edifices, together with three of the city gates, four stone bridges, and the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the Poultry and Wood Street Compters. The fire swept from the Tower to Temple church, and from the N.E. gate to Holborn bridge. Six persons were killed. The total loss of property was estimated at the time to be £10,731,500.

1794.London, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above £1,000,000.1834.London, Houses of Parliament burned.1861.London, Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated at £2,000,000.1873.London, Alexandra palace destroyed.1137.York, totally destroyed.1184.Glastonbury, town and abbey burned.1292.Carlisle, destroyed.1507.Norwich, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.1544.Leith, burned.1598.Tiverton, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; 33 persons killed. Loss, £150,000.1612.Tiverton, 600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000.1731.Tiverton, 300 houses burned.1700.Edinburgh, “the Great Fire.”1612.Cork, greater part burned, and again in 1622.1613.Dorchester, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000.1614.Stratford-on-Avon, burned.1644.Beaminster, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.1675.Northampton, almost totally destroyed.1683.Newmarket, large part of the town burned.1694.Warwick, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.1707.Lisburn, burned.1727.Gravesend, destroyed.1738.Wellingborough, 800 houses burned.1743.Crediton, 450 houses destroyed.1760.Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000.1770.Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, £100,000.1802.Liverpool, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000.1827.Sheerness, 50 houses and much property destroyed.1854.Gateshead, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000.1875.Glasgow. Great fire. Loss, £300,000.

1794.London, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above £1,000,000.

1834.London, Houses of Parliament burned.

1861.London, Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated at £2,000,000.

1873.London, Alexandra palace destroyed.

1137.York, totally destroyed.

1184.Glastonbury, town and abbey burned.

1292.Carlisle, destroyed.

1507.Norwich, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.

1544.Leith, burned.

1598.Tiverton, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; 33 persons killed. Loss, £150,000.

1612.Tiverton, 600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000.

1731.Tiverton, 300 houses burned.

1700.Edinburgh, “the Great Fire.”

1612.Cork, greater part burned, and again in 1622.

1613.Dorchester, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000.

1614.Stratford-on-Avon, burned.

1644.Beaminster, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.

1675.Northampton, almost totally destroyed.

1683.Newmarket, large part of the town burned.

1694.Warwick, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.

1707.Lisburn, burned.

1727.Gravesend, destroyed.

1738.Wellingborough, 800 houses burned.

1743.Crediton, 450 houses destroyed.

1760.Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000.

1770.Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, £100,000.

1802.Liverpool, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000.

1827.Sheerness, 50 houses and much property destroyed.

1854.Gateshead, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000.

1875.Glasgow. Great fire. Loss, £300,000.

France

59.Lyons, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.1118.Nantes, greater part of the city destroyed.1137.Dijon, burned.1524.Troyes, nearly destroyed.1720.Rennes, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.1784.Brest. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000.1862.Marseilles, destructive fire.1871.Paris. Communist devastations. Property destroyed, £32,000,000.

59.Lyons, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.

1118.Nantes, greater part of the city destroyed.

1137.Dijon, burned.

1524.Troyes, nearly destroyed.

1720.Rennes, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.

1784.Brest. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000.

1862.Marseilles, destructive fire.

1871.Paris. Communist devastations. Property destroyed, £32,000,000.

Central and Southern Europe

64.Romeburned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city were destroyed.1106.Venice, greater part of the city was burned.1577. “ fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by an explosion.1299.Weimar, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.1379.Memelwas in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540, 1678, 1854.1405.Bernwas destroyed.1420.Leipziglost 400 houses.1457.Dort, cathedral and large part of the town burned.1491.Dresdenwas destroyed.1521.Oviedo, large part of the city destroyed.1543.Komornwas burned.1634.Fürthwas burned by Austrian Croats.1680.Fürthwas again destroyed.1686.Landauwas almost destroyed.1758.Pirnawas burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.1762.Munichlost 200 houses.1764.Königsberg, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, £600,000.1769.Königsberg, almost destroyed.1784.Rokitzan(Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, £300,000.1801.Brody, 1500 houses destroyed.1859.Brody, 1000 houses destroyed.1803.Posen, large part of older portion of city burned.1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.1818.Salzburgwas partly destroyed.1842.Hamburg. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.

