Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, leading to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere down to the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips of beach. There are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the northern, central and southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.; while extensive and fertile plains lie between them. The northern range usually called the Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape Samana on the east to Cape Fragata on the west. It has a mean elevation of 3000 ft., culminating in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 ft.), near the centre of the range. The central range runs from Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m. in an oblique direction from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island it broadens and forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra del Cibao, constituting the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving first S.W., then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition to these there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to the backbone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on some lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the highestelevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the city of Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is the Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle (8900 ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos is the largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from the river Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is perfectly level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the rearing of cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, as it was called by Columbus, which lies between the Cibao and Monti Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay, a distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre by a range of hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The northern part of this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago. Most of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in part savanna, in part wooded, and all very fertile.There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui, falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows, and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, also rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. In the mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, rise the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, flows into Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels for some distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through the valley of its name into the Gulf of Gonaïve. Of the smaller rivers the Ozama, on which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the most important. The greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, at a height of 300 ft. above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. broad and very deep. Though 25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, and the Haitian negroes call it Etang Salé. After heavy rains it occasionally forms a continuous sheet of water with another lake called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre, which is 16 m. long by 4 m. broad; on these occasions the united lake has a total length of 60 m. and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. Farther S. is the Icoten de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a fresh-water lake with no visible outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and Miragoane. There are no active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not infrequent.Geology.—The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, and large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. It is possible that the schists that have been observed in some parts of the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest rocks in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous System, and the geological sequence is very similar to that of Jamaica. Excluding the schists of doubtful age, the series begins with sandstones and conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, granite, diorite, &c.; and these are overlaid by marls, clays and limestones containingHippurites. Then follows a series of sandstones, clays and limestones with occasional seams of lignite, evidently of shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to the Eocene, and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid down in a deeper sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier beds of Jamaica (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and marls composed largely of corals and molluscs, which are probably of very late Tertiary or Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the island has been more thoroughly examined, the correlation of the various Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits must remain doubtful. Some of the beds which Hill has placed in the Eocene have been referred by earlier writers to the Miocene. Tippenhauer describes extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene age.Fauna and Flora.—The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and pigeons. Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are numerous, and insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, scorpions and centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and rivers, and the waters teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, hogs and dogs, descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at large on the plains and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much sport to the natives, who hunt them with dogs trained for the purpose.In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled by any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees grow in perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. Among indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, ginger, native indigo (indigo marronorsauvage), arrowroot, manioc or cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam and sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane, coffee, indigo (calledindigo franc, to distinguish it from the native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit, mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. Most of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, but the mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become almost a necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise become common, but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich in woods, especially in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are mahogany, manchineel, satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood (Canella alba), yellow acoma (Sideroxylon mastichodendron) and gri-gri; and among the latter are Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and sassafras. On the mountains are extensive forests of pine and a species of oak; and in various parts occur the locust, ironwood, cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and many kinds of palms.Climate.—Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet and dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy season lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the island, so that there is never a season when rain is general. The mountain districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy dews, while other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered position the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In summer the temperature there ranges between 80° and 95° F. and in winter between 70° and 80° F. Even in the highlands the mercury never falls below 45° F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds are from the east.
Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, leading to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere down to the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips of beach. There are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the northern, central and southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.; while extensive and fertile plains lie between them. The northern range usually called the Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape Samana on the east to Cape Fragata on the west. It has a mean elevation of 3000 ft., culminating in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 ft.), near the centre of the range. The central range runs from Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m. in an oblique direction from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island it broadens and forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra del Cibao, constituting the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving first S.W., then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition to these there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to the backbone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on some lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the highestelevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the city of Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is the Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle (8900 ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos is the largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from the river Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is perfectly level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the rearing of cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, as it was called by Columbus, which lies between the Cibao and Monti Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay, a distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre by a range of hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The northern part of this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago. Most of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in part savanna, in part wooded, and all very fertile.
