Among his pamphlets areA Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies(1775);Historical and Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion(1780);Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of American Independence(1780); andThe Claim of the American Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of Law and Justice(1788).See Thomas Balch (Ed.),The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a Committee of the House of Commons(Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H. Baldwin,Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician(New Haven, 1903); and M.C. Tyler,Literary History of the American Revolution(2 vols., New York, 1897).
Among his pamphlets areA Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies(1775);Historical and Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion(1780);Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of American Independence(1780); andThe Claim of the American Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of Law and Justice(1788).
See Thomas Balch (Ed.),The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a Committee of the House of Commons(Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H. Baldwin,Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician(New Haven, 1903); and M.C. Tyler,Literary History of the American Revolution(2 vols., New York, 1897).
GALLOWAY, THOMAS(1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is “On the Proper Motion of the Solar System,” and was published in thePhil. Trans., 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of theEncyclopaedia Britannica, and also wrote several scientific papers for theEdinburgh Reviewand various scientific journals. HisEncyclopaediaarticle, “Probability,” was published separately.
SeeTransactions of the Royal Astronomical Society(1852).
SeeTransactions of the Royal Astronomical Society(1852).
GALLOWAY,a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was theNovantiaof the Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless cattle. SeeKirkcudbrightshireandWigtownshire.
GALLOWS1(a common Teutonic word—cf. Goth.galga, O. H. Ger.galgo, Mod. Ger.Galgen, A.S.galzan, &c.—of uncertain origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the older translations of the Bible “gallows” was used for the cross on which Christ suffered (sogalgain Ulfilas’s Gothic Testament).2Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather.
According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set apart for the purpose inside the gaol.
The word “gibbet,” the Fr.gibet, gallows, which appears in the first instance to have meant a crooked stick,3was originally used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome custom comes the common use of the word “to gibbet” for any holding up to public infamy or contempt.
1The word “gallows” is the plural of a word (galwe,galowe,gallow) which, according to theNew English Dictionary, was occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of “a gallows,” and, in the older form, of “a pair of gallows,” this referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century onwards “gallows” has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new plural, “gallowses,” having come into use. “The latter, though not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in commonly evaded” (New Eng. Dict.s.v. “Gallows”).2In Med. Lat. “gallows” was translated byfuriaandpatibulum, both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals.Furia, in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.3Cf. Wace,Roman de Rou, iii. 8349:“Et il a le gibet saisiQui a son destre braz pendi.”
1The word “gallows” is the plural of a word (galwe,galowe,gallow) which, according to theNew English Dictionary, was occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of “a gallows,” and, in the older form, of “a pair of gallows,” this referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century onwards “gallows” has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new plural, “gallowses,” having come into use. “The latter, though not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in commonly evaded” (New Eng. Dict.s.v. “Gallows”).
2In Med. Lat. “gallows” was translated byfuriaandpatibulum, both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals.Furia, in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.
3Cf. Wace,Roman de Rou, iii. 8349:
“Et il a le gibet saisiQui a son destre braz pendi.”
“Et il a le gibet saisi
Qui a son destre braz pendi.”
GALLS.In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous insects of the genusOestrus. Signor Moriggia1has described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of the human hand, which was caused byAcarus domesticus. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise “all abnormal vegetable productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation.” For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls, appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus, secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the “stimulus” and the “supporter of the stimulus,” as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritantof the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics of the currant-gall ofSpathegaster baccarum, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing it; the bright red galls of the saw-flyNematus gallicolaare found on four different species of willow,Salix fragilis,S. alba,S. capreaandS. cinerea;2and the galls of a Cynipid,Biorhiza aptera, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured also from the deodar.3Often the gall bears no visible resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly, however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less modified special organs of the plant. The gall ofCecidomyia strobilina, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth, seed-shaped gall of the AmericanCynips seminator, Harris, according to W.F. Bassett,4is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. The moss-like covering of the “bedeguars” of the wild rose, the galls of a Cynipid,Rhodites rosae, represents leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the “artichoke-galls” or “oak-strobile,” produced byAphilothrix gemmae, L., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.5E. Newman held the view that many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: “to produce an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the attempt.” Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.6Galls vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The polythalamous gall ofAphilothrix radicis, found on the roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man’s fist; the galls of another Cynipid,Andricus occultus, Tschek,7which occurs on the male flowers ofQuercus sessiliflora, is 2 millimetres, or barely a line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the oak-leaf hairy galls ofSpathegaster tricolor, which are of a crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or cups, others lenticular. The “knoppern” galls ofCynips polycera, Gir., are cones having the broad, slightly convex upper surface surrounded with a toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese galls, “some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs.”8The characters of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American willow,Salix humilis, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. Some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the growing larva.9
Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the Hymenoptera are the gall-wasps (Cynipsand its allies), which infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect insect, tunnels its way,—usually in autumn, though sometimes, as has been observed of some individuals ofCynips Kollari, after hibernation.
