For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement of the great folded regions of the earth’s crust, see E. Suess,Das Antlitz der Erde, English translation.The Face of the Earth, vols. i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim,Les Dislocations de l’écorce terrestre(Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz,Geotektonische Probleme(Stuttgart, 1894).
For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement of the great folded regions of the earth’s crust, see E. Suess,Das Antlitz der Erde, English translation.The Face of the Earth, vols. i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim,Les Dislocations de l’écorce terrestre(Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz,Geotektonische Probleme(Stuttgart, 1894).
FOLENGO, TEOFILO(1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino Coccajo or Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets, was born of noble parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th of November 1491, From his infancy he showed great vivacity of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in making verses. At the age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte Casino near Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a professed member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to have produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written, not unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516 he forsook the monastic life for the society of a well-born young woman named Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about the country for several years, often suffering great poverty, having no other means of support than his talent for versification. His first publication was theMerlini Cocaii macaronicon, which relates the adventures of a fictitious hero named Baldus. The coarse buffoonery of this work is often relieved by touches of genuine poetry, as well as by graphic descriptions and acute criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic style is rendered peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent introduction of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though frequently censured for its occasional grossness of idea and expression, it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very few years passed through several editions. Folengo’s next production was theOrlandino, an Italian poem of eight cantos, written in rhymed octaves. It appeared in 1526, and bore on the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco (Merlin the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life of dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience; and shortly afterwards wrote hisChaos del tri per uno, in which, partly in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes in Italian, and sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account of the vicissitudes of the life he had lived under his various names,We next find him about the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves a life of Christ entitledL’Umanità del Figliuolo di Dio; and he is known to have composed, still later, another religious poem upon the creation, fall and restoration of man, besides a few tragedies. These, however, have never been published. Some of his later years were spent in Sicily under the patronage of Don Fernando de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a short time to have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired to Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on the 9th of December 1544.
Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by Rabelais. The earlier editions of hisOpus macaronicumare now extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the text as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.
Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by Rabelais. The earlier editions of hisOpus macaronicumare now extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the text as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.
FOLEY, JOHN HENRY(1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born at Dublin on the 24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to study drawing and modelling at the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, where he took several first-class prizes. In 1835 he was admitted a student in the schools of the Royal Academy, London. He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839 with his “Death of Abel and Innocence.” “Ino and Bacchus,” exhibited in 1840, gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was afterwards commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Ellesmere. “Lear and Cordelia” and “Death of Lear” were exhibited in 1841. “Venus rescuing Aeneas” and “The Houseless Wanderer” in 1842, “Prospero and Miranda” in 1843. In 1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his “Youth at a Stream,” and was, with Calder Marshall and John Bell, chosen by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament. Statues of John Hampden and Selden were executed for this purpose, and received liberal praise for the propriety, dignity and proportion of their treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to come rapidly. Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him with a steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 he was made an associate and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy. Among his numerous works the following may be noticed, besides those mentioned above:—“The Mother”; “Egeria,” for the Mansion House; “The Elder Brother in Comus,” his diploma work; “The Muse of Painting,” the monument of James Ward, R.A.; “Caractacus,” for the Mansion House; “Helen Faucit”; “Goldsmith” and “Burke,” for Trinity College, Dublin; “Faraday”; “Reynolds”; “Barry,” for Westminster Palace Yard; “John Stuart Mill,” for the Thames embankment; “O’Connell” and “Cough,” for Dublin; “Clyde,” for Glasgow; “Clive,” for Shrewsbury; “Hardinge,” “Canning” and “Outram,” for Calcutta; “Hon. James Stewart,” for Ceylon; the symbolical group “Asia,” as well as the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park; and “Stonewall Jackson,” in Richmond, Va. The statue of Sir James Outram is probably his masterpiece. Foley’s early fanciful works have some charming qualities; but he will probably always be best remembered for the workmanlike and manly style of his monumental portraits. He died at Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the 4th of September was buried in St Paul’s cathedral. He left his models to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part of his property to the Artists’ Benevolent Fund.
See W. Cosmo Monkhouse,The Works of J.H. Foley(1875).
See W. Cosmo Monkhouse,The Works of J.H. Foley(1875).