There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui, falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows, and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, also rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. In the mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, rise the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, flows into Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels for some distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through the valley of its name into the Gulf of Gonaïve. Of the smaller rivers the Ozama, on which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the most important. The greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, at a height of 300 ft. above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. broad and very deep. Though 25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, and the Haitian negroes call it Etang Salé. After heavy rains it occasionally forms a continuous sheet of water with another lake called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre, which is 16 m. long by 4 m. broad; on these occasions the united lake has a total length of 60 m. and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. Farther S. is the Icoten de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a fresh-water lake with no visible outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and Miragoane. There are no active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not infrequent.
Geology.—The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, and large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. It is possible that the schists that have been observed in some parts of the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest rocks in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous System, and the geological sequence is very similar to that of Jamaica. Excluding the schists of doubtful age, the series begins with sandstones and conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, granite, diorite, &c.; and these are overlaid by marls, clays and limestones containingHippurites. Then follows a series of sandstones, clays and limestones with occasional seams of lignite, evidently of shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to the Eocene, and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid down in a deeper sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier beds of Jamaica (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and marls composed largely of corals and molluscs, which are probably of very late Tertiary or Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the island has been more thoroughly examined, the correlation of the various Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits must remain doubtful. Some of the beds which Hill has placed in the Eocene have been referred by earlier writers to the Miocene. Tippenhauer describes extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene age.
Fauna and Flora.—The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and pigeons. Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are numerous, and insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, scorpions and centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and rivers, and the waters teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, hogs and dogs, descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at large on the plains and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much sport to the natives, who hunt them with dogs trained for the purpose.
In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled by any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees grow in perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. Among indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, ginger, native indigo (indigo marronorsauvage), arrowroot, manioc or cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam and sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane, coffee, indigo (calledindigo franc, to distinguish it from the native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit, mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. Most of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, but the mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become almost a necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise become common, but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich in woods, especially in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are mahogany, manchineel, satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood (Canella alba), yellow acoma (Sideroxylon mastichodendron) and gri-gri; and among the latter are Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and sassafras. On the mountains are extensive forests of pine and a species of oak; and in various parts occur the locust, ironwood, cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and many kinds of palms.
Climate.—Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet and dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy season lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the island, so that there is never a season when rain is general. The mountain districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy dews, while other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered position the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In summer the temperature there ranges between 80° and 95° F. and in winter between 70° and 80° F. Even in the highlands the mercury never falls below 45° F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds are from the east.
The Republic of Haiti.—Haiti is divided into two parts, the negro republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, while the remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the Dominican Republic. Between these two governments there exists the strongest political antipathy.
Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m., the republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most interesting communities in the world, as it is the earliest and most successful example of a state peopled, and governed on a constitutional model, by negroes. At its head is a president assisted by two chambers, the members of which are elected and hold office under a constitution of 1889. This constitution, thoroughly republican in form, is French in origin, as are also the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti. In practice, however, the government resolves itself into a military despotism, the power being concentrated in the hands of the president. The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive and civilized nation can desire, but corruption is spread through every portion and branch of the government. Justice is venal, and the police are brutal and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman Catholic has been the state religion, but all classes of society seem to be permeated with a thinly disguised adherence to the horrid rites of Voodoo (q.v.), although this has been strenuously denied. The country is divided into 5départements, 23arrondissementsand 67communes. Eachdépartementandarrondissementis governed by a general in the army. The army numbers about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small vessels. Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the church. The Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have schools at Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical and a law school. The children of the wealthier classes are usually sent to France for their education. The unit of money is thegourde, the nominal value of which is the same as the American dollar, but it is subject to great fluctuations. The revenue is almost entirely derived from customs, paid both on imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and enterprise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed condition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, flour, salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions. The exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, honey, tobacco and sugar. The island is one of the most fertile in the world, and if it had an enlightened and stable government, an energetic people, and a little capital, its agricultural possibilities would seem to be endless. Communications are bad; the roads constructed during the French occupation have degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast service of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, more foreign steamships visiting this island than any other in the West Indies. A railway from Port-au-Prince runs through the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28 m. to Manneville on the Etang Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to La Grande Rivière, 15 m. distant.
