Chapter 17

See alsoCoursing.

(R. L.*)

HAREBELL(sometimes wrongly writtenHairbell), known also as the blue-bell of Scotland, and witches’ thimbles, a well-known perennial wild flower,Campanula rotundifolia, amember of the natural order Campanulaceae. The harebell has a very slender slightly creeping root-stock, and a wiry, erect stem. The radical leaves, that is, those at the base of the stem, to which the specific namerotundifoliarefers, have long stalks, and are roundish or heart-shaped with crenate or serrate margin; the lower stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and the upper ones linear, subsessile, acute and entire, rarely pubescent. The flowers are slightly drooping, arranged in a panicle, or in small specimens single, having a smooth calyx, with narrow pointed erect segments, the corolla bell-shaped, with slightly recurved segments, and the capsule nodding, and opening by pores at the base. There are two varieties:—(a)genuina, with slender stem leaves, and (b)montana, in which the lower stem-leaves are broader and somewhat elliptical in shape. The plant is found on heaths and pastures throughout Great Britain and flowers in late summer and in autumn; it is widely spread in the north temperate zone. The harebell has ever been a great favourite with poets, and on account of its delicate blue colour has been considered as an emblem of purity.

HAREM,less frequentlyHaramorHarim(Arabharīm—commonly but wrongly pronounced hārĕm—“that which is illegal or prohibited”), the name generally applied to that part of a house in Oriental countries which is set apart for the women; it is also used collectively for the women themselves. Strictly the women’s quarters are theharemlik(lik, belonging to), as opposed toselamlikthe men’s quarters, from which they are in large houses separated by themabein, the private apartments of the householder. The wordharemis strictly applicable to Mahommedan households only, but the system is common in greater or less degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy is permitted. Other names for the women’s quarters are Seraglio (Ital.serraglio, literally an enclosure, from Lat.sera, a bar; wrongly narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion with Turkishserāiorsarāi, palace or large building, cf.caravanserai); Zenana (strictlyzanana, from Persianzan, woman, allied with Gr.γυνή), used specifically of Hindu harems; Andarūn (or Anderoon), the Persian word for the “inner part” (sc.of a house). The Indian harem system is also commonly known aspardahorpurdah, literally the name of the thick curtains or blinds which are used instead of doors to separate the women’s quarters from the rest of the house. A male doctor attending a zenana lady would put his hand between thepurdahto feel her pulse.

The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to the Oriental conception of the sex relation, and its origin must, therefore, be sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set forth in the Koran, which merely regulate a practically universal Eastern custom.1It is inferred from the remains of many ancient Oriental palaces (Babylonian, Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy nobles devoted a special part of the palace to their womankind. Though in comparatively early times there were not wanting men who regarded polygamy as wrong (e.g.the prophets of Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been any real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel of her male relatives. A man may have as many wives and concubines as he can support, but each of these women must be his exclusive property. The object of this insistence upon female chastity is partly the maintenance of the purity of the family with special reference to property, and partly to protect women from marauders, as was the case with the people of India when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for women to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoretically a woman must veil her face to all men except her father, her brother and her husband; any violation of this rule is still regarded by strict Mahommedans as the gravest possible offence, though among certain Moslem communities (e.g.in parts of Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in public unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may lose his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital offence, the husband having absolute power of life and death, to such an extent that, especially in the less civilized parts of the Moslem world, no one would think of questioning a man’s right to mutilate or kill a disobedient wife or concubine.

Turkish Harems.—A good deal of misapprehension, due to ignorance combined with strong prejudice against the whole system, exists in regard to the system in Turkey. It is often assumed, for example, that the sultan’s seraglio is typical, though on a uniquely large scale, of all Turkish households, and as a consequence that every Turk is a polygamist. This is far from being the case, for though the Koran permits four wives, and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of average possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial seraglio separately.