Among the commoner of the galls of theCynipidaeare the “oak-apple” or “oak-sponge” ofAndricus terminalis, Fab.; the “currant” or “berry galls” ofSpathegaster baccarum, L., above mentioned; and the “oak-spangles” ofNeuroterus lenticularis,10Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature by Frederick Smith,11and the succulent “cherry-galls” ofDryophanta scutellaris, Oliv. The “marble” or “Devonshire woody galls” of oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are produced byCynips Kollari,12already alluded to. They were first introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in several parts of Scotland.13They contain about 17% of tannin.14On account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for making ornamental baskets. The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah galls,15produced on a species of oak byCynips insana, Westw., have been regarded by many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (mala insana), or apples of Sodom (poma sodomitica), alluded to by Josephus and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (Bibl. Researches in Palestine, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular fruit called by the Arabs’Ösher, produced by theAsclepias giganteaorproceraof botanists. What in California are known as “flea seeds” are oak-galls made by a species ofCynips; in August they become detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.16
Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey, or Levant galls of commerce (Ger.Galläpfel,levantische Gallen; Fr.noix de Galle), are produced onQuercus infectoria, a variety ofQ. Lusitanica, Webb, byCynips(Diplolepis, Latr.)tinctoria, L., orC. gallae tinctoriaeOliv. Aleppo galls (gallae halepenses) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies,2⁄5-4⁄5in. in diameter, ridged and warty on the upper half, and light brown to dark greyish-yellow within. What are termed “blue,” “black,” or “green” galls contain the insect; the inferior “white” galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. 1.). Less valued are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence the name “Tarablous galls”). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe for various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on analysis from 26 (H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (seeVinen,loc. cit.), with gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, water, and minute quantities of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free sugar and, in the cells around the inner shelly chamber, calcium oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides (i. 146), and other ancient writers, including Pliny(Nat. Hist.xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be produced “in a single night.” Their insect origin appears to have been entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times, though Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is produced in certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes oak-apples as “an exudation of plants joined with putrefaction.” Pomet17thought that gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a similar opinion obtains among the modern Chinese, who apply to them the termMu-shih-tsze, or “fruits for the foodless.”18Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for their astringent properties, and Pliny (Nat. Hist.xxiv. 5) recommends them as a remedy in affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the mouth and some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts are used in the preparation of the two astringent ointmentsunguentum gallaeandunguentum gallae cum opio, and of the tinctura gallae, and also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid (q.v.). They have from very early times been resorted to as a means of staining the hair of a dark colour, and they are the base of the tattooing dye of the Somali women.19
The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides theCynipidaeproper, certain species of the genusEurytoma(Isosoma, Walsh) and familyChalcididae,e.g.E. hordei, the “joint-worm” of the United States, which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;20also various members of the familyTenthredinidae, or saw-flies. The larvae of the latter usually vacate their galls, to spin their cocoons in the earth, or, as in the case ofAthalia abdominalis, Klg., of the clematis, may emerge from their shelter to feed for some days on the leaves of the gall-bearing plant.
The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats (Cecidomyidae), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. Some of them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or become pupae. The true willow-galls are the work either of these or of saw-flies. Their galls are to be met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera,e.g.the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,21grape-vine,22alder, gooseberry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, fennel, meadowsweet,23common cabbage and cereals. In the northern United States, in May, “legions of these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight, hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong north-west wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the farmer.”24Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the familyTrypetidae, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the familyMycetophilidae, such as the speciesSciara tilicola,25Löw, the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of the young shoots and leaves of the lime.
Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects of the familiesTingidae,Psyllidae,CoccidaeandAphidae.Coccus pinicorticiscauses the growth of patches of white flocculent and downy matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the white pine in America.26The galls of examples of the last family are common objects on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of the poplar. An American Aphid of the genusPemphigusproduces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped excrescences on the young branches of the hickory.