The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the mulattoes, who form about 10% of the population, being a rapidly diminishing and much-hated class. The negroes are a kindly, hospitable people, but ignorant and lazy. They havea passion for dancing weird African dances to the accompaniment of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor legally prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The people generally speak a curious but not unattractivepatoisof French origin, known as Creole. French is the official language, and by a few of the educated natives it is written and spoken in its purity. On the whole it must be owned that, after a century of independence and self-government, the Haitian people have made no progress, if they have not actually shown signs of retrogression. The chief towns ate Port-au-Prince (pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000), Gonaïve (18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-Souci and of the fortress of La Ferrière, built by King Henri Christophe (1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m. inland from Cap Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne (22,000) and La Croix des Bouquets (20,000) are the largest towns in the interior. The entire population of the republic is about 1,500,000.
History.—The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by Columbus, who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the 6th of December 1492. The natives called the country Haiti (mountainous country), and Quisquica (vast country). Columbus named it Espagnola (Little Spain), which was latinized into Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the island was inhabited by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by the Spaniards as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They were, however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as early as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants of whom now possess the land. Six years after its discovery Columbus had explored the interior of the island, founded the present capital, and had established flourishing settlements at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega, Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines had been opened up, and advances made in agriculture. Sugar was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the staple product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English, driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of Tortuga, where they became formidable under the name of Buccaneers. They soon obtained a footing on the mainland of Haiti, and by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied was ceded to France. This new colony, named Saint Dominique, subsequently attained a high degree of prosperity, and was in a flourishing state when the French Revolution broke out in 1789. The population was then composed of whites, free coloured people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the whites; and in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them all the privileges of French citizens. The whites at once adopted the most violent measures, and petitioned the home government to reverse the decree, which was accordingly revoked. In August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out into insurrection, and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A period of turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty. Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to settle the dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the abolition of slavery, they could effect nothing. To add further to the troubles of the colony, it was invaded by a British force, which, in spite of the climate and the opposition of the colonists, succeeded in maintaining itself until driven out in 1798 by Toussaint l’Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in 1795, France had acquired the title to the entire island.
By 1801, Toussaint l’Ouverture, an accomplished negro of remarkable military genius, had succeeded in restoring order. He then published, subject to the approval of France, a form of constitutional government, under which he was to be governor for life. This step, however, roused the suspicions of Bonaparte, then first consul, who determined to reduce the colony and restore slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, with 25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and often ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn guarantees on the part of the French, laid down his arms. He was seized and sent to France, where he died in prison in 1803. The blacks, infuriated by this act of treachery, renewed the struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines (1758-1806), with a barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The French, further embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were only too glad to evacuate the island in November 1803.
The opening of the following year saw the declaration of independence, and the restoration of the aboriginal name of Haiti. Dessalines, made governor for life, inaugurated his rule with a bloodthirsty massacre of all the whites. In October 1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was crowned with great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for by several chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820), established himself in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Pétion (1770-1818) took possession of the southern part. The Spaniards re-established themselves in the eastern part of the island, retaining the French name, modified to Santo Domingo. Civil war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and Pétion, but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I.; but his cruelty caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Pétion was succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850), who, after Christophe’s death, made himself master of all the French part of the island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island proclaimed its independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking advantage of dissensions there, invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion of the whole island fell into his hands. Boyer held the presidency of the new government, which was called the republic of Haiti, until 1843, when he was driven from the island by a revolution. In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again asserted their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was established, and from that time the two political divisions have been maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed revolution, and president succeeded president, in rapid succession. Order, however, was established in 1849, when Soulouque, who had previously obtained the presidency, proclaimed himself emperor, under the title of Faustin I. After a reign of nine years he was deposed and exiled, the republic being restored under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was forced to flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre Salnave, who, after a presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-Saget (1870), Dominique (1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876) followed, each to be driven into exile by revolution. The next president, Salomon, maintained himself in office for ten years, but he too was driven from the country and died in exile. Civil war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Légitime and Hippolyte, and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant presidency. He ruled with the most absolute authority till his death in 1896. General Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled till his flight to Paris in 1902. The usual civil war ensued, and after nine months of turmoil, order was restored by the election of Nord Alexis in December 1902.