64.Romeburned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city were destroyed.

1106.Venice, greater part of the city was burned.

1577. “ fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by an explosion.

1299.Weimar, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.

1379.Memelwas in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540, 1678, 1854.

1405.Bernwas destroyed.

1420.Leipziglost 400 houses.

1457.Dort, cathedral and large part of the town burned.

1491.Dresdenwas destroyed.

1521.Oviedo, large part of the city destroyed.

1543.Komornwas burned.

1634.Fürthwas burned by Austrian Croats.

1680.Fürthwas again destroyed.

1686.Landauwas almost destroyed.

1758.Pirnawas burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.

1762.Munichlost 200 houses.

1764.Königsberg, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, £600,000.

1769.Königsberg, almost destroyed.

1784.Rokitzan(Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, £300,000.

1801.Brody, 1500 houses destroyed.

1859.Brody, 1000 houses destroyed.

1803.Posen, large part of older portion of city burned.

1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.

1818.Salzburgwas partly destroyed.

1842.Hamburg. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.

During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219 buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed. One-fifth of the population was made homeless, and 100 persons lost their lives. The total loss amounted to £7,000,000. After the fire, contributions from all Germany came in to help to rebuild the city.

1861.Glarus(Switzerland), 500 houses burned.

Northern Europe

1530.Aalborg, almost entirely destroyed.1541.Aarhuus, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.1624.Opslo, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.1702.Bergen, greater part of the town destroyed.1728.Copenhagen, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.1794.Copenhagen, royal palace with contents burned.1795.Copenhagen, 50 streets, 1563 houses burned.1751.Stockholm, 1000 houses destroyed.1759.Stockholm, 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.1775.Åbo, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.1827.Åbo, 780 houses burned, with the university.1790.Carlscrona, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.1802.Gothenburg, 178 houses burned.1858.Christiania. Loss estimated at £250,000.1865.Carlstadt(Sweden), everything burned except the bishop’s residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.

1530.Aalborg, almost entirely destroyed.

1541.Aarhuus, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.

1624.Opslo, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.

1702.Bergen, greater part of the town destroyed.

1728.Copenhagen, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.

1794.Copenhagen, royal palace with contents burned.

1795.Copenhagen, 50 streets, 1563 houses burned.

1751.Stockholm, 1000 houses destroyed.

1759.Stockholm, 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.

1775.Åbo, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.

1827.Åbo, 780 houses burned, with the university.

1790.Carlscrona, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.

1802.Gothenburg, 178 houses burned.

1858.Christiania. Loss estimated at £250,000.

1865.Carlstadt(Sweden), everything burned except the bishop’s residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.

Russia

1736.St Petersburg, 2000 houses burned.1862.St Petersburg, great fire. Loss, £1,000,000.1752.Moscow, 18,000 houses burned.1812.Moscow, The Russians fired the city on September 14 to drive out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued five days. Nine-tenths of the city was destroyed. Number of houses burned, 30,800. Loss, £30,000,000.1753.Archangel, 900 houses burned.1793.Archangel, 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.1786.Tobolsk, nearly destroyed.1788.Milau, nearly destroyed.1812.Riga, partly destroyed.1834.Tula, destructive fire.1848.Orel, large part of the town destroyed.1850.Cracow, large part of the town burned.1864.Novgorod, large amount of property destroyed.

1736.St Petersburg, 2000 houses burned.

1862.St Petersburg, great fire. Loss, £1,000,000.

1752.Moscow, 18,000 houses burned.

1812.Moscow, The Russians fired the city on September 14 to drive out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued five days. Nine-tenths of the city was destroyed. Number of houses burned, 30,800. Loss, £30,000,000.

1753.Archangel, 900 houses burned.

1793.Archangel, 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.

1786.Tobolsk, nearly destroyed.