The Chinese galls of commerce (Woo-pei-tsze) are stated to be produced byAphis Chinensis, Bell, onRhus semialata, Murr. (R. Bucki-amela, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N. India, China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for several generations, male winged insects are developed. The galls are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.27Chinese galls examined by Viedt28yielded 72% of tannin, and less mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls are produced by Aphides on species ofPistacia.M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the Aphis of Pistachio galls,Anopleura lentisci, is hatched an apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young Aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots of certain grasses (Bromus sterilisandHordeum vulgare), and by budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological cycle (seeCompt. rend., Nov. 18, 1878, p. 782, quoted inAnn. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1879, p. 174).
The Chinese galls of commerce (Woo-pei-tsze) are stated to be produced byAphis Chinensis, Bell, onRhus semialata, Murr. (R. Bucki-amela, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N. India, China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for several generations, male winged insects are developed. The galls are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.27
Chinese galls examined by Viedt28yielded 72% of tannin, and less mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls are produced by Aphides on species ofPistacia.
M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the Aphis of Pistachio galls,Anopleura lentisci, is hatched an apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young Aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots of certain grasses (Bromus sterilisandHordeum vulgare), and by budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological cycle (seeCompt. rend., Nov. 18, 1878, p. 782, quoted inAnn. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1879, p. 174).
Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers there are, among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils), and species of the exoticSagridaeandLamiadaeand anAmerican beetle,Saperda inornata(Cerambycidae), which forms the pseudo-galls ofSalix longifoliaandPopulus angulata, or cottonwood. Among the Lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to theTineidae,Aegeriidae,TortricidaeandPterophoridae. The larva of a New Zealand moth,Morova subfasciata, Walk. (Cacoëcia gallicolens), of the familyDrepanulidae, causes the stem of a creeping plant, on the pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall.29
Mite-galls, oracarocecidia, are abnormal growths of the leaves of plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genusPhytoptus(gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface, so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry and many other plants; and formerly,e.g.the gall known asErineum quercinum, on the leaves ofQuercus Cerris, were taken for cryptogamic structures. The lime-leaf “nail-galls” ofPhytoptus tiliaeclosely resemble the “trumpet-galls” formed on American vines by a species ofCecidomyia.30Certain minute Nematoid worms, asAnguillula scandens, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls.
Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed guest-flies or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls ofCynipsand its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera, asSynergus,AmblynotusandSynophrus; and the pine-cone-like gall ofSalix strobiloides, as Walsh has shown,30is made by a large species ofCecidomyia, which inhabits the heart of the mass, the numerous smaller cecidomyidous larvae in its outer part being mere inquilines. In many instances the lodgers are not of the same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and some gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the case of the Curculio beetleConotrachelius nenuphar, Hbst., of which one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and another lives in the “black knot” of the plum-tree, regarded by Walsh as probably a true cecidomyidous gall. The same authority (loc. cit.p. 550) mentions a willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so thataltogethersome twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are dependent for their existence on what to the common observer appears to be nothing but “an unmeaning mass of leaves.” Among the numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymenopterous flies of the familyProctotrypidae, and of the familyChalcididae,e.g.Callimome regius, the larva of which preys on the larvae of bothCynips glutinosaand its lodgerSynergus facialis. The oak-apple often contains the larvae ofBraconidaeandIchneumonidae, which Von Schlechtendal (loc. sup. cit.p. 33) considers to be parasites not on the owner of the gall,Andricus terminalis, but on inquilinousTortricidae. Birds are to be included among the enemies of gall-insects. Oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the titmouse in order to obtain the grub within, and the “button-galls” ofNeuroterus numismatis, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.
A great variety of deformations and growths produced by insects and mites as well as by fungi have been described. They are in some cases very slight, and in others form remarkably large and definite structures. The whole are now included under the term Cecidia; a prefix gives the name of the organism to which the attacks are due,e.g.Phytoptocecidia are the galls formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls are those that arise when only one member of a plant is involved; compound galls are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most remarkable galls recently discovered we may mention those found on Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia. They are remarkable for their variety, and are due to small scale-insects of the peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As regards the mode of production of galls, the most important distinction is between galls that result from the introduction of an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the plant, and those that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in the latter case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to enclose its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result of the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been known, and is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be produced when the tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or prior to, the actual development of the tissue. Little more than this is known. The power that gall-producers possess of influencing by direct interference the growth of the cells of the plant that affords them the means of subsistence is an art that appears to be widely spread among animals, but is at the same time one of which we have little knowledge. The views of Adler as to the alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies have been fully confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct observation that the galls and the insects produced from them in one generation are entirely different from the next generation; and it has also been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is supposed that these remarkable phenomena have gradually been evoked by difference in the nutrition of the alternating generations. When two different generations are produced in one year on the same kind of tree it is clear the properties of the sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse so that the two generations are adapted to different conditions. In some cases the alternating generations are produced on different species of trees, and even on different parts of the two species.