Though the sultan’s household in modern times is by no means as numerous as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul Hamid contained about 1000 women, all of whom were of slave origin. This body of women form an elaborately organized community with a complete system of officers, disciplinary and administrative, and strict distinctions of status. The real ruler of this society is the sultan’s mother, theSultana Validé, who exercises her authority through a female superintendent, theKyahya Khatun. She has also a large retinue of subordinate officials (Kalfas) ranging downwards from theHasnadar ousta(“Lady of the Treasury”) to the “Mistress of the Sherbets” and the “Chief Coffee Server.” Each of these officials has under her a number of pupil-slaves (alaiks), whom she trains to succeed her if need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After the sultana validé (who frequently enjoys considerable political power and is a mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir-apparent; she is called theBash Kadin Effendi(“Her excellency the Chief Lady”), and alsohassekiorkasseky, and is distinguished from the other three chief wives who only bear the titleKadin Effendi. Next come the ladies who have borne the younger children of the sultan, theHanum Effendis, and after them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a perversion ofodalik, fromodah, chamber). These are subdivided, according to the degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or padishah, intoIkbals(“Favourites”) andGeuzdés(literally the “Eyed” ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the course of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother. All the women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is contrary to etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his harem. The numbers are kept up by his female relatives and state officials, the latter of whom present girls annually on the evening before the 15th of Ramadan.

Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch receives adaïra, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of apartments, and a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should be noted that, since all the harem women are slaves, the sultans, with practically no exceptions, have never entered into legal marriage contracts. Any slave, in however menial a position, may be promoted to the position of a kadin effendi. Hence all the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are carefully trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment, dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed in the Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (namaz); a certain number are specially trained in reading and writingfor secretarial work. Discipline is strict, and continued disobedience leads to corporal punishment by the eunuchs. All the women of the harem are absolutely under the control of the sultana validé (who alone of the harem of her dead husband is not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), and owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having to obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her financial secretary, theHaznadar Ousta, succeeds to her power if she dies. The sultan’s foster-mother also is a person of importance, and is known as theTaia Kadin.

The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs both black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the outer gates of the seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach the women’s apartments, and obtain no posts of distinction. Their chief, however, thekapu aghasi(“master of the gates”) has part control over the ecclesiastical possessions, and even the vizier cannot enter the royal apartments without his permission. The black eunuchs have the right of entering the gardens and chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called thekislar aghasi(“master of the maidens”), though his true title isdarus skadet aga(“chief of the abode of felicity”), is an official of high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is deprived of his post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns of his own accord he is generally sent to Egypt with a pension of 100 francs a day. His secretary keeps count of the revenues of the mosques built by the sultans. He is usually succeeded by the second eunuch, who bears the title of treasurer, and has charge of the jewels, &c., of the women. The number of eunuchs is always a large one. The sultana validé and the sultana hasseki have each fifty at their service, and others are assigned to the kadins and the favourite odalisks.

The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very different scale. Theselamlikis on the ground floor with a separate entrance, and there the master of the house receives his male guests; the rest of the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen and perhaps the stables. Theharemlikis generally (in towns at least) on the upper floor fronting on and slightly overhanging the street; it has a separate entrance, courtyard and garden. The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with circular holes through which the women may watch without being seen. Communication with theharemlikis effected by a locked door, of which the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving cupboard (dutap) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture, of the old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs, carpets and mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray of charcoal and wood ash is giving way to American stoves, and there is a tendency to import French furniture and decoration without regard to their suitability.

The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The expense of marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer a slave woman who is much more likely to be an amenable partner. If a slave woman bears a child she is often set free and then the marriage ceremony is gone through.

The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any high ideal of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however, should be noticed. The depravity of the system and the vapid idleness of harem life are much exaggerated by observers whose sympathies are wholly against the system. In point of fact much depends on the individuals. In many households there exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the standard of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman may not be seen in the streets without theyashmakwhich covers her face except for her eyes, and does not leave her house except by her husband’s permission, none the less in ordinary households the harem ladies frequently drive into the country and visit the shops and public baths. Their seclusion has very considerable compensations, and legally they stand on a far better basis in relation to their husbands than do the women of monogamous Christian communities. From the moment when a woman, free or slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man, she has a legally enforceable right against him both for her own and for her children’s maintenance. She has absolute control over her personal property whether in money, slaves or goods; and, if divorce is far easier in Islam than in Christendom, still the marriage settlement must be of such amount as will provide suitable maintenance in that event.

