Chapter 19

Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass.There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France—at Le Mans, Chartres, Châlons-sur-Marne, Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims: in England—at York minster (fragments): in Germany—at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in Austria—in the cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz.The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic and important windows, omitting for the most part isolated examples, and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair amount of glass remaining; the country in which at each period the art throve best is put first.Early GothicFrance.England.Germany.ChartresLe MansBourgesReimsAuxerrecathedrals.CanterburySalisburyLincolncathedrals.Church of St Kunibert, Cologne(Romanesque).Cologne cathedral.York minster.Ste Chapelle, Paris.Church of St Jean-aux-Bois.Middle GothicEngland.Germany.France.York minster.Ely cathedral.Wells cathedral.Tewkesbury abbey.Church of St Sebald, Nuremberg.Évreux cathedral.Church of St Pierre, Chartres.Cathedral and church of St Urbain,Troyes.Church of Ste Radegonde, Poitiers.Cathedral and church of St Ouen,Rouen.StrassburgRegensburgAugsburgErfurtFreiburgcathedrals.Church of Nieder Haslach.Italy.Spain.Church of St Francis, Assisi.Church of Or San Michele, Florence.Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.Toledo cathedral.Late GothicEngland.France.Germany.New College, Oxford.Gloucester cathedral.York, minster and other churches.Great Malvern abbey.Church of St Mary, Shrewsbury.Fairford church.BourgesTroyescathedrals.CologneUlmMunichcathedralsChurch of Notre Dame, Alençon.Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg.Italy.Spain.The Duomo, Florence.Toledo cathedral.Transition PeriodThe choir of the cathedral at Auch.RenaissanceFrance.Netherlands.Switzerland.St VincentSt PatriceSt GodardRouen.Church of St JacquesChurch of St MartinCathedralLiége.Lucerne and most of the otherprincipal museums.Church of St Foy, Conches.Church of St Gervais, Paris.Church of St Étienne-du-Mont, Paris.Church of St Martin, Montmorency.Church of Écouen.Church of St Étienne, Beauvais.Church of St Nizier, Troyes.Church of Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse.The Château de Chantilly.Brussels cathedral.England.Italy.Spain.King’s College chapel, Cambridge.Lichfield cathedral.St George’s church, Hanover Square, London.St Margaret’s church, Westminster.ArezzoMilancathedrals.GranadaSevillecathedrals.Certosa di Pavia.Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.Church of Sta Maria Novella, Florence.Germany.Freiburg cathedral.Late RenaissanceNetherlands.France.England.Groote Kirk, Gouda.Choir of Brussels cathedral.Antwerp cathedral.Church of St Martin-ès-Vignes, Troyes.Nave and transepts of Auch cathedral.WadhamBalliolNewcolleges, Oxford.Switzerland.Most museums.

Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass.

There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France—at Le Mans, Chartres, Châlons-sur-Marne, Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims: in England—at York minster (fragments): in Germany—at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in Austria—in the cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz.

The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic and important windows, omitting for the most part isolated examples, and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair amount of glass remaining; the country in which at each period the art throve best is put first.

Of late years each country has been learning so much from the others that the newest effort is very much in one direction. It seems to be agreed that the art of the window-maker begins with glazing, that the all-needful thing is beautiful glass, that painting may be reduced to a minimum, and on occasion (thanks to new developments in the making of glass) dispensed with altogether. A tendency has developed itself in the direction not merely of mosaic, but of carrying the glazier’s art farther than has been done before and rendering landscapes and even figure subjects in unpainted glass. When, however, it comes to the representation of the human face, the limitations of simple lead-glazing are at once apparent. A possible way out of the difficulty was shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 by M. Tournel, who, by fusing together coloured tesserae on to larger pieces of colourless glass, anticipated the discovery of the already mentioned fragment of Byzantine mosaic now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. He may have seen or heard Of something of the sort. There would be no advantage in building up whole windows in this way; but for the rendering of the flesh and sundry minute details in a window for the most part heavily leaded, this fusing together of tesserae, and even of little pieces of glass cut carefully to shape, seems to supply the want of something more in keeping with severe mosaic glazing than painted flesh proves to be.

Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly. They are no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work; domestic glass is an important industry; and a workman once comparatively exempt from pedantic control is not so easily restrained from self-expression. Moreover, the recognition of the artistic position of craftsmen in general makes it possible for a man to devote himself to glass without sinking to the rank of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the scope glass offers them. What they lack as yet is experience in their craft, and perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of workmanship. When the old methods come to be superseded it will be only by new ones evolved out of them. At present the conditions of glass painting remain very much what they were. The supreme beauty of glass is still in the purity, the brilliancy, the translucency of its colour. To make the most of this the designer must be master of his trade. The test of window designis, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose and everything to gain by execution in stained glass.

Bibliography.—Theophilus,Arts of the Middle Ages(London, 1847); Charles Winston,An Inquiry into the Difference of Style observable in Ancient Glass Painting, especially in England(Oxford, 1847), andMemoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting(London, 1865); N. H. J. Westlake,A History of Design in Painted Glass(4 vols., London, 1881-1894); L. F. Day,Windows, A Book about Stained and Painted Glass(London, 1909), andStained Glass(London, 1903); A. W. Franks,A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries(London, 1849);A Booke of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving for Glasiers(London, 1615, reproduced 1900); F. G. Joyce,The Fairford Windows(coloured plates) (London, 1870);Divers Works of Early Masters in Ecclesiastical Decoration, edited by John Weale (2 vols., London, 1846); Ferdinand de Lasteyrie,Histoire de la peinture sur verre d’après ses monuments en France(2 vols., Paris, 1852), andQuelques mots sur la théorie de la peinture sur verre(Paris, 1853); L. Magne,Œuvre des peintres verriers français(2 vols., Paris, 1885); Viollet le Duc, “Vitrail,” vol. ix. of theDictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture(Paris, 1868); O. Merson, “Les Vitraux,”Bibliothèque de l’enseignement des beaux-arts(Paris, 1895); E. Levy and J. B. Capronnier,Histoire de la peinture sur verre(coloured plates) (Brussels, 1860); Ottin,Le Vitrail, son histoire à travers les âges(Paris); Pierre le Vieil,L’Art de la peinture sur verre et de la vitrerie(Paris, 1774); C. Cahier and A. Martin,Vitraux peints de Bourges du XIIIesiècle(2 vols., Paris, 1841-1844); S. Clement and A. Guitard,Vitraux du XIIIesiècle de la cathédrale de Bourges(Bourges, 1900): M. A. Gessert,Geschichte der Glasmalerei in Deutschland und den Niederlanden, Frankreich, England, &c., von ihrem Ursprung bis auf die neueste Zeit(Tübingen and Stuttgart, 1839; also an English translation, London, 1851); F. Geiges,Der alte Fensterschmuck des Freiburger Münsters, 5 parts (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1902, &c.); A. Hafner,Chefs-d’œuvre de la peinture suisse sur verre(Berlin).

(L. F. D.)

GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF(1810-1876), German humorist and satirist, was born at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810. After being for a short time in a merchant’s office, he took to journalism, and in 1831 editedDon Quixote, a periodical which was suppressed in 1833 owing to its revolutionary tendencies. He next, under the pseudonymAdolf Brennglas, published a series of pictures of Berlin life, under the titlesBerlin wie es ist und—trinkt(30 parts, with illustrations, 1833-1849), andBuntes Berlin(14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin, 1837-1858), and thus became the founder of a popular satirical literature associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year to Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at the Grand ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the political arena and became the leader of the democratic party in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Expelled from that country in 1850, he settled in Hamburg, where he remained until 1858; and then he became editor of theMontagszeitungin Berlin, where he died on the 25th of September 1876.

Among Glassbrenner’s other humorous and satirical writings may be mentioned:Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt(1834);Bilder und Träume aus Wien(2 vols., 1836); Gedichte (1851, 5th ed. 1870); the comic epics,Neuer Reineke Fuchs(1846, 4th ed. 1870) andDie verkehrte Welt(1857, 6th ed. 1873); alsoBerliner Volksleben(3 vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 1847-1851). Glassbrenner has published some charming books for children, notablyLachende Kinder(14th ed., 1884), andSprechende Tiere(20th ed., Hamburg, 1899).See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, “Adolf Glassbrenner,” inUnsere Zeit(1881).

See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, “Adolf Glassbrenner,” inUnsere Zeit(1881).

GLASS CLOTH,a textile material, the name of which indicates the use for which it was originally intended. The cloths are in general woven with the plain weave, and the fabric may be all white, striped or cheeked with red, blue or other coloured threads; the checked cloths are the most common. The real article should be all linen, but a large quantity is made with cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are composed entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satisfactory for the purpose for which they are intended.