Alexis’ administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by many disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there was an attack by native soldiery on the French and German representatives, and punishment was exacted by these powers. In December 1904 ex-president Sam, his wife and members of his ministry were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a conspiracy against the government was reported and the ringleaders were sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread, and Gonaïve and St Marc and other places were reported to be in the hands of the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken, the rising was checked, and Alexis announced the pardon of the revolutionaries. In March, however, this pacific policy was reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were summarily executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In Septemberthe criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default, a large number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the year, and in November revolution broke out again. General Antoine Simon raised his standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection was rife among the government troops, who deserted to him in great numbers. On the 2nd of December Port-au-Prince was occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries, and Alexis took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and finding refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica, in circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered that a plot was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was threatened.
Authorities.—B. Edwards,Hist. Survey of the Island of S. Domingo(London, 1801); Jordan,Geschichte der Insel Haiti(Leipzig, 1846); Linstant Pradin,Recueil général des lois et actes du gouvernement d’Haiti(Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand,Hist. des révolutions d’Haiti(Paris, 1859); Sam. Hazard,Santo Domingo, Past and Present(London, 1873), with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John,Haiti, or the Black Republic(London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer,Die Insel Haiti(Leipzig, 1893); Marcelin,Haiti, études économiques, sociales, et politiques; andHaiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes(Paris, 1893); Hesketh Pritchard,Where Black Rules White(London, 1900). For geology, see W. M. Gabb, “On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo,”Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp. 49-259, with map; L. G. Tippenhauer,Die Insel Haiti(Leipzig, 1893); see also several articles by L. G. Tippenhauer inPeterm. Mitt.1899 and 1901. A comparison with the Jamaican succession will be found in R. T. Hill, “The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica,”Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).
Authorities.—B. Edwards,Hist. Survey of the Island of S. Domingo(London, 1801); Jordan,Geschichte der Insel Haiti(Leipzig, 1846); Linstant Pradin,Recueil général des lois et actes du gouvernement d’Haiti(Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand,Hist. des révolutions d’Haiti(Paris, 1859); Sam. Hazard,Santo Domingo, Past and Present(London, 1873), with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John,Haiti, or the Black Republic(London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer,Die Insel Haiti(Leipzig, 1893); Marcelin,Haiti, études économiques, sociales, et politiques; andHaiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes(Paris, 1893); Hesketh Pritchard,Where Black Rules White(London, 1900). For geology, see W. M. Gabb, “On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo,”Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp. 49-259, with map; L. G. Tippenhauer,Die Insel Haiti(Leipzig, 1893); see also several articles by L. G. Tippenhauer inPeterm. Mitt.1899 and 1901. A comparison with the Jamaican succession will be found in R. T. Hill, “The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica,”Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).
HAJIPUR,a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district of Bengal, on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the Ganges opposite Patna. Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures conspicuously in the history of the struggles between Akbar and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal, being twice besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and 1574. Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Hājī Ilyās, its traditional founder (c.1350). Its command of water traffic in three directions makes the town a place of considerable commercial importance. Hajipur has a station on the main line of the Bengal and North-western railway.
HAJJorHadj, the Arabic word, meaning literally a “setting out,” for the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, which takes place from the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month of the Mahommedan year; the lesser pilgrimage, calledumrahoromra, may be made to the mosque at Mecca at any time other than that of the hajj proper, and is also a meritorious act. The termhajjiorhadjiis given to those who have performed the greater pilgrimage. The wordhajjis sometimes loosely used of any Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is also applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem (seeMecca;Mahommedan Religion).