On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further—J.T.C. Ratzeburg,Die Forst-Insecten, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844); T.W. Harris,Insects injurious to Vegetation(Boston, U.S., 2nd ed., 1852); C.L. Koch,Die Pflanzenläuse Aphiden(Nuremberg, 1854); T. Hartig,Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen(Berlin, 1860); Walsh, “On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and Dipterous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow,”Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), pp. 223-288; T.A. Marshall, “On some British Cynipidae,”Ent. Month. Mag.iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Müller, “A List of Gall-bearing British Plants,”ib.v. pp. 118 and 216; G.L. Mayr,Die mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild(Vienna, 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in theEntomologist, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, “Die Einmiethler der mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen,”Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxii. pp. 669-726; and “Die europäischen Torymiden,”ib.xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted inCistula entomologica, i., London, 1869-1876); F. Löw, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Gallmücken,”ib.pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm and P. Löw, “Synopsis Cecidomyidarum,”ib.xxvi. pp. 1-104; Perris,Ann. Soc. Entom. de France, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; R. Osten-Sacken, “On the North American Cecidomyidae,”Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg,Entomologie für Gärtner und Gartenfreunde(Leipzig, 1871); J.W.H. Traill, “Scottish Galls,”Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871), pp. 123, &c.; Albert Müller, “British Gall Insects,”The Entomologist’s Annual for 1872, pp. 1-22; B. Altum,Forstzoologie, iii. “Insecten,” pp. 250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach,Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insecten(Stuttgart, 1874); A. d’Arbois de Jubainville and J. Vesque,Les Maladies des plantes cultivées, pp. 98-105 (Paris, 1878).
On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further—J.T.C. Ratzeburg,Die Forst-Insecten, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844); T.W. Harris,Insects injurious to Vegetation(Boston, U.S., 2nd ed., 1852); C.L. Koch,Die Pflanzenläuse Aphiden(Nuremberg, 1854); T. Hartig,Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen(Berlin, 1860); Walsh, “On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and Dipterous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow,”Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), pp. 223-288; T.A. Marshall, “On some British Cynipidae,”Ent. Month. Mag.iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Müller, “A List of Gall-bearing British Plants,”ib.v. pp. 118 and 216; G.L. Mayr,Die mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild(Vienna, 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in theEntomologist, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, “Die Einmiethler der mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen,”Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxii. pp. 669-726; and “Die europäischen Torymiden,”ib.xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted inCistula entomologica, i., London, 1869-1876); F. Löw, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Gallmücken,”ib.pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm and P. Löw, “Synopsis Cecidomyidarum,”ib.xxvi. pp. 1-104; Perris,Ann. Soc. Entom. de France, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; R. Osten-Sacken, “On the North American Cecidomyidae,”Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg,Entomologie für Gärtner und Gartenfreunde(Leipzig, 1871); J.W.H. Traill, “Scottish Galls,”Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871), pp. 123, &c.; Albert Müller, “British Gall Insects,”The Entomologist’s Annual for 1872, pp. 1-22; B. Altum,Forstzoologie, iii. “Insecten,” pp. 250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach,Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insecten(Stuttgart, 1874); A. d’Arbois de Jubainville and J. Vesque,Les Maladies des plantes cultivées, pp. 98-105 (Paris, 1878).
(F. H. B.)