GLASSIUS, SALOMO(1593-1656), theologian and biblical critic, was born at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on the 20th of May 1593. In 1612 he entered the university of Jena. In 1615, with the idea of studying law, he moved to Wittenberg. In consequence of an illness, however, he returned to Jena after a year. Here, as a student of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his attention especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was made an “adjunctus” of the philosophical faculty, and some time afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of Hebrew. From 1625 to 1638 he was superintendent in Sondershausen; but shortly after the death of Gerhard (1637) he was, in accordance with Gerhard’s last wish, appointed to succeed him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest invitation of Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court preacher and general superintendent in the execution of important reforms which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to this office he discharged with tact and energy; and in the “syncretistic” controversy, by which Protestant Germany was so long vexed, he showed an unusual combination of firmness with liberality, of loyalty to the past with a just regard to the demands of the present and the future. He died on the 27th of July 1656.

His principal work,Philologia sacra(1623), marks the transition from the earlier views on questions of biblical criticism to those of the school of Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A. Dathe (1731-1791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded Gerhard as editor of the WeimarBibelwerk, and wrote the commentary on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A volume of hisOpusculawas printed at Leiden in 1700.See the article in Herzog-Hauck,Realencyklopädie.

See the article in Herzog-Hauck,Realencyklopädie.

GLASSWORT,a name given toSalicornia herbacea(also known as marsh samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent, jointed, leafless stems, in reference to its former use in glass-making, when it was burnt for barilla.Salsola Kali, an allied plant with rigid, fleshy, spinous-pointed leaves, which was used for the same purpose, was known as prickly glasswort. Both plants are members of the natural order Chenopodiaceae.

GLASTONBURY,a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the main road from London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 4016. The town lies in the midst of orchards and water-meadows, reclaimed from the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor, a conical height once an island, but now, with the surrounding flats, a peninsula washed on three sides by the river Brue.

The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are fragmentary, and as the work of destruction has in many places descended to the very foundations it is impossible to make out the details of the plan. Of the vast range of buildings for the accommodation of the monks hardly any part remains except the abbot’s kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal interior (the exterior plan being square, with the four corners filled in with fireplaces and chimneys), the porter’s lodge and the abbey barn. Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St Joseph at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady chapel, occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel, which is the finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the 12th century. It measures about 66 ft. from east to west and about 36 from north to south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the 15th century inserted beneath a building which had no previous crypt. Between the chapel and the great church is an Early English building which appears to have served as a Galilee porch. The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir, nave and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection. From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the nave was about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six. Of the nave three bays of the south side are still standing, and the windows have pointed arches externally and semicircular arches internally. Two of the tower piers and a part of one arch give some indication of the grandeur of the building. The foundations of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make the whole church the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in the country. The old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury (1322-1335), and noteworthy as an early example of a clock striking the hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells cathedral, but is now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by Joseph of Arimathea, has been the object of considerable comment. It is said to be a distinct variety, flowering twice a year. The actual thorn visited by the pilgrims was destroyed about the Reformation time, but specimens of the same variety are still extant in various parts of the country.

The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St John Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some 15th-century monuments; St Benedict’s, dating from 1493-1524; St John’s hospital, founded 1246; and the George Inn, built in the time of Henry VII. or VIII. The present stone cross replaced a far finer one of great age, which had fallen into decay. The Antiquarian Museum contains an excellent collection, including remains from a prehistoric village of the marshes, discovered in 1892, and consisting of sixty mounds within a space of five acres. There is a Roman Catholic missionaries’ college. In the 16th century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th century. Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of boots and sheep-skin rugs are practised. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5000 acres.