FOLEY, SIR THOMAS(1757-1833), British admiral, entered the navy in 1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a good deal of active service in the West Indies against American privateers. Promoted lieutenant in 1778, he served under Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel and Sir Charles Hardy in the Channel, and with Rodney’s squadron was present at the defeat of De Lángara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at the relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney’s command, he went out to the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which culminated in the victory of the 12th of April 1782. In the Revolutionary War he was engaged from the first. As flag-captain to Admiral John Gell, and afterwards to Sir Hyde Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon in 1793, the action of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off Toulon on the 13th of April and the 13th of July 1795. At St Vincent he was flag-captain to the second in command, and in the following year was sent out in command of the “Goliath” (74), to reinforce Nelson’s fleet in the Mediterranean. The part played by the “Goliath” in the battle of the Nile was brilliant. She led the squadron round the French van, and this manœuvre contributed not a little to the result of the day. Whether this was done by Foley’s own initiative, or intended by Nelson, has been a matter of controversy (seeJournal of the Royal United Service Institution, 1885, p. 916). His next important service was with Nelson in the Baltic. The “Elephant” carried Nelson’s flag at the battle of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-health obliged Foley to decline Nelson’s offer (made when on the point of starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain of the Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs and at the peace was made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be full admiral and G.C.B. He died while commanding in chief at Portsmouth in 1833.
See J.B. Herbert,Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley(Cardiff, 1884).
See J.B. Herbert,Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley(Cardiff, 1884).
FOLI(Foley),ALLAN JAMES(1837-1899), Irish bass singer, was born at Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837; originally a carpenter, he studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and made his first appearance at Catania in 1862. From the opera in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for the season of 1865, and appeared with much success in various parts. He sang in the first performance ofThe Flying Dutchman(Daland) in England in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod’sRedemptionin 1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request at ballad concerts. He died on the 20th of October 1899.
FOLIGNO(anc.Fulginiae,q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, from which it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town), 26,278 (commune). It lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a tributary of the Tiber; it is almost square in shape and is surrounded by walls. It is a picturesque and interesting town; several of its churches contain paintings by Umbrian masters, notably works by Niccolò di Liberatore (or Niccolò Alunno, 1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece (the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccolò. The cathedral has a romanesque S. façade of 1133, restored in 1903; the interior was modernized in the 18th century. To the left of the choir is an octagonal chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1527). In the same piazza as the S. façade is the Palazzo del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a chapel with frescoes by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra Portas is said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only the columns of the portico remain. Raphael’s “Madonna di Foligno,” now in the Vatican, was originally painted for the church of S. Anna. The Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are two good Renaissance buildings.
Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the 8th centuryA.D.It changed hands often during the wars of the 13th century, and was destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From 1305 to 1439 it was governed by the family of the Trinci as deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter year one of its members went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a force against Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and the last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth Foligno belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It suffered from a severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station on the main line from Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the junction for Perugia. Three miles to the E. is the abbey of Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like those of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns supporting arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic (“Cosmatesque” work). The church has been modernized.
FOLIO(properly the ablative case of the Lat.folium, leaf, but also frequently an adaptation of the Ital.foglio), a term inbibliography and printing, with reference either to the size of paper employed, or of the book, or to the pagination. In the phrase “in folio” it means a sheet of paper folded once, and thus a book bound up in sheets thus folded is a book of the largest size and is known as a “folio” (seeBibliography). Similarly, “folio” is one of the sizes of paper adapted to be thus folded (seePaper). In book-keeping the word is used for a page in a ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document, used for measurement of the length and for the addition of costs. In Great Britain, a “folio” is taken to contain 72 words, except in parliamentary and chancery documents, when the number is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words form a “folio.”
FOLIUM,in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by René Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x³ + y³ = 3axy. The curve is symmetrical about the line x = y, and consists of two infinite branches asymptotic to the line x + y + a = o and a loop in the first quadrant. It may be traced by giving m various values in the equations x = 3am / (1 + m³), y = 3am² (1 + m³), since by eliminating m between these relations the equation to the curve is obtained. Hence it isunicursal(seeCurve). The area of the loop, which equals the area between the curve and its asymptote, is 3a/2.