1Quoted inZoological Record, iv. (1867), p. 192.2P. Cameron,Scottish Naturalist, ii. pp. 11-15.3Entomologist, vii. p. 47.4See inProc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873, p. xvi.5See A. Müller,Gardener’s Chronicle(1871), pp. 1162 and 1518; and E.A. Fitch,Entomologist, xi. p. 129.6Entomologist, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.7Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxi. p. 799.8Darwin,Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication, ii. p. 282.9“Recherches pour servir à l’histoire des galles,”Ann. des sci. nat.xix. pp. 293 sqq.10According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place betweenN. lenticularisandSpathegaster baccarum(see E.A. Ormerod,Entomologist, xi. p. 34).11See Westwood,Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects, ii. (1840) p. 130.12For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, seeEntomologist, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.13Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.14Vinen,Journ. de pharm. et de chim.xxx. (1856) p. 290; “English Ink-Galls,”Pharm. Journ.2nd ser. iv. p. 520.15See Pereira,Materia Medica, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347;Pharm. Journ.1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.16See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes,Proc. California Acad. of Sciences, iv. pp. 265 and 266.17A Complete History of Drugs(translation), p. 169 (London, 1748).18F. Porter Smith,Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of China, p. 100 (1871).19R.F. Burton,First Footsteps in E. Africa, p. 178 (1856).20A.S. Packard, jun.,Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 205 (Salem, 1870).21On the Cecidomyids ofQuercus Cerris, see Fitch,Entomologist, xi. p. 14.22See, onCecidomyia oenephila, Von Haimhoffen,Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxv. pp. 801-810.23SeeEntomologist’s Month. Mag.iv. (1868) p. 233; and for figure and description,Entomologist, xi. p. 13.24A.S. Packard, jun.,Our Common Insects, p. 203 (Salem, U.S. 1873). On the Hessian fly,Cecidomyia destructor, Say, the May brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch,The Hessian Fly(Albany, 1847), reprinted fromTrans. New York State Agric. Soc.vol. vi.25J. Winnertz,Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen, p. 164 (Vienna, 1867).26Asa Fitch,First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects of the State of New York, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).27See E. Doubleday,Pharm. Journ.1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and Pereira,ib.vol. iii. p. 377.28Dingler’s Polyt. Journ.ccxvi. p. 453.29For figure and description seeZoology of the “Erebus” and “Terror,”ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875).30On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Löw, “Beiträge zur Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (Phytoptus, Duj.),”Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and “Über Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend,”ib.pp. 495-508; Andrew Murray,Economic Entomology, Aptera, pp. 331-374 (1876); and F.A.W. Thomas,Ältere und neue Beobachtungen über Phytopto-Cecidien(Halle, 1877).
1Quoted inZoological Record, iv. (1867), p. 192.
2P. Cameron,Scottish Naturalist, ii. pp. 11-15.
3Entomologist, vii. p. 47.
4See inProc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873, p. xvi.
5See A. Müller,Gardener’s Chronicle(1871), pp. 1162 and 1518; and E.A. Fitch,Entomologist, xi. p. 129.
6Entomologist, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.
7Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxi. p. 799.
8Darwin,Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication, ii. p. 282.
9“Recherches pour servir à l’histoire des galles,”Ann. des sci. nat.xix. pp. 293 sqq.
10According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place betweenN. lenticularisandSpathegaster baccarum(see E.A. Ormerod,Entomologist, xi. p. 34).
11See Westwood,Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects, ii. (1840) p. 130.
12For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, seeEntomologist, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.
13Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.
14Vinen,Journ. de pharm. et de chim.xxx. (1856) p. 290; “English Ink-Galls,”Pharm. Journ.2nd ser. iv. p. 520.
15See Pereira,Materia Medica, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347;Pharm. Journ.1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.
16See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes,Proc. California Acad. of Sciences, iv. pp. 265 and 266.
17A Complete History of Drugs(translation), p. 169 (London, 1748).
18F. Porter Smith,Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of China, p. 100 (1871).
19R.F. Burton,First Footsteps in E. Africa, p. 178 (1856).
20A.S. Packard, jun.,Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 205 (Salem, 1870).
21On the Cecidomyids ofQuercus Cerris, see Fitch,Entomologist, xi. p. 14.
22See, onCecidomyia oenephila, Von Haimhoffen,Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxv. pp. 801-810.
23SeeEntomologist’s Month. Mag.iv. (1868) p. 233; and for figure and description,Entomologist, xi. p. 13.
24A.S. Packard, jun.,Our Common Insects, p. 203 (Salem, U.S. 1873). On the Hessian fly,Cecidomyia destructor, Say, the May brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch,The Hessian Fly(Albany, 1847), reprinted fromTrans. New York State Agric. Soc.vol. vi.
25J. Winnertz,Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen, p. 164 (Vienna, 1867).
26Asa Fitch,First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects of the State of New York, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).
27See E. Doubleday,Pharm. Journ.1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and Pereira,ib.vol. iii. p. 377.