The lake-village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a Celtic settlement about 300-200B.C.on an island in the midst of swamps, and therefore easily defensible. British earthworks and Roman roads and relics prove later occupation. The name of Glastonbury, however, is of much later origin, being a corruption of the SaxonGlæstyngabyrig. By the Britons the spot seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized as Avallonia) or Ynysvitrin (seeAvalon), and it became the local habitation of various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the legends which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of Arimathea as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to Britain from Gaul by St Philip. About a hundred years later, according to the same authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus and Deruvianus, who came to king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius, established a fraternity of anchorites on the spot, and after three hundred years more St Patrick introduced among them a regular monastic life. The British monastery founded about 601 was succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708. From the decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the Danish invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been educated within its walls and was appointed its abbot about 946. The church and other buildings of his erection remained till the installation, in 1082, of the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated the new epoch by commencing a new church. His successor Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down to make way for a finer structure. Henry of Blois (1126-1172) added greatly to the extent of the monastery. In 1184 (on 25th May) the whole of the buildings were laid in ruins by fire; but Henry II. of England, in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be carried out with much magnificence. The great church of which the ruins still remain was then erected. In the end of the 12th century, and on into the following, Glastonbury was distracted by a strange dispute, caused by the attempt of Savaric, the ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself master of the abbey. The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent III., that the abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and Glastonbury, and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On Savaric’s death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and allowed the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the Reformation the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys in England, continued to flourish, the chief events in its history being connected with the maintenance of its claims to the possession of the bodies or tombs of King Arthur and St Dunstan. From early times through the middle ages it was a place of pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the 11th century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury appears to have taken shape; and in the reign of Henry II., according to Giraldus Cambrensis and others, the abbot Henry de Blois, causing search to be made, discovered at the depth of 16 ft. a massive oak trunk with an inscription “Hic jacet sepultus inclitus rex Arthurus in insula Avalonia.” After the fire of 1184 the monks asserted that they were in possession of the remains of St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from Canterbury after the Danish sack of 1011 and kept in concealment ever since. The Canterbury monks naturally denied the assertion, and the contest continued for centuries. In 1508 Warham and Goldston having examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in reply as stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day of such disputes was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the last and 60th abbot of Glastonbury, Robert Whyting, was lodged in the Tower on account of “divers and sundry treasons.” “The ‘account’ or ‘book’ of his treasons ... seems to be lost, and the nature of the charges ... can only be a matter of speculation” (Gairdner,Cal. Pap.on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii.pref.xxxii). He was removed to Wells, where he was “arraigned and next day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church.” The execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was quartered and his head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker passage does not occur in the annals of the English Reformation than this murder of an able and high-spirited man, whose worst offence was that he defended as best he could from the hand of the spoiler the property in his charge.

In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remains of the buildings, which had been in private hands since the granting of the estate to Sir Peter Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr Ernest Jardine for the purpose of transferring it to the Church of England. Bishop Kennion of Bath and Wells entered into an agreement to raise a sum of £31,000, the cost of the purchase; this was completed, and the site and buildings were formally transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the Diocesan Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for the appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four other bishops, each with power to nominate one clerical and one lay member. The council has the duty of deciding the purpose for which the property is to be used “in connexion with and for the benefit of the Church of England.” To give time for further collection of funds and deliberation, the property was re-let for five years to the original purchaser.

In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned by the abbey, which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution. The abbey obtained charters in the 7th century, but the town received its first charter from Henry II., who exempted the men of Glastonbury from the jurisdiction of royal officials and freed them from certain tolls. This was confirmed by Henry III. in 1227, by Edward I. in 1278, by Edward II. in 1313 and by Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne in 1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835. In 1319 Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament, but made no return, and has not since been represented. A fair on the 8th of September was granted in 1127; another on the 29th of May was held under a charter of 1282. Fairs known as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now held on the second Mondays in September and October and are chiefly important for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonbury owed its medieval importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the Dissolution the introduction of woollen manufacture checked the decay of the town. The cloth trade flourished for a century and was replaced by silk-weaving, stocking-knitting and glove-making, all of which have died out.