On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest abuse, and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life of Moslem women and slaves is often far different from that of middle class women of European Turkey, where law is strict and culture advanced. The early age at which girls are secluded, the dulness of their surroundings, and the low moral standard which the system produces react unfavourably not only upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem woman is soon passée, and the lot of a woman past her youth, if she is divorced or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This is true especially of child-widows.

Since the middle of the 19th century familiarity with European customs and the direct influence of European administrators has brought about a certain change in the attitude of Orientals to the harem system. This movement is, however, only in its infancy, and the impression is still strong that the time is not ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in general so accustomed to their condition that few have any inclination to change it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any alteration of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent progressed beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women, but no radical reform has been set on foot.

In Indiavarious attempts have been made by societies, missionary and other, as well as by private individuals, to improve the lot of the zenana women. Zenana schools and hospitals have been founded, and a few women have been trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes of protecting the women against their own ignorance and inertia. Thus in 1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was appointed by the Bengal government as legal adviser to the court of wards, so that she might give advice to the widowed mothers of minors within the harem walls. Similarly trained medical women are introduced into zenanas and harems by the Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women. Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for the attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are rigorously kept apart. In India, as in Turkey, the introduction of Western dress and education has begun to create new ideas and ambitions, and not a few Eastern women have induced English women to enter the harems as companions, nurses and governesses. But training and environment are extremely powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so steady, that reform has touched only the fringe of the system.

Among the principal societies which have been formed to better the condition of Indian and Chinese women in general with special reference to the zenana system are the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society and the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. Much information as to the medical, industrial and educational work done by these societies will be found in their annual reports and other publications. Among these are J. K. H. Denny’sToward the Uprising; Irene H. Barnes,Behind the Pardah(1897), an account of the former society’s work; the general condition of Indian women is described in Mrs Marcus B. Fuller’sWrongs of Indian Womanhood(1900), and Maud Dover’sThe Englishwoman in India(1909); see also articleMissions.

Authorities.—The literature of the subject is very large, though a great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A. van Sommer and Zwerner,Our Moslem Sisters(1907), a collection of essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahommedan world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system; Mrs W. M. Ramsay,Everyday Life in Turkey(1897), cc. iv. and v., containing an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar; cf.e.g.art. “Harem” in Hughes,Dictionary of Islam; Mrs S. Harvey’sTurkish Harems and Circassian Homes(1871); forMahomet’s regulations, see R. Bosworth Smith’sMohammed and Mohammedanism(1889); for Egypt, Lane,Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians(1837); and E. Lott,Harem Life in Egypt and Constantinople(1869); for the sultan’s household in the 18th century, Lady Wortley Montagu’sLetters, with which may be compared S. Lane-Poole,Turkey(ed. 1909); G. Dorys,La Femme turque(1902); especially Lucy M. J. Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie),The Women of Turkey(London, 1901), andThe Turkish People(London, 1909). For the attempts which have been made to modify and improve the Indian zenana system, seee.g.the reports of the Dufferin Association and other official publications. Other information will be found in Hoffman’s article in Ersch and Gruber’sEncyclopädie; Flandin inRevue des deux mondes(1852) on the harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim Mirza; the count de Beauvoir, inVoyage round the World(1870), on Javanese and Siamese harems; Häntzsche inZeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde(Berlin, 1864).

(J. M. M.)

1In Africa also, among the non-Mahommedan negroes of the west coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanza, the seclusion of women of the upper classes has been practised in states (e.g.Ashanti and Buganda) possessing a considerable degree of civilization.

HARFLEUR,a port of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, about 6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864. It lies in the fertile valley of the Lézarde, at the foot of wooded hills not far from the north bank of the estuary of the Seine. The port, which had been rendered almost inaccessible owing to the deposits of the Lézarde, again became available on the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) connecting it with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing 18 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on a branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and carries on fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remarkable building in the town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a landmark for the pilots of the river. It dates from the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great portal is the work of the 17th, and the whole has undergone modern restoration. Of the old castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a fine park, stands the present castle, a building of the 17th century. The old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories, and the fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There is a statue of Jean de Grouchy, lord of Montérollier, under whose leadership the English were expelled from the town in 1435. The industries include distilling, metal founding and the manufacture of oil and grease.

