Bibliography.—Of more modern editions in English, the most competent are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J.B. Lightfoot (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall (Expositor’s Greek Testament, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in Ellicott’sCommentary, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879), B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (Pulpit Comment., 1885), Dr Agar Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. Adeney (Century Bible), Dr E.H. Perowne (Cambridge Bible, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (Internat. Handbooks to N.T., 1899) also comment on the English text. The editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their subsidiary essays, and Sir W.M. Ramsay’sHistorical Commentary on Galatians(1899) contains archaeological and historical material which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor, those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by F. Sieffert (in Meyer’sComment., 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott (1834), A. Wieseler (Göttingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859), J.C.K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd ed.,Hand.-Commentar, 1892), and Zöckler (2nd ed., 1894) may still be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld’s commentary (1852) discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the standpoint of Baur’s criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed., 1894) and W. Bousset (in Die Schriften des N.T., 2nd ed., 1907) are more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F.X. Reithmayr (1865), A. Schäfer (Münster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892, also inCursus scripturae sacrae, 1907) are the most satisfactory modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be forgotten that the 16th century produced theLiteralis expositioof Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther (Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u. Römer Christen, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter. For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (Das Evangelium Paulus, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (St Paul’s Conception of Christianity, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay (Expositor’s Bible). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (Galat. und Apostelgeschichte, 1882) and M. Thomas (Mélanges d’histoire et de litt. religieuse, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H. Askwith’s essay (Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date, 1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. Wood (Studies in St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians, 1887) criticizes Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in works like Sabatier’sThe Apostle Paul(pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon’sStory of St Paul(pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw’sThe Pauline Epistles(2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano,Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli(1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar’sPaulus vom Damaskus bis zum Galaterbrief(1887), to which may be added a series of papers by Haupt inDeutsche Evang.-Blätter(1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183, 238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in theZeitschrift für wiss. Theologie(“Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal.†1860, pp. 206 f., 1866, pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been noted in the course of this article. See further underPaul.
Bibliography.—Of more modern editions in English, the most competent are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J.B. Lightfoot (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall (Expositor’s Greek Testament, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in Ellicott’sCommentary, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879), B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (Pulpit Comment., 1885), Dr Agar Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. Adeney (Century Bible), Dr E.H. Perowne (Cambridge Bible, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (Internat. Handbooks to N.T., 1899) also comment on the English text. The editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their subsidiary essays, and Sir W.M. Ramsay’sHistorical Commentary on Galatians(1899) contains archaeological and historical material which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor, those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by F. Sieffert (in Meyer’sComment., 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott (1834), A. Wieseler (Göttingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859), J.C.K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd ed.,Hand.-Commentar, 1892), and Zöckler (2nd ed., 1894) may still be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld’s commentary (1852) discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the standpoint of Baur’s criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed., 1894) and W. Bousset (in Die Schriften des N.T., 2nd ed., 1907) are more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F.X. Reithmayr (1865), A. Schäfer (Münster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892, also inCursus scripturae sacrae, 1907) are the most satisfactory modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be forgotten that the 16th century produced theLiteralis expositioof Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther (Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u. Römer Christen, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter. For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (Das Evangelium Paulus, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (St Paul’s Conception of Christianity, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay (Expositor’s Bible). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (Galat. und Apostelgeschichte, 1882) and M. Thomas (Mélanges d’histoire et de litt. religieuse, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H. Askwith’s essay (Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date, 1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. Wood (Studies in St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians, 1887) criticizes Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in works like Sabatier’sThe Apostle Paul(pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon’sStory of St Paul(pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw’sThe Pauline Epistles(2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano,Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli(1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar’sPaulus vom Damaskus bis zum Galaterbrief(1887), to which may be added a series of papers by Haupt inDeutsche Evang.-Blätter(1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183, 238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in theZeitschrift für wiss. Theologie(“Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal.†1860, pp. 206 f., 1866, pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been noted in the course of this article. See further underPaul.
(J. Mt.)