See Abbot Gasquet.Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries(1906), andThe Last Abbot of Glastonbury(1895 and 1908); William of Malmesbury, “De antiq. Glastoniensis ecclesiae,” inRerum Anglicarum script. vet.tom. i. (1684) (also printed by Hearne and Migne); John of Glastonbury,Chronica sive de hist. de rebus Glast., ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1726); Adam of Domerham,De rebus gestis Glast., ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727);Hist. and Antiq. of Glast.(London, 1807);Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury(8th ed., 1839); Warner,Hist. of the Abbey and Town(Bath, 1826); Rev. F. Warre, “Glastonbury Abbey,” inProc. of SomersetshireArchaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1849; Rev. F. Warre, “Notice of Ruins of Glastonbury Abbey,”ib.1859; Rev. W. A. Jones, “On the Reputed Discovery of King Arthur’s Remains at Glastonbury,” ib. 1859; Rev. J. R. Green, “Dunstan at Glastonbury” and “Giso and Savaric,”ib.1863; Rev. Canon Jackson, “Savaric, Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury,”ib.1862, 1863; E. A. Freeman, “King Ine,”ib.1872 and 1874; Dr W. Beattie, inJourn. of Brit. Archaeol. Ass.vol. xii., 1856; Rev. R. Willis,Architectural History of Glastonbury Abbey(1866); W. H. P. Greswell,Chapters on the Early History of Glastonbury Abbey(1909); Views and plans of the abbey building will be found in Dugdale’sMonasticon(1655); Stevens’sMonasticon(1720); Stukeley,Itinerarium curiosum(1724); Grose,Antiquities(1754); Carter,Ancient Architecture(1800); Storer,Antiq. and Topogr. Cabinet, ii., iv., v. (1807), &c.; Britton’sArchitectural Antiquities, iv. (1813);Vetusta monumenta, iv. (1815); andNew Monasticon, i. (1817).

GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE(1830-1873), French poet, was born at Lillebonne (Seine Inférieure) on the 21st of May 1839. His father, who was a carpenter and afterwards a gendarme, removed in 1844 to Bernay, where Albert received an elementary education. Soon after leaving school he was apprenticed to a printer at Pont Audemer, where he produced a three-act play at the local theatre. He then joined a travelling company of actors to whom he acted as prompter. Inspired primarily by the study of Théodore de Banville, he published hisVignes follesin 1857; his best collection of lyrics,Les Flèches d’or, appeared in 1864; and a third volume,Gilles et pasquins, in 1872. After Glatigny settled in Paris he improvised at café concerts and wrote several one-act plays. On an expedition to Corsica with a travelling company he was on one occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being mistaken by the police for a notorious criminal. His marriage with Emma Dennie brought him great happiness, but the hardships of his life weakened his health and he died at Sèvres on the 16th of April 1873.

See Catulle Mendès,Légende du Parnasse contemporain(1884), andGlatigny, drame funambulesque(1906).

GLATZ(Slav.Kladsko), a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, in a narrow valley on the left bank of the Neisse, not far from the Austrian frontier, 58 m. S.W. from Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 16,051. The town with its narrow streets winds up the fortified hill which is crowned by the old citadel. Across the river, on the Schäferberg, lies a more modern fortress built by the Prussians about 1750. Before the town on both banks of the river there is a fortified camp by which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men. The inner ceinture of walls was razed in 1891 and their site is now occupied by new streets. There are a Lutheran and two Roman Catholic churches, one of which, the parish church, contains the monuments of seven Silesian dukes. Among the other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic gymnasium and the military hospital. The industries include machine shops, breweries, and the manufacture of spirits, linen, damask, cloth, hosiery, beads and leather.

Glatz existed as early as the 10th century, and received German settlers about 1250. It was besieged several times during the Thirty Years’ War and during the Seven Years’ War and came into the possession of Prussia in 1742. In 1821 and 1883 great devastation was caused here by floods. The county of Glatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland and of Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country, and in 1534 was sold to the house of Habsburg, from whom it was taken by Frederick the Great during his attack on Silesia.

See Ludwig,Die Grafschaft Glatz in Wort und Bild(Breslau, 1897); Kutzen,Die Grafschaft Glatz(Glogau, 1873); andGeschichtsquellen der Grafschaft Glatz, edited by F. Volkmer and Hohaus (1883-1891).

GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF(1604-1668), German chemist, was born at Karlstadt, Bavaria, in 1604 and died at Amsterdam in 1668. Little more is known of his life than that he resided successively in Vienna, Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before settling in Holland, where he made his living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal preparations. Though his writings abound in universal solvents and other devices of the alchemists, he made some real contributions to chemical knowledge. Thus he clearly described the preparation of hydrochloric acid by the action of oil of vitriol on common salt, the manifold virtues of sodium sulphate—sal mirabile, Glauber’s salt—formed in the process being one of the chief themes of hisMiraculum mundi; and he noticed that nitric acid was formed when nitre was substituted for the common salt. Further he prepared a large number of substances, including the chlorides and other salts of lead, tin, iron, zinc, copper, antimony and arsenic, and he even noted some of the phenomena of double decomposition. He was always anxious to turn his knowledge to practical account, whether in preparing medicines, or in furthering industrial arts such as dyeing, or in increasing the fertility of the soil by artificial manures. One of his most notable works was hisTeutschlands Wohlfarthin which he urged that the natural resources of Germany should be developed for the profit of the country and gave various instances of how this might be done.