Harfleur is identified withCaracotinum, the principal port of the ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name, Herosfloth, Harofluet or Hareflot, was still sufficiently uncorrupted to indicate its Norman derivation, it was the principal seaport of north-western France. In 1415 it was captured by Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 the people of the district of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the inhabitants opened the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got rid of the foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated by the bells of St Martin’s tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445 and 1449 the English were again in possession; but the town was recovered for the French by Dunois. In the 16th century the port began to dwindle in importance owing to the silting up of the Seine estuary and the rise of Havre. In 1562 the Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers and charters perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored by Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 1710 that it was subjected to the “taille.”

HARIANA,a tract of country in the Punjab, India, once the seat of a flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level upland plain, interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely overgrown with brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates the fields of a large number of its villages. Since the 14th century Hissar has been the local capital. During the troubled period which followed on the decline of the Mogul empire, Hariana formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, Bhattis and Sikhs met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole country was devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who established his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed by Sindhia’s French general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed under British rule. On the conquest of the Punjab Hariana was broken up into the districts of Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa, which last has in its turn been divided between Hissar and Ferozepore.

HARINGTON, SIR JOHN(1561-1612), English writer, was born at Kelston, near Bath, in 1561. His father, John Harington, acquired considerable estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural daughter of Henry VIII., and after his wife’s death he was attached to the service of the Princess Elizabeth. He married Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary’s accession he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the princess. John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth’s godson. He studied at Eton and at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author ofGammer Gurton’s Needle. He came up to London about 1583 and was entered at Lincoln’s Inn, but his talents marked him out for success at court rather than for a legal career. Tradition relates that he translated the story of Giocondo from Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat at Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work.Orlando Furiosoin English heroical verse was published in 1591 and reprinted in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff of Somerset in 1592 and received Elizabeth at his house during her western progress of 1591. In 1596 he published in successionThe Metamorphosis of Ajax,An Anatomie of the Metamorphosed Ajax, andUlysses upon Ajax, the three forming collectively a very absurd and indecorous work of a Pantagruelistic kind. An allusion to Leicester in this book threw the writer into temporary disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to serve in Ireland under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the annoyance of Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in Essex’s disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign which increased Elizabeth’s anger against the unfortunate earl. Among some papers found in the chapter library at York was aTract on the Succession to the Crown(1602), written by Harington to secure the favour of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of a lantern constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late queen and James’s own splendour. This pamphlet, which contains many details of great interest about Elizabeth and gives an unprejudiced sketch of the religious question, was edited for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir Clements Markham. Harington’s efforts to win favour at the new court were unsuccessful. In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of Ireland and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which he preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879 with the title ofA Short View of the State of Ireland written in 1605. Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of generosity and conciliation towards that country. He eventually succeeded in obtaining a position as one of the tutors of Prince Henry, for whom he annotated Francis Godwin’sDe praesulibus Angliae. Harington’s grandson, John Chetwind, found in this somewhat scandalous production an argument for the Presbyterian side, and published it in 1653, under the title ofA Briefe View of the State of the Church, &c.

Harington died at Kelston on the 20th of November 1612. HisEpigramswere printed in a collection entitledAlciliain 1613, and separately in 1615. The translation of theOrlando Furiosowas carried out with skill and perseverance. It is not to be supposed that Harington failed to realize the ironic quality of his original, but he treated it as a serious allegory to suit the temper of Queen Elizabeth’s court. He was neither a very exact scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he cannot be named in the same breath with Fairfax. TheOrlando Furiosowas sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed anApologie of Poetrie, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among other technical matters, the author’s use of disyllabic and trisyllabic rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington from various Italian sources. Harington’s Rabelaisian pamphlets show that he was almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy, and his epigrams are sometimes smart and always easy. His works includeThe Englishman’s Doctor, Or the School of Salerne(1608), andNugae antiquae, miscellaneous papers collected in 1779.

A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe Club edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above.