1The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are stated in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still a matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English reader in P.W. Schmiedel’s exhaustive article inEncycl. Biblica(1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert’sStudent’s Life of Paul(1902), pp. 260-272. Schmiedel’s arguments are mainly directed against Sir W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. Steinmann, takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian side of the controversy (Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes, Münster, i. W., 1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert and Zöckler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman, Prof. Valentine Weber.2The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory is to put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous with, if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round inThe Date of St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians(1906).3It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten, Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsäcker) or whether they are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the opening of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul seems to have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians’ defection.4Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).5The critical dubiety aboutοá½Î´Îin ii. 5 (cf. Zahn’s excursus and Prof. Lake inExpositor, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws a slight doubt on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that the agitators had quoted Paul’s practice as an authoritative sanction of the rite.6This depreciation is voiced in their catch-wordοἱ δοκοῦντες(“those of repute,†ii. 6), while other echoes of their talk can be overheard in such phrases as “we are Abraham’s seed†(iii. 16), “sinners of Gentiles†(ii. 15) and “Jerusalem which is our mother†(iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of “seeking to please men†(i. 10) and “preaching circumcision†(v. 11).7Not only is the address “to the churches of Galatia†unusually bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to concentrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet theἡμεῖςof i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.8Cf. Hausrath’sHistory of the N.T. Times(iii. pp. 181-199), with the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that “Paul stands before us like an ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy to be called Imperator.â€9Cf. T.H. Green’sWorks, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the indirect abstract of the speech’s argument, but in verses 18-21 the apostle, carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he dictates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.10Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught (cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy for the evilyezerof man. So far from being a remedy, he argues, it is an aggravation.11According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the use of his son,ἰδίᾳ χειÏὶ καὶ μεγάλοις γÏάμμασιν(cf. Field’sNotes on Translation of the New Testament, p. 191). If the point of Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot have contemplated copies of the epistle being made. He must have assumed that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2 Thess. iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott,Johannine Grammar, pp. 530-532).12ForἔγÏαψα, the epistolary aorist, at the close of a letter, cf. Xen.Anab.i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX) and Lucian,Dial. Meretr.x.13Hermann Schulze’s attempt to bring out the filiation of the later N.T. literature to Galatians (Die Ursprünglichkeit des Galaterbriefes, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of the literary evidence.14Cf. especially J. Gloe’sDie jüngste Kritik des Galaterbriefes(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon’s reply to Steck and Loman (Exeg.-kritische verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal., 1889). The English reader may consult Schmiedel’s article (already referred to) and Dr R.J. Knowling’sThe Testimony of St Paul to Christ(1905), 28 f.15Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa(1905), pp. 43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 (á¼Î¼Î¿á½¶ μὲν ουκ ὀκνηÏόν, ὑμῖν δ᾽ ἀσφαλÎÏ‚) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv. 33, a reminiscence of Menander.16This affects even the vocabulary which has also “einen gewissen vulgären Zug†(Nägeli,Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus, 1905, pp. 78-79).
1The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are stated in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still a matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English reader in P.W. Schmiedel’s exhaustive article inEncycl. Biblica(1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert’sStudent’s Life of Paul(1902), pp. 260-272. Schmiedel’s arguments are mainly directed against Sir W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. Steinmann, takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian side of the controversy (Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes, Münster, i. W., 1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert and Zöckler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman, Prof. Valentine Weber.
2The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory is to put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous with, if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round inThe Date of St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians(1906).
3It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten, Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsäcker) or whether they are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the opening of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul seems to have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians’ defection.
4Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).
5The critical dubiety aboutοá½Î´Îin ii. 5 (cf. Zahn’s excursus and Prof. Lake inExpositor, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws a slight doubt on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that the agitators had quoted Paul’s practice as an authoritative sanction of the rite.
6This depreciation is voiced in their catch-wordοἱ δοκοῦντες(“those of repute,†ii. 6), while other echoes of their talk can be overheard in such phrases as “we are Abraham’s seed†(iii. 16), “sinners of Gentiles†(ii. 15) and “Jerusalem which is our mother†(iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of “seeking to please men†(i. 10) and “preaching circumcision†(v. 11).
7Not only is the address “to the churches of Galatia†unusually bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to concentrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet theἡμεῖςof i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.
8Cf. Hausrath’sHistory of the N.T. Times(iii. pp. 181-199), with the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that “Paul stands before us like an ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy to be called Imperator.â€
9Cf. T.H. Green’sWorks, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the indirect abstract of the speech’s argument, but in verses 18-21 the apostle, carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he dictates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.
10Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught (cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy for the evilyezerof man. So far from being a remedy, he argues, it is an aggravation.