HĀJJĪ KHALĪFA[in full Muṣṭafā ibn ‘Abdallāh Kātib Chelebī Hājjī Khalīfa] (ca.1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish author, was born at Constantinople. He became secretary to the commissariat department of the Turkish army in Anatolia, was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was present at the siege of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628. In the following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadān, and in 1633 at Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence his title Hājjī). The following year he was in Erivān and then returned to Constantinople. Here he obtained a post in the head office of the commissariat department, which afforded him time for study. He seems to have attended the lectures of great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a practice of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all books he found there. His largest work is theBibliographical Encyclopaediawritten in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian and Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in alphabetical order. With the titles are given, where possible, short notes on the author, his date, and sometimes the introductory words of his work. It was edited by G. Flügel with Latin translation and a useful appendix (7 vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858). The text alone of this edition has been reproduced at Constantinople (1893).
Hājjī Khalīfa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus of general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice, 1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655 (Constantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks (Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, London, 1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 1732 (Latin trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German trans. of part by J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of part by V. de St Martin in hisGeography of Asia Minor, vol. I).For his life see the preface to Flügel’s edition; list of his works in C. Brockelmann’sGesch. d. arabischen Literatur(Berlin, 1902), vol. ii., pp. 428-429.
Hājjī Khalīfa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus of general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice, 1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655 (Constantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks (Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, London, 1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 1732 (Latin trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German trans. of part by J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of part by V. de St Martin in hisGeography of Asia Minor, vol. I).
For his life see the preface to Flügel’s edition; list of his works in C. Brockelmann’sGesch. d. arabischen Literatur(Berlin, 1902), vol. ii., pp. 428-429.
(G. W. T.)
HAKE, EDWARD(fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated under John Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of the Psalms. He resided in Gray’s Inn and Barnard’s Inn, London. In the address “To the Gentle Reader” prefixed to hisNewes out of Powles Churchyard ... Otherwise entitled Syr Nummus(2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the “first three yeeres which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a dosen of yeeres passed.” In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of New Windsor, and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament. His last work was published in 1604. He was protected by the earl of Leicester, whose policy it was to support the Puritan party, and who no doubt found a valuable ally in so vigorous a satirist of error in clerical places as was Hake.Newes out of Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye, first appeared in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it was re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes the form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in the aisles of the cathedral, and is divided into eight “satyrs,” dealing with the corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, the greed of attorneys, the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, the sumptuary laws, extravagant living, Sunday sports, the abuse of St Paul’s cathedral as a meeting-place for business and conversation, usury, &c. It is written in rhymed fourteen-syllable metre, which is often more comic than the author intended. It contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the “carping and scornefull Sicophant,” in which he attacks his enemies with small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a “carping careless cankerd churle.”
He also wrote a translation from Thomas à Kempis,The Imitation, or Following of Christ(1567, 1568);A Touchstone for this Time Present(1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church, followed by a treatise on education;A Commemoration of the ... Raigne of ... Elizabeth(1575), enlarged in 1578 toA Joyfull Continuance of the Commemoration, &c.; and ofGold’s Kingdom, and this Unhelping Age(1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse, in which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography of these and of Hake’s other works was compiled by Mr Charles Edmonds for his edition in 1872 of theNewes(Isham Reprints, No. 2, 1872).
He also wrote a translation from Thomas à Kempis,The Imitation, or Following of Christ(1567, 1568);A Touchstone for this Time Present(1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church, followed by a treatise on education;A Commemoration of the ... Raigne of ... Elizabeth(1575), enlarged in 1578 toA Joyfull Continuance of the Commemoration, &c.; and ofGold’s Kingdom, and this Unhelping Age(1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse, in which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography of these and of Hake’s other works was compiled by Mr Charles Edmonds for his edition in 1872 of theNewes(Isham Reprints, No. 2, 1872).