FOLKES, MARTIN(1690-1754), English antiquary, was born in London on the 29th of October 1690. He was educated at Saumur University and Clare College, Cambridge, where he so distinguished himself in mathematics that when only twenty-three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723 Sir Isaac Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the vice-presidents. On the death of Newton he became a candidate for the presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom, however, he succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member of the French Academy; in 1746 he received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733 he set out on a tour through Italy, in the course of which he composed hisDissertations on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins. Before the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to 1754, he read in 1736 hisObservations on the Trajan and Antonine Pillars at Romeand hisTable of English Gold Coins from the 18th Year of King Edward III. In 1745 he printed the latter with another on the history of silver coinage. He also contributed both to the Society of Antiquaries and to the Royal Society other papers, chiefly on Roman antiquities. He married in 1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had appeared at the Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols’s Lit.Anecdot.ii. 578-598).
For Sir John Hill’s attack on Folkes (Review of the Works of the Royal Soc., 1751), see D’Israeli,Calamities and Quarrels of Authors(1860), pp. 364-366.
For Sir John Hill’s attack on Folkes (Review of the Works of the Royal Soc., 1751), see D’Israeli,Calamities and Quarrels of Authors(1860), pp. 364-366.
FOLKESTONE,a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place of Kent, England, within the parliamentary borough of Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905; (1901) 30,650. This is one of the principal ports in cross-Channel communications, the steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older part of Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the shore between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the hills on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered by hills rising sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of which, such as Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earthworks. Above the cliff west of the old town is a broad promenade called the Lees, commanding a notable view of the channel and connected by lifts with the shore below. On this cliff also stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith, a cruciform building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly Early English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established by Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The site of this foundation, however, became endangered by encroachments of the sea. The monastery was destroyed at the dissolution of religious houses by Henry VIII. Folkestone inner harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep water pier for use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not only the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be mentioned the grammar school, founded in 1674, the public library and museum, and a number of hospitals and sanatoria. The discontinued Harveian Institution for young men was named after William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also commemorated by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a member of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb of Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).
Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl Godwine and was called upon to supply him with ships when he was exiled from England; at the time of the Domesday Survey it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. From early times it was a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to find one out of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the royal service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folkestone by Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was prescriptive, was entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty of Folkestone. The history of Folkestone is a record of its struggle against the sea, which was constantly encroaching upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants, impoverished by their losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the end of the 18th century the town had become prosperous by the increase of its fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the 19th century one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.
FOLKLAND(folcland). This term occurs three times in Anglo-Saxon documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is contrasted with bookland in a way which shows that these two kinds of tenure formed the two main subdivisions of landownership: no one is to deny right to another in respect of folkland or bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod. Dipl. 281), King Æthelberht exchanges five hides of folkland for five hides of bookland which had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the latter for the newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal exactions except the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd and joining in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland was not free from the payment ofgafål(land tax) and providing quarters for the king’s men. In ealdorman Alfred’s will the testator disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his sons and his daughter, but to a son who is not considered as rightful offspring five hides of folkland are left, provided the king consents. It is probable that folkland is meant in two or three cases when Latin documents speak ofterra rei publicae jure possessa.
Two principal explanations have been given to this term. Allen thought that folkland was similar to the Romanager publicus: it was the common property of the nation (folc), and the king had to dispose of it by carving out dependent tenures for his followers more or less after the fashion of continentalbeneficia. These estates remained subject to the superior ownership of the folk and of the king: they could eventually be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a holder of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be interpreted to apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer, H.C. Lodge, Stubbs and others followed Allen’s lead.
Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an article on folkland in theEnglish Hist. Reviewfor 1893. It considers folkland as landownership by folkright—at common law, as might be said in modern legal speech. In opposition to it bookland appears as landownership derived from royal privilege. The incidents recorded in the charters characterize folkland assubject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to limitations in respect of testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to be relieved from fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from folkland into bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred’s son, not being recognized as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to the fundamental features of bookland contained in the numberless “books.” These are exemptions from fiscal dues and freedom of disposition of the owner. This view of the matter has been accepted by the chief modern authorities.