28Dingler’s Polyt. Journ.ccxvi. p. 453.
29For figure and description seeZoology of the “Erebus” and “Terror,”ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875).
30On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Löw, “Beiträge zur Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (Phytoptus, Duj.),”Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and “Über Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend,”ib.pp. 495-508; Andrew Murray,Economic Entomology, Aptera, pp. 331-374 (1876); and F.A.W. Thomas,Ältere und neue Beobachtungen über Phytopto-Cecidien(Halle, 1877).
GALLUPPI, PASQUALE(1770-1846), Italian philosopher, was born on the 2nd of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He was of good family, and after studying at the university of Naples he entered the public service, and was for many years employed in the office of the administration of finances. At the age of sixty, having become widely known by his writings on philosophy, he was called to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the university of Naples, which he held till his death in November 1846. His most important works are:Lettere filosofiche(1827), in which he traces his philosophical development;Elementi di filosofia(1832);Saggio filosofico sulla critica della conoscenza(1819-1832);Sull’ analisi e sulla sintesi(1807);Lezioni di logica e di metafisica(1832-1836);Filosofia della volontà(1832-1842,incomplete);Storia della filosofia(i., 1842);Considerazioni filosofiche sull’ idealismo trascendentale(1841), a memoir on the system of Fichte.
On his philosophical views see L. Ferri,Essai sur l’histoire de la philosophie en Italie au XIXesiècle, i. (1869); V. Botta in Ueberweg’sHist. of Philosophy, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti, “Philosophy in Italy,” in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci,Pasquale Galluppi. Studio critico(Florence, 1890).
On his philosophical views see L. Ferri,Essai sur l’histoire de la philosophie en Italie au XIXesiècle, i. (1869); V. Botta in Ueberweg’sHist. of Philosophy, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti, “Philosophy in Italy,” in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci,Pasquale Galluppi. Studio critico(Florence, 1890).
GALLUS, CORNELIUS(c.70-26B.C.), Roman poet, orator and politician, was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (Fréjus) in Gaul. At an early age he removed to Rome, where he was taught by the same master as Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil, who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.) to him, was in great measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the restoration of his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause of Octavianus, and as a reward for his services was made praefect of Egypt (Suetonius,Augustus, 66). His conduct in this position afterwards brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having been deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he put an end to his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a high reputation among his contemporaries as a man of intellect, and Ovid (Tristia, iv. 10) considered him the first of the elegiac poets of Rome. He wrote four books of elegies chiefly on his mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for Cytheris, a notorious actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion of Chalcis (q.v.); he also translated some of this author’s works into Latin. Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590 and printed in A. Riese’sAnthologia Latina, 1869) are generally regarded as a forgery.
See C. Völker,De C. Galli vita et scriptis(1840-1844); A. Nicolas,De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus(1851), an exhaustive monograph. An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the Egyptian exploits; see M. Schanz,Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, and Plessis,Poésie latine(1909).
See C. Völker,De C. Galli vita et scriptis(1840-1844); A. Nicolas,De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus(1851), an exhaustive monograph. An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the Egyptian exploits; see M. Schanz,Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, and Plessis,Poésie latine(1909).
GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS, praefect of Egypt 26-24B.C.By order of Augustus he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix, with disastrous results. The troops suffered greatly from disease, heat, want of water and the obstinate resistance of the inhabitants. The treachery of a foreign guide also added to his difficulties. After six months Gallus was obliged to return to Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his force. He was a friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of the expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29; Pliny,Nat. Hist.vi. 32; C. Merivale,Hist. of the Romans under the Empire, ch. 34; H. Krüger,Der Feldzug des A. G. nach dem glücklichen Arabien, 1862). He has been identified with the Aelius Gallus frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are stated to have been used with success in an Arabian expedition.
GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS, governor of Syria during the reign of Nero. When the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the outrages of the Roman procurators, had seized the fortress of Masada and treacherously murdered the garrison of the palace of Herod, Gallus set out from Antioch to restore order. On the 17th of NovemberA.D.66 he arrived before Jerusalem. Having gained possession of the northern suburb, he attacked the temple mount; but, after five days’ fighting, just when (according to Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably withdrew his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by the Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in making good his escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater part of his army and a large amount of war material. Soon after his return Gallus died (before the spring of 67), and was succeeded in the governorship by Licinius Mucianus, the prosecution of the war being entrusted to Vespasian.