HAKE, THOMAS GORDON(1800-1895), English poet, was born at Leeds, of an old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March 1809. His mother was a Gordon of the Huntly branch. He studied medicine at St George’s hospital and at Edinburgh and Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years before his death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he published a prose epicVates, republished in Ainsworth’s magazine asValdarno, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. In after years he became an intimate member of the circle of friends and followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far departed from his usual custom as to review Hake’s poems in theAcademyand in theFortnightly Review. In 1871 he publishedMadeline; 1872,Parables and Tales; 1883,The Serpent Play; 1890,New Day Sonnets; and in 1892 hisMemoirs of Eighty Years. Dr Hake’s works had much subtlety and felicity of expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat restricted literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he shows an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and died on the 11th of January 1895.
HAKE(Merluccius vulgaris), a fish which differs from the cod in having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common on the coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh is much less esteemed than that of the trueGadi. Specimens 4 ft. in length are not scarce. There are local variations in the use of “hake” as a name; in America the “silver hake” (Merluccius bilinearis), sometimes called “whiting,” and “Pacific hake” (Merluccius productus) are also food-fishes of inferior quality.
HAKKAS(“Guests,” or “Strangers”), a people of S.W. China, chiefly found in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. Their origin is doubtful, but there is some ground for believing that they may be a cross between the aboriginal Mongolic element of northern China and the Chinese proper. According to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China as early as the 3rd centuryB.C.In disposition, appearance and customs they differ from the true Chinese. They speak a distinct dialect. Their women, who are prettier than the pure Chinese, do not compress their feet, and move freely about in public. The Hakkas are a most industrious people and furnish at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by Europeans. Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have been of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries between the Chinese and European traders and the natives. From time immemorial they seem to have been persecuted by the Chinese, whom they regard as “foreigners,” and with whom their means of communication is usually “pidgin English.” The earliest persecution occurred under the “first universal emperor” of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210B.C.). From this time the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes for generations they were permitted to live unmolested, as under the Han dynasty, when some of them held high official posts. During the Tang dynasty (7th, 8th, and 9th centuries) they settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on the frontiers of Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. In the 14th century further persecutions drove them into Kwang-Tung.
See “An Outline History of the Hakkas,”China Review(London, 1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, “On the Origin and History of the Hakkas,” ib.; Dyer Ball,Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect(1884),Things Chinese(London, 1893); Schaub, “Proverbs in Daily Use among the Hakkas,” inChina Review(London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; Rev. J. Edkins,China’s Place in Philology; Girard de Rialle,Rev. d. anthrop.(Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, “The Aborigines of Formosa,”China Review, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, “A Ramble through Southern Formosa.”
See “An Outline History of the Hakkas,”China Review(London, 1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, “On the Origin and History of the Hakkas,” ib.; Dyer Ball,Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect(1884),Things Chinese(London, 1893); Schaub, “Proverbs in Daily Use among the Hakkas,” inChina Review(London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; Rev. J. Edkins,China’s Place in Philology; Girard de Rialle,Rev. d. anthrop.(Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, “The Aborigines of Formosa,”China Review, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, “A Ramble through Southern Formosa.”
HAKLUYT, RICHARD(c.1553-1616), British geographer, was born of good family in or near London about 1553. The Hakluyts were of Welsh extraction, not Dutch as has been supposed. They appear to have settled in Herefordshire as early as the 13th century. The family seat was Eaton, 2 m. S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for that borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster, where he was a queen’s scholar; while there his future bent was determined by a visit to his cousin and namesake, Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His cousin ’s discourse, illustrated by “certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall mappe, and the Bible,” made young Hakluyt resolve to “prosecute that knowledge and kind of literature.” Entering Christ Church, Oxford, in 1570, “his exercises of duty first performed,” he fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that, shortly after taking his M.A. (1577), he began at Oxford the first public lectures in geography that “shewed both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art.” That this was not in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November 1588 by Thomas Hood.