1788.Milau, nearly destroyed.

1812.Riga, partly destroyed.

1834.Tula, destructive fire.

1848.Orel, large part of the town destroyed.

1850.Cracow, large part of the town burned.

1864.Novgorod, large amount of property destroyed.

Turkey

The following fires have occurred atConstantinople:—1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.1745. A fire lasted five days.1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later in the year 10,000 houses were destroyed.1751. 4000 houses were burned.1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years 1761, 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m. in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and nearly 650 houses were destroyed.1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.1778. 2000 houses were burned.1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50 mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. In February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000 houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of 1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated at 2,000,000 florins.1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been burned, and as many in 1795.1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many magnificent buildings.1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter were destroyed.1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at £3,000,000.1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c. Over 22,000 people were left homeless.1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population and native Christians, was swept by a fire which destroyed over 7000 buildings, many of them among the best in the city, including the residence of the foreign legations. Loss estimated at nearly £5,000,000.1797.Scutari, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.1763.Smyrna, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, £200,000.1772.Smyrna, 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c. consumed. Loss, £4,000,000.1796.Smyrna, 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.1841.Smyrna, 12,000 houses were burned.

The following fires have occurred atConstantinople:—

1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.

1745. A fire lasted five days.

1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later in the year 10,000 houses were destroyed.

1751. 4000 houses were burned.

1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years 1761, 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.

1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m. in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and nearly 650 houses were destroyed.

1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.

1778. 2000 houses were burned.

1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50 mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. In February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.

1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000 houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of 1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated at 2,000,000 florins.

1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been burned, and as many in 1795.

1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many magnificent buildings.

1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter were destroyed.

1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.

1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.

1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at £3,000,000.

1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c. Over 22,000 people were left homeless.

1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population and native Christians, was swept by a fire which destroyed over 7000 buildings, many of them among the best in the city, including the residence of the foreign legations. Loss estimated at nearly £5,000,000.

1797.Scutari, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.

1763.Smyrna, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, £200,000.

1772.Smyrna, 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c. consumed. Loss, £4,000,000.

1796.Smyrna, 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.

1841.Smyrna, 12,000 houses were burned.

India

1631.Rajmahal. Palace and great part of the town burned.1799.Manilla, vast storehouses were burned.1833.Manilla, 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.1803.Madras, more than 1000 houses burned.1803.Bombay. Loss by fire of £600,000.

1631.Rajmahal. Palace and great part of the town burned.

1799.Manilla, vast storehouses were burned.

1833.Manilla, 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.

1803.Madras, more than 1000 houses burned.

1803.Bombay. Loss by fire of £600,000.

China and Japan

1822.Cantonwas nearly destroyed by fire.1866.Yokohama, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the foreign settlement destroyed.1872.Yeddo. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind, destroying buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m. 20,000 persons were made homeless.1873.Yeddo. A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.

1822.Cantonwas nearly destroyed by fire.

1866.Yokohama, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the foreign settlement destroyed.

1872.Yeddo. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind, destroying buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m. 20,000 persons were made homeless.

1873.Yeddo. A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.

United States

1679.Boston. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels in the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £200,000.1760.Boston. A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000.1787.Boston. A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.1794.Boston. 96 buildings were burned. Loss, £42,000.1872.Boston. Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest quarter of Boston was destroyed.

1679.Boston. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels in the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £200,000.

1760.Boston. A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000.

1787.Boston. A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.

1794.Boston. 96 buildings were burned. Loss, £42,000.

1872.Boston. Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest quarter of Boston was destroyed.

The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and Kingston streets. The area burned over was 65 acres. 776 buildings, comprising the largest granite and brick warehouses of the city, filled with merchandise, were burned. The loss was about £15,000,000. Before the end of the year 1876 the burned district had been rebuilt more substantially than ever.