Bibliography.—J. Allen,Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of Royal Prerogative in England(London, 1849); K. Maurer,Kritische Überschau(1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland,Domesday Book and Beyond, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, “Folcland,” in theEng. Hist. Rev.(1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock,Land Laws(London, 1896); H. Brunner,Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, Band i. (2nd ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892).
Bibliography.—J. Allen,Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of Royal Prerogative in England(London, 1849); K. Maurer,Kritische Überschau(1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland,Domesday Book and Beyond, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, “Folcland,” in theEng. Hist. Rev.(1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock,Land Laws(London, 1896); H. Brunner,Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, Band i. (2nd ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892).
(P. Vi.)
FOLKLORE,a term invented in 1846 by Mr W.J. Thoms as a designation for the traditional learning of the uncultured classes of civilized nations. The word has been adopted in this sense into many foreign languages; it is sometimes regarded as the equivalent of the Ger.Volkskunde. But folklore is, properly speaking, the “loreofthe folk,” whileVolkskundeis lore or learningaboutthe folk, and includes not only the mental life of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term folklore is also used to designate the science which deals with folklore; the study of survivals involves the investigation of the similar customs, beliefs, &c., of races on lower planes of culture; consequently folklore, as interpreted by the English and American societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as with the popular superstitions of the white races.
History.—The scientific study of folklore dates back to the first quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long before that date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of recent growth. The first Folklore Society was founded in London in 1878; similar bodies now exist in the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland and especially in Germany and Austria. The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at a very early period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the 28th centuryB.C.In Greece the Homeric poems contain many folk-tale incidents; for India we have theJatakasandPanchatantra; and for the Arabs the great collection of theThousand and One Nights. Another type of folk-narrative is represented by Aesop’sFables. Not unnaturally beliefs and customs received less attention; our knowledge of them among the ancients is as a rule pieced together. Among the oldest professed collections are J.B. Thiers (1606-1703),Traité des superstitions(1679), Aubrey’sMiscellanies(1686) and H. Bourne’s (1696-1733)Antiquitates vulgares(1725); but they belong to the antiquarian, non-scientific period.
The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore were the brothers Grimm, by the publication of theirKinder-und Hausmärchen(1812-1815) andDeutsche Mythologie(1835). They were the first to present the folk-tale in its genuine unadulterated form. They differed from their predecessors in regarding the myth, not as the result of conscious speculation, but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however, disposed to press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the figures of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as the folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was exaggerated by their successors, J.W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and others. At the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880), the forerunner of the anthropological school of folklore, shared in this mistake. Breaking away eventually from the philological schools, which interpreted myths and their supposed descendants, the folk-tales, as relating to the storm, the sun, the dawn, &c. (seeMythology), Mannhardt made folk-custom and belief his basis. To this end he set himself to collect and compare the superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was always feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mannhardt’s researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor abroad. In 1878 the foundation of the Folklore Society marked a new era in England, where the philological school had had few adherents; and the anthropological school soon produced evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew Lang, Dr J.G. Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith.
With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom and belief on the one hand, and of rites and religions of people in the lower stages of culture on the other hand, it has become abundantly clear that there is no line of demarcation between the two. Each throws light upon the other, and the superstitions of Europe are the lineal descendants of savage creeds which have their parallels all over the world in the culture of primitive peoples.
Subdivisions.—The folklore of civilized peoples may be conveniently classified under three main heads: (1) belief and custom; (2) narratives and sayings; (3) art. These again may be subdivided. The first division,Belief and Custom, includes (A) Superstitious beliefs and practices, including (a) those connected with natural phenomena or inanimate nature, (b) tree and plant superstitions, (c) animal superstitions, (d) ghosts and goblins, (e) witchcraft, (f) leechcraft, (g) magic in general and divination, (h) eschatology, and (i) miscellaneous superstitions and practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including (a) festival customs for which are set aside certain days and seasons, (b) ceremonial customs on the occasion of events such as birth, death or marriage, (c) games, (d) miscellaneous local customs, such as agricultural rites connected with the corn-spirit (seeDemonology), and (e) dances. The second head ofNarratives and Sayingsmay be subdivided (A) into (a) sagas or tales told as true, (b) Märchen or nursery tales, (c) fables, (d) drolls, apologues, cumulative tales, &c., (e) myths (seeMythology), and (f) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as they do not come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes, riddles, jingles, proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &c. The third head,Art, subdivides into (a) folk music with ballads and songs, (b) folk drama. Any classification, however, labours under the disadvantage of separating items which properly belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form in which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be aetiological in their nature and form an elaborate record of a custom. Eschatological beliefs naturally take the form of myths. Traditional narratives can also be classified under art, and so on.