Hakluyt’s first published work was hisDivers Voyages touching the Discoverie of America(London, 1582, 4to.). This brought him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that of Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard’s brother-in-law; accordingly at the age of thirty, being acquainted with “the chiefest captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation,” he was selected as chaplain to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions of Secretary Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information of the Spanish and French movements, and “making diligent inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne discoverie in America.” The first fruits of Hakluyt’s labours in Paris are embodied in his important work entitledA particuler discourse concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, by Richarde Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of the righte worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home of his twoo barkes. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. Its object was to recommend the enterprise of planting the English race in the unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt’s other works consist mainly of translations and compilations, relieved by his dedications and prefaces, which last, with a few letters, are the only material we possess out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584, laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of theDiscourse“along with one in Latin upon Aristotle’sPoliticks,” and obtained, two days before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant prebend at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his other preferments till his death.
While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the MS. journal of Laudonnière, theHistoire notable de la Florida, edited by Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was translated by Hakluyt and published in London under the title ofA notable historie containing foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes into Florida(London, 1587, 4to.). The same yearDe orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades octo illustratae labore et industria Richardi Hackluytisaw the light at Paris. This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle); it is the first on which the name of “Virginia” appears.
In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady Stafford, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first edition of his chief work,The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation(fol., London, 1 vol.). In the preface to this we have the announcement of the intended publication of the first terrestrial globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600 appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition ofThe Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation(fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an exceedingly rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt’s great collection, though but little read, has been truly called the “prose epic of the modern English nation.” It is an invaluable treasure of material for the history of geographical discovery and colonization, which has secured for its editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano,The Discoveries of the World(4to., London). In the same year his name occurs as an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 (April 20th) he had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford, Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he was installed prebendary of Westminster, and in the following year he was elected archdeacon of Westminster. In the licence of his second marriage (30th of March 1604) he is also described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will contains a reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In 1605 he secured the prospective living of James Town, the intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. This benefice he supplied, when the colony was at last established in 1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as oneof the chief promoters of the petition to the king for patents to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer in the London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was a translation of Fernando de Soto’s discoveries in Florida, entitledVirginia richly valued by the description of Florida her next neighbour(London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended to encourage the young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has been said, “England is more indebted for its American possession than to any man of that age.” We may notice that it was at Hakluyt’s suggestion that Robert Parke translated Mendoza’sHistory of China(London, 1588-1589) and John Pory made his version ofLeo Africanus(A Geographical History of Africa, London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and was buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. Out of his various emoluments and preferments (of which the last was Gedney rectory, Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a small fortune, which was squandered by a son. A number of his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted them in an abridged form in hisPilgrimes(1625-1626, fol.). Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which consist chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.
Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (Divers Voyages(1582);Particuler Discourse(1584); Laudonnière’sFlorida(1587); Peter Martyr,Decades(1587);Principal Navigations(1589 and 1598-1600); Galvano’sDiscoveries(1601); De Soto’s Florida record, theVirginia richly valued(1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt Society’s London edition of theDivers Voyagesin 1850, the edition of theParticuler Discourse, by Charles Deane in theCollections of the Maine Historical Society(Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an introduction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of thePrincipal Navigations, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page issued for the first volume of the final edition of thePrincipal Navigations, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen the mistaken supposition that a neweditionwas then (1599) published. Hakluyt’s Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by Admiral C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, includes the Glasgow edition of thePrincipal Navigationsin itsextra series, as well as C. R. Beazley’s edition ofCarpini,Rubruquis, and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.). Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas’sPilgrimesby the Glasgow publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now published or “fathered” 150 vols. See alsoVoyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal Navigations, by E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R. Beazley, 1907).For Hakluyt’s life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions of thePrincipal Navigationsshould be especially consulted; also Winter Jones’s introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of theDivers Voyages; Fuller’sWorthies of England, “Herefordshire”;Oxford Univ. Reg.(Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39;Historical MSS. Commission, 4th report, appendix, p. 614, the last giving us the Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt when at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575.
Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (Divers Voyages(1582);Particuler Discourse(1584); Laudonnière’sFlorida(1587); Peter Martyr,Decades(1587);Principal Navigations(1589 and 1598-1600); Galvano’sDiscoveries(1601); De Soto’s Florida record, theVirginia richly valued(1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt Society’s London edition of theDivers Voyagesin 1850, the edition of theParticuler Discourse, by Charles Deane in theCollections of the Maine Historical Society(Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an introduction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of thePrincipal Navigations, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page issued for the first volume of the final edition of thePrincipal Navigations, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen the mistaken supposition that a neweditionwas then (1599) published. Hakluyt’s Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by Admiral C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, includes the Glasgow edition of thePrincipal Navigationsin itsextra series, as well as C. R. Beazley’s edition ofCarpini,Rubruquis, and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.). Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas’sPilgrimesby the Glasgow publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now published or “fathered” 150 vols. See alsoVoyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal Navigations, by E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R. Beazley, 1907).
For Hakluyt’s life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions of thePrincipal Navigationsshould be especially consulted; also Winter Jones’s introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of theDivers Voyages; Fuller’sWorthies of England, “Herefordshire”;Oxford Univ. Reg.(Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39;Historical MSS. Commission, 4th report, appendix, p. 614, the last giving us the Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt when at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575.
(C. H. C; C. R. B.)
HAKODATE,a town on the south of the island of Yezo, Japan, for many years regarded as the capital of the island until Sapporo was officially raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) 84,746. Its position, as has been frequently remarked, is not unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is built along the north-western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in height) which forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is united to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of the ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate, an inlet of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy of access and spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, and good holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate as a winter port. The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, marine products, sulphur, furs and timber; the staple imports, comestibles (especially salted fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The town is not situated so as to profit largely by the development of the resources of Yezo, and as a port of foreign trade its outlook is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect Hakodate and Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with Tokyo. Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. In the civil war of 1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, but it was recovered by the mikado in 1869.
HAL,a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, situated on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) 13,541. The place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine church of Notre Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This church, a good example of pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and finished in 1409. Its principal ornament is the alabaster altar, by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The bronze font dates from 1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble to the dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by illustrious personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., King Henry VIII. of England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and several popes. The church is chiefly celebrated, however, for its miraculous image of the Virgin. Legend says that during a siege the bullets fired into the town were caught by her in the folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown in a chest that stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a great pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of Belgium, is paid annually to this church. The hôtel de ville dates from 1616 and has been restored with more than ordinary good taste.
HALA,orHalla(formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of British India in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. It has long been famous for its glazed pottery and tiles, made from a fine clay obtained from the Indus, mixed with powdered flints. The town has also a manufacture of susis or striped trouser-cloths.
HALAESA,an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, about 14 m. E. of Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the modern Castel di Tusa, founded in 403B.C.by Archonides, tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes bore: we find,e.g.Halaisa Archonidaon a coin of the time of Augustus (Corp. inscrip. Lat.x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the first town to surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was granted freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely outstripped its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily where an inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the republican period (perhaps in 93B.C.) has come to light.
(T. As.)
HALAKHA,orHalacha(literally “rule of conduct”), the rabbinical development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada it makes up the Talmud and Midrash (q.v.). As the haggada is the poetic, so the halakha is the legal element of the Talmud (q.v.), and arose out of the faction between the Sadducees, who disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who strove to prove their derivation from scripture. Among the chief attempts to codify the halakha were theGreat Rules(Halakhoth Gedoloth) of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written by the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish inquirers in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), theStrong Hand ofMaimonides (1180), and theTable Prepared(Shulḥan Aruch) of Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical scope and its clarity as a work of general reference became the universal handbook of Jewish life in many of its phases.