11According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the use of his son,ἰδίᾳ χειÏὶ καὶ μεγάλοις γÏάμμασιν(cf. Field’sNotes on Translation of the New Testament, p. 191). If the point of Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot have contemplated copies of the epistle being made. He must have assumed that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2 Thess. iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott,Johannine Grammar, pp. 530-532).
12ForἔγÏαψα, the epistolary aorist, at the close of a letter, cf. Xen.Anab.i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX) and Lucian,Dial. Meretr.x.
13Hermann Schulze’s attempt to bring out the filiation of the later N.T. literature to Galatians (Die Ursprünglichkeit des Galaterbriefes, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of the literary evidence.
14Cf. especially J. Gloe’sDie jüngste Kritik des Galaterbriefes(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon’s reply to Steck and Loman (Exeg.-kritische verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal., 1889). The English reader may consult Schmiedel’s article (already referred to) and Dr R.J. Knowling’sThe Testimony of St Paul to Christ(1905), 28 f.
15Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa(1905), pp. 43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 (á¼Î¼Î¿á½¶ μὲν ουκ ὀκνηÏόν, ὑμῖν δ᾽ ἀσφαλÎÏ‚) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv. 33, a reminiscence of Menander.
16This affects even the vocabulary which has also “einen gewissen vulgären Zug†(Nägeli,Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus, 1905, pp. 78-79).
GALATINA,a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,917 (town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable for the fine Gothic church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by Raimondello del Balzo Orsini, count of Soleto, with a fine portal and rose-window. The interior contains frescoes by Francesco d’ Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the fine mausoleum of the son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported by four columns, with his statue beneath it.
GALATZ(Galaţii), a city of Rumania, capital of the department of Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m. W. by N. of its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including 12,000 Jews. The Danube is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E. Galatz is built on a slight eminence among the marshes which line the intervening shore and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the shallow mere called Lake Bratych (Brateşul), more than 50 sq. m. in extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th century, of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved streets and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every year, the city improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays were constructed along the Danube; electric tramways were opened in the main streets, which were lighted by gas or electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher, or north-western part of the city, which is the more open and comfortable, contains many of the chief buildings. These include the prefecture, consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals and the offices of the international commission for the control of the Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at Galatz. There are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and other churches; the most interesting being the cathedral, and St Mary’s church, in which is the tomb of the famous Cossack chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been rifled of its contents by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and the headquarters of the III. army corps, protected by a line of fortifications which extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as the Sereth line. But the main importance of the city is commercial. Galatz is the chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three waterways, the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways which intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles, machinery, and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a large trade in petroleum and salt, Galatz ranks first among Rumanian cities in its export of timber, and second to Braila in its export of grain. It possesses many saw-mills, paste-mills, flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and petroleum refineries; manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap and candles. Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but cargoes consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the principal owners being British.
GALAXY,properly theMilky Way, from the Greek nameὠγαλαξίας, sc.κÏκλος, fromγάλα, milk, cf. the Lat.via lactea(seeStar). The word is more generally employed in its figurative ortransferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant or distinguished persons or objects.
GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS,Roman general and orator. He served under Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian War. As praetor in 151B.C.in farther Spain he made himself infamous by the treacherous murder of a number of Lusitanians, with their wives and children, after inducing them to surrender by the promise of grants of land. For this in 149 he was brought to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by holding up his little children before the people to gain their sympathy. He was consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in Cicero’s opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His speeches, however, were almost forgotten in Cicero’s time.
Livy xlv. 35; Appian,Hisp.58-60; Cicero,De orat.i. 53, iii. 7; Brutus 21.
Livy xlv. 35; Appian,Hisp.58-60; Cicero,De orat.i. 53, iii. 7; Brutus 21.
GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS,Roman emperor (JuneA.D.68 to January 69), born near Terracina, on the 24th of December 5B.C.He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both Augustus and Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus,Annals, vi. 20; Suetonius,Galba, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany, Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served Claudius. For the first half of Nero’s reign he lived in retirement, till, in 61, the emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the spring of 68 Galba was informed of Nero’s intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived Galba’s spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the legate of the senate and Roman people; after the murder of Nero, he assumed the title of Caesar, and marched straight for Rome. At first he was welcomed by the senate and the party of order, but he was never popular with the soldiers or the people. He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by scornfully refusing to pay them the reward promised in his name, and disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of Germany, who demanded that the senate should choose another emperor, first made him aware of his own unpopularity and the general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a sign of fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly governor of Lusitania, and one of Galba’s earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to meet the rebels—he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter—was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near the Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been emperor (“omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperassetâ€).