Literature.—The literature of the subject falls into two sharply defined classes—synthetic works and collections of folklore—of which the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former class the most important is Dr J.G. Frazer’sGolden Bough, which sets out from the study of a survival in Roman religion and covers a wide field of savage and civilized beliefs and customs. Especially important are the chapters on agricultural rites, in which are set forth the results of Mannhardt’s researches. Other important lines of folklore research in theGolden Boughare those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms. Mr E.S. Hartland’sLegend of Perseusis primarily concerned with the origin of a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is dismissed as insoluble. A large part of the book is taken up with a discussion of sympathetic magic, and especially with the “life index,” an object so bound up with the life of a human being that it acts as an indication of his well-being or otherwise. The importance of children’s games in the study of folklore has been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection of the games of England has been published by Mrs G.L. Gomme. With the more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem of the diffusion of games has also come to the fore. In particular it is found that the string-game called “cat’s cradle” in various forms is of very wide diffusion, being found even in Australia. The question of folk-music has recently received much attention (seeSong).
Bibliography.—Introductory works:M.R. Cox,Introduction to Folklore; Kaindl,Die Volkskunde; Marillier inRevue de l’histoire des religions, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.General works:J.G. Frazer,The Golden Bough; E.S. Hartland,The Legend of Perseus; A. Lang,Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual and Religion; Tylor,Primitive Culture; Liebrecht,Zur Volkskunde.British Isles.England: Burne,Shropshire Folklore;Denham Tracts(F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson,Lancashire Folklore; Henderson,Folklore of Northern Counties;County Folklore Series(Printed Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen,Welsh Folklore; Rhys,Celtic Folklore. Scotland: Dalyell,Darker Superstitions; Gregor,Folklore of N.E. of Scotland; the works of J.G. Campbell, &c.Germany:Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie, English translation by Stallybrass; Wuttke,Der deutsche Volksaberglaube; Meyer,Deutsche Volkskunde; Tetzner,Die Slaven in Deutschland; Mogk in Paul’sGrundriss der germanischen Philologie, and the works cited by Kaindl (see above).France:Sebillot’s works; Rolland,Faune populaire; Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et légendes.On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for Bohemia, Grohmann,Aberglaube; for Greece, Abbott,Macedonian Folklore, and Rennell Rodd,Folklore of Greece; for Italy, Pitré’s bibliography; for India, Crooke’s works, and theIndian Antiquary. For questionnaires seeHandbook of Folklore(Folklore Soc.); Sebillot,Essai de questionnaires;Journal of American Folklore(1890, &c.); and Kaindl’sVolkskunde. For a bibliography of folk-tales see Hartland,Mythology and Folk-tales; to his list may be added Petitot’sLégendes indiennes; Rand,Legends of the Micmacs; Lummis,The Man who Married the Moon; and the publications of the American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies inFolkloreand other periodicals. On special points may be mentioned Miss Cox’sCinderella(Folklore Society); Kohler’s works, &c. (see also bibliography to the articleTale). For games see Gomme,English Games; Culin,Korean Games; Rochholz,Alemannisches Kinderlied; Böhme,Deutsches Kinderlied; Handelmann,Volks- und Kinderspiele; Jayne,String Figures, &c.; and the bibliography toDoll. See also Sonnenschein’sBest Books.The following is a list of the more important Societies and publications:—England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society.U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.France:Société des traditions populaires.Germany:Verein für Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung für Volkskunde; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other provinces.Austria:Verein für österreichische Volkskunde.Switzerland:Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Volkskunde.Italy:Società per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari.In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for the following among others: Belgium,Wallonia; Poland,Wisla; France,Melusine(1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia,Cesky Lid; Denmark,Dania, &c.; Germany,Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie(1859-1890);Am Urguell(1890-1898).