His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published at Frankfort in 1658-1659, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English translation by Packe, at London in 1689.

GLAUBER’S SALT,decahydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4, 10H2O. It is said by J. Kunkel to have been known as anarcanumor secret medicine to the electoral house of Saxony in the middle of the 16th century, but it was first described by J. R. Glauber (De natura salium, 1658), who prepared it by the action of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid on common salt, and, ascribing to it many medicinal virtues, termed itsal mirabile Glauberi. As the mineral thenardite or mirabilite, which crystallizes in the rhombic system, it occurs in many parts of the world, as in Spain, the western states of North America and the Russian Caucasus; in the last-named region, about 25 m. E. of Tiflis, there is a thick bed of the pure salt about 5 ft. below the surface, and at Balalpashinsk there are lakes or ponds the waters of which are an almost pure solution. The substance is the active principle of many mineral waters,e.g.Frederickshall; it occurs in sea-water and it is a constant constituent of the blood. In combination with calcium sulphate, it constitutes the mineral glauberite or brongniartite, Na2SO4·CaSO4, which assumes forms belonging to the monoclinic system and occurs in Spain and Austria. It has a bitter, saline, but not acrid taste. At ordinary temperatures it crystallizes from aqueous solutions in large colourless monoclinic prisms, which effloresce in dry air, and at 35°C. melt in their water of crystallization. At 100° they lose all their water, and on further heating fuse at 843°. Its maximum solubility in water is at 34°; above that temperature it ceases to exist in the solution as a decahydrate, but changes to the anhydrous salt, the solubility of which decreases with rise of temperature. Glauber’s salt readily forms supersaturated solutions, in which crystallization takes place suddenly when a crystal of the salt is thrown in; the same effect is obtained by exposure to the air or by touching the solution with a glass rod. In medicine it is employed as an aperient, and is one of the safest and most innocuous known. For children it may be mixed with common salt and the two be used with the food without the child being conscious of any difference. Its simulation of the taste of common salt also renders it suitable for administration to insane patients and others who refuse to take any drug. If, however, its presence is recognized sodium phosphate may be substituted.

GLAUCHAU,a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the right bank of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 W. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1875) 21,743; (1905) 24,556. It has important manufactures of woollen and half-woollen goods, in regard to which it occupies a high position in Germany. There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories of paper, linen, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a high grade school, elementary schools, a weaving school, an orphanage and an infirmary. Some portions of the extensive old castle date from the 12th century, and the Gottesacker church contains interesting antiquarian relics. Glauchau was founded by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and belonged to the lords of Schönburg as early as the 12th century.

See R. Hofmann,Rückblick über die Geschichte der Stadt Glauchau(1897).

GLAUCONITE,a mineral, green in colour, and chemically a hydrous silicate of iron and potassium. It especially occurs in the green sands and muds which are gathering at the present time on the sea bottom at many different places. The wide extension of these sands and muds was first made known by the naturalists of the “Challenger,” and it is now found that they occur in the Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean, but they have not been found in the Black Sea or in any fresh-water lakes. These deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of terrigenous origin, the mud and sand being derived from the wear of the continents, transported by marine currents. The greater part of the mass consists in all cases of minerals such as quartz, felspar (often labradorite), mica, chlorite, with more or less calcite which is probably always derived from shells or other organic sources. Many accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon have been identified also, while augite, hornblende and other volcanic minerals occur in varying proportion as in all the sediments of the open sea. The depth in which they accumulate varies a good deal, viz. from 200 up to 2000 fathoms, but as a rule is less than 1000 fathoms, and it is believed that the most common situations are where the continental shores slope rather steeply into moderate depths of water. Many of the blue muds, which owe their colour to fine particles of sulphide of iron, contain also a small quantity of glauconite; in Globigerina oozes this substance has also been found, and in fact there exists every gradation between the glauconitic deposits and the other types of sands and muds which are found at similar depths.