See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus,Histories, i. 7-49; Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson,Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire,A.D.69-70(1908); W.A. Spooner,On the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitelliusin Introd. to his edition (1891) of theHistoriesof Tacitus.
See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus,Histories, i. 7-49; Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson,Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire,A.D.69-70(1908); W.A. Spooner,On the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitelliusin Introd. to his edition (1891) of theHistoriesof Tacitus.
GALBANUM(Heb.HelbenÄh; Gr.χαλβάνη), a gum-resin, the product ofFerula galbaniflua, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps also of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or greenish-yellow colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a peculiar, somewhat musky odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212. It contains about 8% of terpene; about 65% of a resin which contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a very small quantity of the colourless crystalline substanceumbelliferone, C9H6O3. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In Exodus xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the making of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in medicine, and Pliny (Nat. Hist.xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that “the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill a serpent.†The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, obsolescent.
GALCHAS,the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana, Kohistan and Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks, are identified with theCalcienses populiof the lay Jesuit Benedict Goes, who crossed the Pamir in 1603 and described them as “of light hair and beard like the Belgians.†The word “Galcha,†which has been explained as meaning “the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the mountains,†in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably simply the Persiangalcha, “clown†or “rustic,†in reference to their uncouth manners. The Galchas conform physically to what has been called the “Alpine or Celtic European race,†so much so that French anthropologists have termed them “those belated Savoyards of Kohistan.†D’Ujfalvy describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks, black, chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes, never oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face and round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The Galchas for the most part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.
See Robert Shaw, “On the Galtchah Languages,†inJourn. As. Soc. Bengal, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph,Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh(Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone,An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul(1815);Bull. de la société d’anthropologie de Paris(1887); Charles Eugene D’Ujfalvy de Mezoe-Koevesd,Les Aryens(1896), and inRevue d’anthropologie(1879), andBull. de la soc. de géogr.(June 1878); W.Z. Ripley,Races of Europe(New York, 1899).
See Robert Shaw, “On the Galtchah Languages,†inJourn. As. Soc. Bengal, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph,Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh(Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone,An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul(1815);Bull. de la société d’anthropologie de Paris(1887); Charles Eugene D’Ujfalvy de Mezoe-Koevesd,Les Aryens(1896), and inRevue d’anthropologie(1879), andBull. de la soc. de géogr.(June 1878); W.Z. Ripley,Races of Europe(New York, 1899).
GALE, THEOPHILUS(1628-1678), English nonconformist divine, was born in 1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where his father was vicar. In 1647 he was entered at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his B.A. degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652. In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor of his college. He remained some years at Oxford, discharging actively the duties of tutor, and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester cathedral. In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and was ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy, returning to England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he passed in London as assistant to John Rowe, an Independent minister who had charge of an important church in Holborn; Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in the following year. His principal work,The Court of the Gentiles, which appeared in parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse of miscellaneous philosophical learning. It resembles theIntellectual Systemof Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work both in general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale’s endeavour (based on a hint of Grotius inDe veritate, i. 16) is to prove that the whole philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or mangled reproduction of Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth referred the Democritean doctrine of atoms to Moses as the original author, so Gale tries to show that the various systems of Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources. Like so many of the learned works of the 17th century, theCourt of theGentilesis chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical discrimination.
His other writings are:A True Idea of Jansenism(1669);Theophil, or a Discourse of the Saint’s Amitie with God in Christ(1671);Anatomie of Infidelitie(1672);Idea theologiae(1673);Philosophia generalis(1676).
His other writings are:A True Idea of Jansenism(1669);Theophil, or a Discourse of the Saint’s Amitie with God in Christ(1671);Anatomie of Infidelitie(1672);Idea theologiae(1673);Philosophia generalis(1676).
GALE, THOMAS(?1636-1702), English classical scholar and antiquarian, was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. In 1666 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high master of St Paul’s school, in 1676 prebendary of St Paul’s, in 1677 a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York on the 7th (or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection,Opuscula mythologica, ethica, et physica, and editions of several Greek and Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old works bearing on Early English history, entitledHistoriae Anglicanae scriptoresandHistoriae Britannicae, Saxonicae, Anglo-Danicae scriptores XV. He was the author of the inscription on the London Monument in which the Roman Catholics were accused of having originated the great fire.
See J.E.B. Mayor,Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne, 448-450.