Bibliography.—Introductory works:M.R. Cox,Introduction to Folklore; Kaindl,Die Volkskunde; Marillier inRevue de l’histoire des religions, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.
General works:J.G. Frazer,The Golden Bough; E.S. Hartland,The Legend of Perseus; A. Lang,Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual and Religion; Tylor,Primitive Culture; Liebrecht,Zur Volkskunde.
British Isles.England: Burne,Shropshire Folklore;Denham Tracts(F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson,Lancashire Folklore; Henderson,Folklore of Northern Counties;County Folklore Series(Printed Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen,Welsh Folklore; Rhys,Celtic Folklore. Scotland: Dalyell,Darker Superstitions; Gregor,Folklore of N.E. of Scotland; the works of J.G. Campbell, &c.
Germany:Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie, English translation by Stallybrass; Wuttke,Der deutsche Volksaberglaube; Meyer,Deutsche Volkskunde; Tetzner,Die Slaven in Deutschland; Mogk in Paul’sGrundriss der germanischen Philologie, and the works cited by Kaindl (see above).
France:Sebillot’s works; Rolland,Faune populaire; Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et légendes.
On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for Bohemia, Grohmann,Aberglaube; for Greece, Abbott,Macedonian Folklore, and Rennell Rodd,Folklore of Greece; for Italy, Pitré’s bibliography; for India, Crooke’s works, and theIndian Antiquary. For questionnaires seeHandbook of Folklore(Folklore Soc.); Sebillot,Essai de questionnaires;Journal of American Folklore(1890, &c.); and Kaindl’sVolkskunde. For a bibliography of folk-tales see Hartland,Mythology and Folk-tales; to his list may be added Petitot’sLégendes indiennes; Rand,Legends of the Micmacs; Lummis,The Man who Married the Moon; and the publications of the American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies inFolkloreand other periodicals. On special points may be mentioned Miss Cox’sCinderella(Folklore Society); Kohler’s works, &c. (see also bibliography to the articleTale). For games see Gomme,English Games; Culin,Korean Games; Rochholz,Alemannisches Kinderlied; Böhme,Deutsches Kinderlied; Handelmann,Volks- und Kinderspiele; Jayne,String Figures, &c.; and the bibliography toDoll. See also Sonnenschein’sBest Books.
The following is a list of the more important Societies and publications:—
England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society.
U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.
France:Société des traditions populaires.
Germany:Verein für Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung für Volkskunde; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other provinces.
Austria:Verein für österreichische Volkskunde.
Switzerland:Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Volkskunde.
Italy:Società per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari.
In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for the following among others: Belgium,Wallonia; Poland,Wisla; France,Melusine(1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia,Cesky Lid; Denmark,Dania, &c.; Germany,Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie(1859-1890);Am Urguell(1890-1898).
(N. W. T.)
FOLLEN, AUGUST(or, as he afterwards called himself,Adolf)LUDWIG(1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen on the 21st of January 1794, the son of a district judge. He studied theology at Giessen and law at Heidelberg, and after leaving the university edited the ElberfeldAllgemeine Zeitung. Suspected of being connected with some radical plots, he was imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821 he went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at Aarau, farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in Thurgau, and then retired to Bern, where he lived till his death on the 26th of December 1855. Besides a number of minor poems he wroteHarfengrüsse aus Deutschland und der Schweiz(1823) andMalegys und Vivian(1829), a knightly romance after the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many translations, mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso’sJerusalem Delivered(1818) andSiegfrieds Todfrom theNibelungenlied(1842); he also collected and translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819). In 1846 he published a brief collection of sonnets entitledAn die gottlosen Nichtswüteriche. This was aimed at the liberal philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the occasion of a literary duel between the two authors. Follen’s posthumous poemTristans Eltern(1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known work is a collection of German poetry entitledBildersaal deutscher Dichtung(1827).