The colouring matter is believed in every case to be glauconite. Other ingredients, such as lime, alumina and magnesia are usually shown to be present by the analyses, but may perhaps be regarded as non-essential: it is impossible to isolate this substance in a pure state as it occurs only in fine aggregates, mixed with other minerals. The glauconite, though crystalline, never occurs well crystallized but only as dense clusters of very minute particles which react feebly on polarized light. They have one well-marked characteristic inasmuch as they often form rounded lumps. In many cases it is certain that these are casts, which fill up the interior of empty shells of Foraminifera. They may be seen occupying these shells, and when the shell is dissolved away perfect casts of glauconite are set free. Apparently in some manner not understood, the decaying organic matter in the shell of the dead organism initiated or favoured the chemical reactions by which the glauconite was formed. That the mineral originated on the sea bottom among the sand and mud is quite certainly established by these facts; moreover, since it is so soft and friable that it is easily powdered up by pressure with the fingers, it cannot have been transported from any great distance by currents. Small rounded glauconite lumps, which are common on the sands but show no trace of having filled the chambers of Foraminifera, may have arisen by a re-deposit of broken-down casts such as have been described; probably slight movement of the deposits, occasioned by currents, may have broken up the glauconite casts and scattered the soft material through the water. Films or stains of glauconite on shells, sand grains and phosphate nodules are explained by a similar deposit of fragmental glauconite.

In a small number of Tertiary and older rocks glauconite occurs as an essential component. It is found in the Pliocene sands of Holland, the Eocene sands of Paris and the “Molasse” of Switzerland, but is much more abundant in the Lower Cretaceous rocks of N. Europe, especially in the subdivision known as the Greensand. Rounded lumps and casts like those of the green sands of the present day are plentiful in these rocks, and it is obvious that the mode of formation was in all respects the same. The green sand when weathered is brown or rusty coloured, the glauconite being oxidized to limonite. Calcareous sands or impure limestones with glauconite are also by no means rare, an example being the well-known Kentish Rag. In the Chalk-rock and Chalk-marl of some parts of England glauconite is rather frequent, and glauconitic chalk is known also in the north of France. Among the oldest rocks which contain this mineral are the Lower Silurian of the St Petersburg district, but it is very rare in the Palaeozoic formations, possibly because it undergoes crystalline change and is also liable to be oxidized and converted into other ferruginous minerals. It has been suggested that certain deposits of iron ores may owe their origin to deposits of glauconite, as for example those of the Mesabi range, Minnesota, U.S.A.

(J. S. F.)

GLAUCOUS(Gr.γλαυκός, bright, gleaming), a word meaning of a sea-green colour, in botany covered with bloom, like a plum or a cabbage-leaf.

GLAUCUS(“bright”), the name of several figures in Greek mythology, the most important of which are the following:

1.Glaucus, surnamedPontius, a sea divinity. Originally a fisherman and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, having eaten of a certain magical herb sown by Cronus, he leapt into the sea, where he was changed into a god, and endowed with the gift of unerring prophecy. According to others he sprang into the sea for love of the sea-god Melicertes, with whom he was often identified (Athenaeus vii. 296). He was worshipped not only at Anthedon, but on the coasts of Greece, Sicily and Spain, where fishermen and sailors at certain seasons watched for his arrival during the night in order to consult him (Pausanias ix. 22). In art he is depicted as a vigorous old man with long hair and beard, his body terminating in a scaly tail, his breast covered with shells and seaweed. He was said to have been the builder and pilot of the Argo, and to have been changed into a god after the fight between the Argonauts and Tyrrhenians. He assisted the expedition in various ways (Athenaeus,loc. cit.; see also Ovid,Metam.xiii. 904). Glaucus was the subject of a satyric drama by Aeschylus. He was famous for his amours, especially those with Scylla and Circe.

See the exhaustive monograph by R. Gaedechens,Glaukos der Meergott(1860), and article by the same in Roscher’sLexikon der Mythologie; and for Glaucus and Scylla, E. Vinet inAnnali dell’ Instituto di Correspondenza archeologica, xv. (1843).

2.Glaucus, usually surnamedPotnieus, from Potniae near Thebes, son of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon. According to the legend he was torn to pieces by his own mares (Virgil,Georgics, iii. 267; Hyginus,Fab.250, 273). On the isthmus of Corinth, and also at Olympia and Nemea, he was worshipped as Taraxippus (“terrifier of horses”), his ghost being said to appear and frighten the horses at the games (Pausanias vi. 20). He is closely akin to Glaucus Pontius, the frantic horses of the one probably representing the stormy waves, the other the sea in its calmer mood. He also was the subject of a lost drama of Aeschylus.