ḤARĪRĪ[Abū Maḥommed ul-Qāsim ibn ’Ali ibn Maḥommed al-Ḥarīrī,]i.e.“the manufacturer or seller of silk”] (1054-1122), Arabian writer, was born at Baṣra. He owned a large estate with 18,000 date-palms at Mashān, a village near Baṣra. He is said to have occupied a government position, but devoted his life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic language. On this subject he wrote a grammatical poem theMulḥat ul-‘Irāb(French trans.Les Récréations grammaticaleswith notes by L. Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy’sAnthologie arabe, pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the educated calledḌurrat ul-Ghawwās(ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, 1871), and some smaller treatises such as the two letters on words containing the letterssinandshin(ed. in Arnold’sChrestomathy, pp. 202-9). But his fame rests chiefly on his fiftymaqāmas(seeArabia:Literature, section “Belles Lettres”). These were written in rhymed prose like those of Hamadhānī, and are full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and tradition, and discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and rhetoric.

The Maqāmas have been edited with Arabic commentary by S. de Sacy (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and J. Derenbourg, Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass (London, 1896). An English translation with notes was made by T. Preston (London, 1850), and another by T. Chenery and F. Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). Many editions have been published in the East with commentaries, especially with that of Sharīshī (d. 1222).

(G. W. T.)

HARI-RUD,a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the northern slopes of the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, and finally loses itself in the Tejend oasis north of the Trans-Caspian railway and west of Merv. It runs a remarkably straight course westward through a narrow trough from Daolatyar to Obeh, amidst the bleak wind-swept uplands of the highest central elevations in Afghanistan. From Obeh to Kuhsan 50 m. west of Herat, it forms a valley of great fertility, densely populated and highly cultivated; practically all its waters being drawn off for purposes of irrigation. It is the contrast between the cultivated aspect of the valley of Herat and the surrounding desert that has given Herat its great reputation for fertility. Three miles to the south of Herat the Kandahar road crosses the river by a masonry bridge of 26 arches now in ruins. A few miles below Herat the river begins to turn north-west, and after passing through a rich country to Kuhsan, it turns due north and breaks through the Paropamisan hills. Below Kuhsan it receives fresh tributaries from the west. Between Kuhsan and Zulfikar it forms the boundary between Afghanistan and Persia, and from Zulfikar to Sarakhs between Russia and Persia. North of Sarakhs it diminishes rapidly in volume till it is lost in the sands of the Turkman desert. The Hari-Rud marks the only important break existing in the continuity of the great central water-parting of Asia. It is the ancient Arius.

(T. H. H.*)

HARISCHANDRA,in Hindu mythology, the 28th king of the Solar race. He was renowned for his piety and justice. He is the central figure of legends in the Aitareyabrahmana, Mahabharata and the Markandeyapurana. In the first he is represented as so desirous of a son that he vows to Varuna that if his prayer is granted the boy shall be eventually sacrificed to the latter. The child is born, but Harischandra, after many delays, arranges to purchase another’s son and make a vicarious sacrifice. According to the Mahabharata he is at last promoted to Paradise as the reward for his munificent charity.

ḤĀRITH IBN ḤILLIZA UL-YASHKURĪ,pre-Islamic Arabian poet of the tribe of Bakr, famous as the author of one of the poems generally received among the Mo‘allakāt (q.v.). Nothing is known of the details of his life.

ḤARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON(13th cent.), called also al-Ḥarizi, a Spanish Hebrew poet and traveller. He translated from the Arabic to Hebrew some of the works of Maimonides (q.v.) and also of the Arab poet Ḥariri. His own most considerable work was theTaḥkemoni, composed between 1218 and 1220. This is written in Hebrew in unmetrical rhymes, in what is commonly termed “rhymed prose.” It is a series of humorous episodes, witty verses, and quaint applications of Scriptural texts. The episodes are bound together by the presence of the hero and of the narrator, who is also the author. Ḥarizi not only brought to perfection the art of applying Hebrew to secular satire, but he was also a brilliant literary critic and hismakameon the Andalusian Hebrew poets is a fruitful source of information.

See, on theTaḥkemoni, Kaempf,Nicht-andalusische Poesie andalusischer Dichter(Prague, 1858). In that work a considerable section of theTaḥkemoniis translated into German.

(I. A.)