FOLLEN, KARL(1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother of A.L. Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 5th of September 1795. He first studied theology at Giessen, but after the campaign of 1814, in which, like his brother August, he took part as a Hessian volunteer, began the study of jurisprudence, and in 1818 established himself asPrivatdocentof civil law at Giessen. Owing to being suspected of political intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after the assassination of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political murder of the duc de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to Follen being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school at Coire and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian authorities imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in 1824 the hospitality of the United States of America. Here he became an instructor in German at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830 obtained an appointment as professor of German language and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation having given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835, and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat which was totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from New York to Boston, on the night of the 13th-14th of January 1840. Follen was the author of several celebrated patriotic songs written in the interests of liberty. The best is perhapsHorch auf, ihr Fürsten! Du Volk, horch auf!of which Johannes Wit, called von Dörring (1800-1863), was long, though erroneously, considered the author. It was published in A.L. Follen’s collection of patriotic songs,Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend.
His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with a biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).
His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with a biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).
FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB(1798-1845), English lawyer, was born at Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December 1798. He was the son of Captain Benjamin Follett, who had retired from the army in 1790, and engaged in business at Topsham. He received his education at Exeter grammar school and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He had entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a pleader below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824, and joined the western circuit in 1825. At the very outset his great qualifications were universally recognized. He was thoroughly master of his profession, and his rapid rise in it was due not only to his quick perception and sound judgment, but to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of temper. In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to parliament for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished himself, and under the first administration of Sir Robert Peel was appointed solicitor-general (November 1834); but resigned with the ministry in April 1835. In the course of this year he was knighted. On the return of Peel to power in 1841 Sir William was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April 1844 he succeeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been permanently injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down, and he was compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the south of Europe. He returned to England in March 1845; but the disease, consumption, reasserted itself, and he died in London on the 28th of June following. A statue of Follett, executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in Westminster Abbey.
FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM(1793-1872), English journalist, descended from a noble French Huguenot family, the Greniers of Languedoc, was born in London in 1793. John Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England under the name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fonblanque (1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the author of a standard legal work, aTreatise on Equity, was the father of Albany Fonblanque; he represented the borough of Camelford in parliament; and was one of the Whig friends of George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young Fonblanque was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a view to being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812) he commenced writing for the newspapers, and very soon attracted notice both by the boldness and liberality of his opinions, and bythe superiority of his style to what Macaulay, when speaking of him, justly called the “rant and twaddle of the daily and weekly press” of the time. While he was eagerly taking his share in all the political struggles of this eventful period, he was also continuing his studies, devoting no less than six hours a day to the study of classics and political philosophy. Under this severe mental training his health once more broke down. His energy, however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to the newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his habits were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary anxieties.
From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively employed upon the staff ofThe Timesand theMorning Chronicle, whilst he contributed to theExaminer, to theLondon Magazineand to theWestminster Review. In 1828 theExaminernewspaper, which had been purchased by the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of theReligion of the Universe, &c., was given over to Fonblanque’s complete control; and for a period of seventeen years (1830 to 1847) he not only sustained the high character for political independence and literary ability which theExaminerhad gained under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt, but even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a certain delight in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed against themselves. When it was proposed that the admirers and supporters of the paper should facilitate a reduction in its price by the payment of their subscription ten years in advance, not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord Lytton) volunteer his aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting with radicalism. During his connexion with theExaminer, Fonblanque had many advantageous offers of further literary employment; but he devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to the service of the paper he had resolved to make a standard of literary excellence in the world of journalism. Fonblanque was offered the governorship of Nova Scotia; but although he took great interest in colonial matters, and had used every effort to advocate the more generous political system which had colonial self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his belovedExaminereven for so sympathetic an employment. In 1847, however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post of statistical secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course compelled him to resign the editorship of theExaminer, but he still continued to contribute largely to the paper, which, under the control of John Forster, continued to sustain its influential position. During the later years of his life Fonblanque took no prominent part in public affairs; and when he died at the age of seventy-nine (1872) he seemed, as his nephew, Edward Fonblanque, rightly observes, “a man who had lived and toiled in an age gone by and in a cause long since established.”
The character of Albany Fonblanque’s political activity may be judged of by a study of hisEngland under Seven Administrations(1837), in comparison with the course of social and political events in England from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must be regarded in the light of a reformer. Journalism before his day was regarded as a somewhat discreditable profession; men of true culture were shy of entering the hot and dusty arena lest they should be confounded with the ruder combatants who fought there before the public for hire. But the fact that Fonblanque, a man not only of strong and earnest political convictions but also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate to choose this field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a man of letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old prejudice.