3.Glaucus, the son of Minos and Pasiphaë. When a child, while playing at ball or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of honey and was smothered. His father, after a vain search for him, consulted the oracle, and was referred to the person who should suggest the aptest comparison for one of the cows of Minos which had the power of assuming three different colours. Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a mulberry (or bramble), which changes from white to red and then to black, soon afterwards discovered the child; but on his confessing his inability to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the corpse. Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion, which laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus brought the dead Glaucus back to life. According to others, he owed his recovery to Aesculapius. The story was the subject of plays by the three great Greek tragedians, and was often represented in mimic dances.

See Hyginus,Fab.136; Apollodorus iii. 3. 10; C. Höck,Kreta, iii. 1829; C. Eckermann,Melampus, 1840.

4.Glaucus, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon, mythical progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian prince who, along with his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in the Trojan War. When he found himself opposed to Diomedes, with whom he was connected by ties of hospitality, they ceased fighting and exchanged armour. Since the equipment of Glaucus was golden and that of Diomedes brazen, the expression “golden for brazen” (Iliad, vi. 236) came to be used proverbially for a bad exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain by Ajax.

All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch and Gruber’sAllgemeine Encyclopädie.

GLAZING.—The business of the glazier may be confined to the mere fitting and setting of glass (q.v.), even the cutting up of the plates into squares being generally an independent art, requiring a degree of tact and judgment not necessarily possessed by the building artificer. The tools generally used by the glazier are the diamond for cutting, laths or straight edges, tee square, measuring rule, glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer, duster, sash tool, two-foot rule and a glazier’s cradle for carrying the glass. Glaziers’ materials are glass, putty, priming or paint, springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door panels, size, black. The glass is supplied by the manufacturer and cut to the sizes required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is made of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs of ½ or 1 cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over, and when found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil should be put on it to keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of paint with a small amount of red lead in it. In the majority of cases after the sashes for the windows are fitted they are sent to the glazier’s and primed and glazed, and then returned to the job and hung in their proper positions. When priming sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed, else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted requires before being primed to have the knots coated with knotting. When the priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted into its place; each pane should fit easily with about1⁄16th in. play all round. The glazier runs the putty round the rebates with his hands, and then beds the glass in it, pushing it down tight, and then further secures it by knocking in small nails, called glaziers’ sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims up the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on the rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash is then ready for painting. Large squares and plate glass are usually inserted when the sashes are hung to avoid risks of breakage. For inside work the panes of glass are generally secured with beads (not with putty), and in the best work these beads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow of easy removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint, &c. In the case of glass in door panels where there is much vibration and slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather or india-rubber and secured with beads as before mentioned.

The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet in varying thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz. per sq. ft. This can be had in several qualities of EnglishVarieties of glass.or foreign manufacture. But there are many other varieties—obscured, fluted, enamelled, coloured and ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate, patent plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and a variety of figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass with bulls’-eyes in the centre.

Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares of glass, which are held together by reticulations of lead; these are secured by means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which are let into mortices in the wood frames or stone jambs. This is formed with strips of lead, soldered at the angles; the glass is placed between the strips and the lead flattened over the edges of glass to secure it. This is much used in public buildings and private residences. In Weldon’s method the saddle bars are bedded in the centre of the strips of lead, thus strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better appearance.

Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate, usually ¼ in. thick, has wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling in the case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern and skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public and warehouse buildings, in accordance with the London Building Act. It is also used for the decks of ships and for port and cabin lights, as it is much stronger than plain glass, and if fractured is held together by the wire.

Patent prismatic rolled glass, or “refrax” (fig. 1), consists of an effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism; it absorbs all the light that strikes the window opening, and diffuses it in the most efficient manner possible in the darkest portions of the apartment. It can be fixed in the ordinary way or placed over the existing glass.

Pavement lights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed with iron frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic glass, and are used to light basements. They are placed on the pavement and under shop fronts in the portion called the stallboard, and are also inserted in iron coal plates.

Great skill has of late years been displayed in the ornamentation of glass such as is seen in public saloons, restaurants, &c., as, for instance, in bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting, embossing, bending, cutting shelving to fancy shapes and polishing, and in glass ventilators.

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