See J.E.B. Mayor,Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne, 448-450.
GALE.1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from Dan.gal, mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense of boisterous) a wind of considerable power, considerably stronger than a breeze, but not severe enough to be called a storm. In nautical language it is usually combined with some qualifying word, as “half a gale,†a “stiff gale.†In poetical and figurative language “gale†is often used in a pleasant sense, as in “favouring galeâ€; in America, it is used in a slang sense for boisterous or excited behaviour.
2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals; a “hanging gale†is an arrear of rent left over after each successive “gale†or rent day. The term survives in the Forest of Dean, for leases granted to the “free miners†of the forest, granted by the “gaveller†or agent of the crown, and the term is also applied to the royalty paid to the crown, and to the area mined. The word is a contracted form of the O. Eng.gafol, which survives in “gavel,†in gavelkind (q.v.), and in the name of the office mentioned above. The root from which these words derive is that of “give.†Through Latinized forms it appears ingabelle(q.v.).
3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or gaul, sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of the word isgagel. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub found on bogs and moors in the British Islands, and widely distributed in the north temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked leaves and inconspicuous, apetalous, unisexual flowers borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like fruit is attached to the persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea and as a country medicine. John Gerard (Herball, p. 1228) describes it as sweet willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The genusMyricais the type of a small, but widely distributed order,Myricaceae, which is placed among the apetalous families of Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow family.Myrica ceriferais the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree (q.v.).
GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD,Freiherr von(1606-1678), prince bishop of Münster, belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and was born on the 12th of October 1606. Reduced to poverty through the loss of his paternal inheritance, he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him from fighting on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the concluding stages of the Thirty Years’ War. In 1650 he succeeded Ferdinand of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Münster. After restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality, Galen had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of the citizens of Münster; but at length this was crushed, and the bellicose bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an important personage in Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of the directors of the imperial army raised to fight the Turk; and after the peace which followed the Christian victory at St Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English king Charles II. in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of Louis XIV. and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to make a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again attacked Holland six years later he was in alliance with Louis, but he soon deserted his new friend, and fought for the emperor Leopold I. against France. Afterwards in conjunction with Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of Sweden, and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the 19th of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform the church, but his chief energies were directed to increasing his power and prestige.
See K. Tücking,Geschichte des Stifts Münster unter C.B. von Galen(Münster, 1865); P. Corstiens,Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop van Munster(Rotterdam, 1872); A. Hüsing,Fürstbischof C.B. von Galen(Münster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in theEnglish Historical Review, vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum a poem printed in 1666, entitledLetter to the bishop of Munster containing a Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse.
See K. Tücking,Geschichte des Stifts Münster unter C.B. von Galen(Münster, 1865); P. Corstiens,Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop van Munster(Rotterdam, 1872); A. Hüsing,Fürstbischof C.B. von Galen(Münster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in theEnglish Historical Review, vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum a poem printed in 1666, entitledLetter to the bishop of Munster containing a Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse.
GALEN(orGalenus),CLAUDIUS,called Gallien by Chaucer and other writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of ancient medical writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, aboutA.D.130. His father Nicon, from whom he received his early education, is described as remarkable both for excellence of natural disposition and for mental culture; his mother, on the other hand, appears to have been a second Xanthippe. In 146 Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his twentieth year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and of the peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited other cities, and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus. A few years later he went for the first time to Rome. There he healed Eudemus, a celebrated peripatetic philosopher, and other persons of distinction; and ere long, by his learning and unparalleled success as a physician, earned for himself the titles of “Paradoxologus,†the wonder-speaker, and “Paradoxopoeus,†the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and envy of his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in Venetia, by the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In 170 he returned to Rome with the latter, who, on departing thence to conduct the war on the Danube, having with difficulty been persuaded to dispense with his personal attendance, appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus. In Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his reputation as a physician, and writing some of his most important treatises. It would appear that he eventually betook himself to Pergamus, after spending some time at the island of Lemnos, where he learned the method of preparing a certain popular medicine, the “terra lemnia†or “sigillata.†Whether he ever revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are the time and place of his death. According to Suidas, he died at the age of seventy, or in the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If, however, we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one of the most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He composed, it is said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects, including logic, ethics and grammar. Of the published works attributed to him, 83 are recognized as genuine, 19 are of doubtful authenticity, 45 are confessedly spurious, 19 are fragments, and 15 are notes on the writings of Hippocrates.
Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic philosophy, was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the numerous commentaries and original treatises, a catalogue of which is given in his workDe propriis libris, one only has come down to us, the treatise onFallacies in dictione(ΠεÏὶ τῶν κατὰ τήν λÎξιν σοφισμάτων). Many points of logical theory, however, are discussed in his medical and scientific writings. His name is perhaps best known in the history of logic in connexion with the fourth syllogistic figure, the first distinct statement of which was ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no evidence from Galen’s own works that he did make this addition to the doctrines ofsyllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides Minas from a Greek commentator on theAnalytics, referring the fourth figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not, as generally supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an amplification or alteration of the indirect moods of the first figure already noted by Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.
In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the superscriptionGalenus, entitledΓαληνοῦ εἰσαγωγὴ διαλεκτική. Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth figure, and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of the Aristotelian and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest contempt. He shows demonstratively that it cannot be regarded as a writing of Galen’s, and ascribes it to some one or other of the later Greek logicians. A full summary of its contents will be found in the 1st vol. of theGeschichte der Logik(pp. 591-610), and a notice of the logical theories of the true Galen in the same work, pp. 559-577.
There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen’s works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned Jo. Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius, Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore Goulston, Caspar Hoffman, René Chartier, Haller and Kühn. Of Latin translations Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two in the following century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, in 1525, 5 vols. fol.; at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with Latin version by René Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; and at Leipzig, in 1821-1833, by C.G. Kühn, considered to be the best, 20 vols. 8vo. An epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, by J.R. Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. A new edition of Galen’s smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan Müller and G. Helmreich was published in three volumes at Leipzig in 1884-1909.Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical and medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles under the headings ofAnatomyandMedicine. See also René Chartier’s Life, in his edition of Galen’s works; N.F.J. Eloy,Dictionnaire historique de la médecine,s.v.“Galien,†tom. i. (1778); F. Adams’s “Commentary†in hisMedical Works of Paulus Aegineta(London and Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, “A Cursory Analysis of the Works of Galen, so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology,â€Trans. Provincial Med. and Surg. Assoc.vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; C.V. Daremberg,Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l’anatomie, la physiologie et la pathologie du système nerveux(Thèse pour le Doctorat en Médecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, “The Practical Medicine of Galen and his Time,â€The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Rev., vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, “Die Schriften des Claudius Galenos,â€Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, 1889, 1892 and 1896.
There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen’s works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned Jo. Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius, Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore Goulston, Caspar Hoffman, René Chartier, Haller and Kühn. Of Latin translations Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two in the following century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, in 1525, 5 vols. fol.; at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with Latin version by René Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; and at Leipzig, in 1821-1833, by C.G. Kühn, considered to be the best, 20 vols. 8vo. An epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, by J.R. Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. A new edition of Galen’s smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan Müller and G. Helmreich was published in three volumes at Leipzig in 1884-1909.
Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical and medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles under the headings ofAnatomyandMedicine. See also René Chartier’s Life, in his edition of Galen’s works; N.F.J. Eloy,Dictionnaire historique de la médecine,s.v.“Galien,†tom. i. (1778); F. Adams’s “Commentary†in hisMedical Works of Paulus Aegineta(London and Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, “A Cursory Analysis of the Works of Galen, so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology,â€Trans. Provincial Med. and Surg. Assoc.vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; C.V. Daremberg,Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l’anatomie, la physiologie et la pathologie du système nerveux(Thèse pour le Doctorat en Médecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, “The Practical Medicine of Galen and his Time,â€The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Rev., vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, “Die Schriften des Claudius Galenos,â€Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, 1889, 1892 and 1896.
GALENA,a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena (formerly the Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi, about 165 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom 918 were foreign-born; (1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois Central railways; the Galena river has been made navigable by government locks at the mouth of the river, but the river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky limestone bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river, and a number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General U.S. Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the Civil War. In the vicinity there are the most important deposits of zinc and lead in the state, and the city derives its name from the deposits of sulphide of lead (galena), which were the first worked about here; below the galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or smithsonite) ores, which was the main zone worked between 1860 and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende, or zinc sulphide, now the principal source of the mineral wealth of the region. The production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is unimportant. The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery, flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is afforded by the river. Galena was originally a trading post, called by the French “La Pointe†and by the English “Fever River,†the river having been named after le Fevre, a French trader who settled near its mouth. In 1826 Galena was laid out as a town and received its present name; it was incorporated in 1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre was opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father of the celebrated actor of that name.