See theLife and Labours of Albany Fonblanque, edited by his nephew, Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a collection of his articles with a brief biographical notice.
See theLife and Labours of Albany Fonblanque, edited by his nephew, Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a collection of his articles with a brief biographical notice.
FOND DU LAC,a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the S. end of Lake Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du Lac river, which is navigable for only a short distance. Pop. (1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom 2952 were foreign-born; (1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of some importance, and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-Western railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat lines connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great Lakes. At North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits, are car-shops of the two last-mentioned railways, and in the city are manufactories of machinery, automobiles, wagons and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour, refrigerators, agricultural implements, toys and furniture. The total value of the city’s factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase of 95.7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal cathedral, the Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital and convent, and a public library with about 25,000 volumes in 1908. The first settlers on the site of Fond du Lac arrived about 1835. Subsequently a village was laid out which was incorporated in 1847; a city charter was secured in 1852.
FONDI(anc.Fundi), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and 11 m. E.N.E. of Terracina by road. Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above sea-level, at the N. end of a plain surrounded by mountains, which extend to the sea. It occupies the site of the ancient Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later toLatium adjectum, on the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road which passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan, and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly inopus incertum, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no doubt, from the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still exists, and bears the inscription of three aediles who erected the gate, the towers and the wall. A similar inscription of three different aediles from the N.W. gate still exists, but notin situ. In the neighbourhood are the remains of several ancient villas, and along the Via Appia still stands an ancient wall ofopus reticulatum, with an inscription, in large letters, of one Varronianus, the letters being at intervals of 25 ft. The engineering of the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where it passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.
The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The castle on the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with beautiful tracery. Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro (formerly S. Maria), which was the cathedral until the see was suppressed in 1818 and united with that of Gaeta; it contains a fine pulpit with “cosmatesque” work and the fine tomb of Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century triptychs and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of the anti-pope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery the cell which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.
The ancient city of Fundi in 338B.C.(or 332) received (with Formiae) thecivitas sine suffragio, because it had always secured the Romans safe passage through its territory; the people as a whole did not join Privernum in its war against Rome three years later, though Vitruvius Vacca, the leader, was a native of Fundi. It acquired the full citizenship in 188B.C., and was partly under the control of apraefectus. The inscription upon some waterpipes which have been discovered shows that later it became amunicipium. It was governed by three aediles: Horace’s jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due to the exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen inHermes, xiii. p. 113). The family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi. During the Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily abandoned, but it seems to have come under the rule of the papacy byA.D.754 at any rate. Pope John VIII. ceded it with its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but its history is somewhat intricate after this period. Sometimes it appears as an independent countship, though held by members of the Caetani family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to carry off Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city. After this Fondi was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the Di Sangro family, in which it still remains. Its position as a frontier town between the papal states and the kingdom of Naples, just in the territory of the latter—the Via Appia can easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual frontier calledPortella1or S.E. of it—affected it a good deal during the French Revolution and the events which led up to the unification of Italy.
The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and the partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the ancient Via Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a considerable détour. The lake was also known in classical times ass,lacus Amyclanufrom the town of Amyclae or Amunclae, which was founded, according to legend, by Spartan colonists, and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th centuryB.C.(E. Pais inRendiconti dei Lincei, 1906, 611 seq.); the bay was also known asmare Amunclanum.
The ancient Speluncae (mod.Sperlonga) on the coast also belonged to the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa in which Sejanus saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost crushed by a fall of rock. Considerable remains of it, and of the caves from which it took its name, still exist 1 m. S.E. of the modern village. For modern discoveries see P. di Tucci inNotizie degli scavi(1880), 480; G. Patroni,ibid.(1898), 493. The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient writers, though theager Caecubus, the coast plain round the Lago di Fundi, was even more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine; and though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even more to the excavation works of Nero’s projected canal from the lacus Avernus to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is spoken of in the inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of Hadrian, together with Falernian and Setian wines (Corpus inscript. Lat.vi. Berlin, 1882, 9797). The plain of Fondi is the northernmost point in Italy where the cultivation of oranges and lemons is regularly carried on in modern times.