1778.Charleston(S.C.). A fire caused the loss of £100,000.1796.Charleston, 300 houses were burned.1838.Charleston. One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158 buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000.1802.Portsmouth(N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.1813.Portsmouth, 397 buildings destroyed.1820.Savannah, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, £800,000.1835.New York. The great fire of New York began in Merchant Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings in the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile firms lost their places of business. The area burned over was 52 acres. The loss was £3,000,000.1845.New York. A fire in the business part of the city, July 20, destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was £1,500,000. 35 persons were killed.1845.Pittsburg. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20 squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000.1846.Nantucketwas almost destroyed.1848.Albany. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over 37 acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000.1849.St Louis. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or part of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. Loss, £600,000.1851.St Louis. More than three-quarters of the city was burned, May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000.1851.St Louis, 500 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000.1850.Philadelphia. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost. Loss, £200,000.1865.Philadelphia. 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons killed. Loss, £100,000.1851.Washington. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the Congressional Library were burned.1851.San Francisco. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings. A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In June another fire burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at £600,000.1857.Chicago. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost.1859.Chicago. Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15.1866.Chicago. Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss, £100,000 each.1871.Chicago. The greatest fire of modern times.

1778.Charleston(S.C.). A fire caused the loss of £100,000.

1796.Charleston, 300 houses were burned.

1838.Charleston. One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158 buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000.

1802.Portsmouth(N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.

1813.Portsmouth, 397 buildings destroyed.

1820.Savannah, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, £800,000.

1835.New York. The great fire of New York began in Merchant Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings in the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile firms lost their places of business. The area burned over was 52 acres. The loss was £3,000,000.

1845.New York. A fire in the business part of the city, July 20, destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was £1,500,000. 35 persons were killed.

1845.Pittsburg. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20 squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000.

1846.Nantucketwas almost destroyed.

1848.Albany. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over 37 acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000.

1849.St Louis. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or part of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. Loss, £600,000.

1851.St Louis. More than three-quarters of the city was burned, May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000.

1851.St Louis, 500 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000.

1850.Philadelphia. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost. Loss, £200,000.

1865.Philadelphia. 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons killed. Loss, £100,000.

1851.Washington. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the Congressional Library were burned.

1851.San Francisco. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings. A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In June another fire burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at £600,000.

1857.Chicago. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost.

1859.Chicago. Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15.

1866.Chicago. Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss, £100,000 each.

1871.Chicago. The greatest fire of modern times.

It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres, or 31⁄3sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430 buildings were consumed. The buildings were one-third in number and one-half in value of the buildings of the city. Before the end of 1875 the whole burned district had been rebuilt. The loss was estimated at £39,000,000.

1862.Troy(N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.1866.Portland(Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were blown up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, £2,000,000 to £2,250,000.1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan. 15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss estimated at £600,000.

1862.Troy(N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.

1866.Portland(Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were blown up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, £2,000,000 to £2,250,000.

1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan. 15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss estimated at £600,000.

British North America

1815.Quebecwas injured to the extent of £260,000.1845.Quebec, 1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to £750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300 dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30 streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770.1866.Quebec, 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.1825.New Brunswick. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than 100 m. in length, was burned over; it included many towns. 160 persons killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 buildings burned. Loss, about £60,000. Towns of Newcastle, Chatham and Douglastown destroyed.1837.St John(New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, and nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, £1,000,000.1877.St. John.Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was 200 acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed; 10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives lost. Total loss, £2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city burned.1846.St John’s(Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. Two whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss estimated at £1,000,000.1850.Montreal. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on June 7. 200 houses were burned.1852.Montreal. A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute. The space burned was 1 m. in length by ½ m. in width, including 1200 houses. Loss, £1,000,000.

1815.Quebecwas injured to the extent of £260,000.

1845.Quebec, 1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to £750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300 dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30 streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770.

1866.Quebec, 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.

1825.New Brunswick. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than 100 m. in length, was burned over; it included many towns. 160 persons killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 buildings burned. Loss, about £60,000. Towns of Newcastle, Chatham and Douglastown destroyed.

1837.St John(New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, and nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, £1,000,000.