GALENA,a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the extreme S.E. part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring river. Pop. (1890) 2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were negroes and 251 were foreign-born; (1905) 6449; (1910) 6096. It is situated at the intersection of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (“Frisco Systemâ€) railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region, extremely valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in 1877. Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing establishments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former S. of Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated in 1877, and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.
GALENA,an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide (PbS). The mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name, and it is sometimes now known as lead-glance (Ger.Bleiglanz). It crystallizes in the cubic system, and well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; the usual form is the cube or the cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important character, and one by which the mineral may always be recognized, is the perfect cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is brilliant and metallic. The colour of the mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; it is opaque; the hardness is 2½ and the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned crystals are not common, but the presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by fine striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure are of common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such masses present a spangled appearance owing to the numerous bright cleavages.
The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur 13.4%. The mineral nearly always contains a small amount of silver, and sometimes antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium, &c. Argentiferous galena is an important source of silver; this metal is present in amounts rarely exceeding 1%, and often less than 0.03% (equivalent to 10¾ ounces per ton). Since argentite (Ag2S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable that the silver isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that native silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.
Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metalliferous veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and limestones, and also as pockets in limestones. It is often associated with blende and pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz, barytes, chalybite and pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the upper oxidized parts of the deposits, cerussite and anglesite occur as alteration products. The mineral has occasionally been observed as a recent formation replacing organic matter, such as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal. As small concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sandstone at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of Derbyshire and the north of England the ore occurs as veins and flats in the Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall the veins traverse clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead region of Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills large cavities or chambers in limestone.
Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of localities which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the following may be selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man (where crystals measuring almost a foot across have been found), Neudorf in the Harz, Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri. Good crystals have also been obtained as a furnace product.
Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then known as “potters’ ore†or alquifoux.
The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as argentite (q.v.). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite(lead selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which, with their lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely resemble galena in appearance; these species are named after the localities at which they were originally found, namely, Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai mountains in Asiatic Russia. Altaite is of interest as being one of the tellurides found associated with gold.
(L. J. S.)
GALEOPITHECUS,the scientific designation of the Colugo (q.v.) or Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone representing the familyGaleopithecidae. Much uncertainty has prevailed among naturalists as to the systematic position of this animal, or rather these animals (for there are two species); and while some have referred it to the lemurs, others have placed it with the bats, and others again among theInsectivora, as the representative of a special subordinal group, theDermoptera. Dr H.C. Chapman, who has made a special study of the creature, writes, however, as follows: “It appears, at least in the judgment of the author, thatGaleopithecuscannot be regarded as being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands alone, the sole representative of an ancient group,Galeopithecidae, asHyraxdoes ofHyracoidea. WhileGaleopithecusis but remotely related to theLemuroideaandInsectivora, it is so closely related toChiroptera, more particularly in regard to the structure of its patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus, &c., that there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the descendants of Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the descendants of a Galeopithecus-like ancestor.†Without going quite so far as this, it may be definitely admitted that the colugo is entitled to represent an order by itself, the characters of which will be as follows: Herbivorous, climbing, unguiculate mammals, provided with a very extensive flying-membrane, and having the dental formulai.2â„2,c.0â„1,p.3â„3,m.3â„3, total 34. The lower incisors are directed forwards and have a comb-like structure of their crowns, while the outermost of these teeth and the canines are double-rooted, being in these respects, taken together, quite unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of milk-molars by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded by bone, and the tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external meatus. The ulna and fibula are to some extent inclined backwards; the carpus has a scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-toed. The hemispheres of the brain are short and but slightly convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a large caecum; the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus is two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two pairs of pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a birth.
It will be obvious that if other representatives of theDermopterawere discovered, some of these features might apply only to the familyGaleopithecidae.
There are two species,Galeopithecus volans, ranging from Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and Java, andG. philippinensisof the Philippine group. The former, which is nearly 2 ft. in total length, is distinguished by its larger upper incisors, shorter ears and smaller skull. In both species not only are the long and slender limbs connected by a broad integumentary expansion extending outwards from the sides of the neck and body, but there is also a web between the fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws (fig.); and the hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion passing outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws, and, inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted outer incisors and canines,Galeopithecuscontrasts strongly with that order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and in the great length of the colon, which is so remarkably short inChiroptera. From the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of the brain, the character of the teeth, the structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal placenta at once separate the group.