1877.St. John.Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was 200 acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed; 10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives lost. Total loss, £2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city burned.

1846.St John’s(Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. Two whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss estimated at £1,000,000.

1850.Montreal. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on June 7. 200 houses were burned.

1852.Montreal. A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute. The space burned was 1 m. in length by ½ m. in width, including 1200 houses. Loss, £1,000,000.

South America

1536.Cuzcowas nearly consumed.1861.Mendoza. A great fire followed an earthquake which had destroyed 10,000 people.1862.Valparaisowas devastated by fire.1863.Santiago. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly women and children, perished.

1536.Cuzcowas nearly consumed.

1861.Mendoza. A great fire followed an earthquake which had destroyed 10,000 people.

1862.Valparaisowas devastated by fire.

1863.Santiago. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly women and children, perished.

West Indies

1752.Pierre(Martinique) had 700 houses burned.1782.Kingston(Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000.1795.Montego Bay(Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000.1805.St Thomas.900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,000,000.1808.Spanish Town(Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated at £1,500,000.1828.Havanalost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.1843.Port Republicain(Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was burned.

1752.Pierre(Martinique) had 700 houses burned.

1782.Kingston(Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000.

1795.Montego Bay(Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000.

1805.St Thomas.900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,000,000.

1808.Spanish Town(Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated at £1,500,000.

1828.Havanalost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.

1843.Port Republicain(Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was burned.

Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable fires, more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations at Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible examples. But speaking generally, these conflagrations, extensive as they were, only repeated the earlier lessons as to the necessity of combating the general negligence of the public by attaching far greater importance to the development of fire-preventive measures even than to the better organization of the fire-fighting establishments.

It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British empire, and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to 1899:—

As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar places of public entertainment up to the close of the 19th century calls for mention. Since that time, however, there has been a considerable abatement in this respect, owing to the adoption of successful measures of fire prevention. A list of some 1100 fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in 1897 (Fires at Public Entertainments), and the results of these fires analysed. They involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350 souls. About half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce the risk of fires in public entertainments. The only notable disaster that has occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre at Chicago.

The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires is far greater than is generally realized, and although the loss of life and property is being materially reduced from year to year, mainly by the fire-preventive measures that are now making themselves felt, the annual fire wastage of the world still averages quite £50,000,000 sterling. It is extremely difficult to obtain precise data as to the fire loss, insured and uninsured, but it may be assumed that in Great Britain the annual average loss by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say 1897), was about £17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially reduced by 1909 to probably somewhere about £12,000,000 sterling. This extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,—in spite of the daily increasing number of houses, and the increasing amount of property in buildings—is in the main owing to the fire-preventive measures, which have led to a better class of new building and a great improvement in existing structures, and further, to a greater display of intelligence and interest in general fire precautionary measures by the public.

Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected, more particularly in London and in the country towns of the south of England since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition held in 1903 at Earl’s Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress of the same year, may be said to have revolutionized thought on the subject of fire brigade organization and equipment in the British empire; but, for all that, the advance made by the fire service has not been so rapid as the development of the fire-preventive side of fire protection.

Fire Protection.—The term “Fire Protection” is often misunderstood. Fire-extinguishing—in other words, fire brigade work—is what the majority understand by it, and many towns consider themselves well protected if they can boast of an efficiently manned fire-engine establishment. The fire brigade as such, however, has but a minor rôle in a rational system of protection. Really well-protected towns owe their condition in the first place to properly applied preventive legislation, based on the practical experience and research of architects, engineers, fire experts and insurance and municipal officials. Fire protection is a combination of fire prevention, fire combating and fire research.

Under the heading of “Fire Prevention” should be classed all preventive measures, including the education of the public; and under the heading “Fire Combating” should be classed both self-help and outside help.

Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative, but as a rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained partly in Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of fire-survey regulations—supplemented, if necessary, by special rules as to the treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the storage of petroleum, the manufacture of explosives, and theatrical performances. The education of the public may be simply such as can be begun informally at school and continued by official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious arrangement with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire reports.

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