HARKNESS, ALBERT(1822-1907), American classical scholar, was born at Mendon, Massachusetts, on the 6th of October 1822. He graduated at Brown University in 1842, taught in the Providence high school in 1843-1853, studied in Berlin, Bonn (where in 1854 he was the first American to receive the degree of Ph.D.) and Göttingen, and was professor of Greek language and literature in Brown University from 1855 to 1892, when he became professor emeritus. He was one of the founders in 1869 of the American Philological Association, of which he was president in 1875-1876, and to whoseTransactionshe made various contributions; was a member of the Archaeological Institute’s committee on founding the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and served as the second director of that school in 1883-1884. He studied English and German university methods during trips to Europe in 1870 and 1883, and introduced a new scholarly spirit into American teaching of Latin in secondary schools with a series of Latin text-books, which began in 1851 with aFirst Latin Bookand continued for more than fifty years. HisLatin Grammar(1864, 1881) andComplete Latin Grammar(1898) are his best-known books. He was a member of the board of fellows of Brown University from 1904 until his death, and in 1904-1905 was president of the Rhode Island Historical Society. He died in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 27th of May 1907.

His son,Albert Granger Harkness(1857- ), also a classical scholar, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 19th of November 1857. He graduated at Brown University in 1879, studied in Germany in 1879-1883, and was professor of German and Latin at Madison (now Colgate) University from 1883 to 1889, and associate professor of Latin at Brown from 1889 to 1893, when he was appointed to the chair of Roman literature and history there. He was director of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome in 1902-1903.

HARKNESS, ROBERT(1816-1878), English geologist, was born at Ormskirk, Lancashire, on the 28th of July 1816. He was educated at the high school, Dumfries, and afterwards (1833-1834) at the university of Edinburgh where he acquired an interest in geology from the teachings of Robert Jameson and J. D. Forbes. Returning to Ormskirk he worked zealously at the local geology, especially on the Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone, his first paper (read before the Manchester Geol. Soc. in 1843) being onThe Climate of the Coal Epoch. In 1848 his family went to reside in Dumfries and there he commenced to work on the Silurian rocks of the S.W. of Scotland, and in 1849 he carried his investigations into Cumberland. In these regions during the next few years he added much to our knowledge of the strata and their fossils, especially graptolites, in papers read before the Geological Society of London. He wrote also on the New Red rocks of the north of England and Scotland. In 1853 he was appointed professor of geology in Queen’s College, Cork, and in 1856 he was elected F.R.S. During this period he wrote some articles on the geology of parts of Ireland, and exercised much influence as a teacher, but he returned to England during his vacations and devoted himself assiduously to the geology of the Lake district. He was also a constant attendant at the meetings of the British Association. In 1876 the syllabus for the Queen’s Colleges in Ireland was altered, and Professor Harkness was required to lecture not only on geology, palaeontology, mineralogy and physical geography, but also on zoology and botany. The strain of the extra work proved too much, he decided to relinquish his post, and had retired but a short time when he died, on the 4th of October 1878.

“Memoir,” by J. G. Goodchild, inTrans. Cumberland Assoc.No.viii. (with portrait). In memory of Professor Harkness his sister established two Harkness scholarships. One scholarship (of the value of about £35 a year, tenable for three years) for women, tenable at either Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge, is awarded triennially to the best candidate in an examination in geology and palaeontology, provided that proficiency be shown; the other, for men, is vested in the hands of the university of Cambridge, and is awarded annually, any member of the university being eligible who has graduated as a B.A., “provided that not more than three years have elapsed since the 19th day of December next following his final examination for the degree of bachelor of arts.”

HARLAN, JAMES(1820-1899), American politician, was born in Clark county, Illinois, on the 26th of August 1820. He graduated from Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University in 1845, was president (1846-1847) of the newly founded and short-lived Iowa City College, studied law, was first superintendent of public instruction in Iowa in 1847-1848, and was president of Iowa Wesleyan University in 1853-1855. He took a prominent part in organizing the Republican party in Iowa, and was a member of the United States Senate from 1855 to 1865, when he became secretary of the interior. He had been a delegate to the peace convention in 1861, and from 1861 to 1865 was chairman of the Senate committee on public lands. He disapproved of President Johnson’s conservative reconstruction policy, retired from the cabinet in August 1866, and from 1867 to 1873 was again a member of the United States Senate. In 1866 he was a delegate to the loyalists’ convention at Philadelphia. One of his principal speeches in the Senate was that which he made in March 1871 in reply to Sumner’s and Schurz’s attack on President Grant’s Santo Domingan policy. He was presiding judge of the court of commissioners of Alabama claims (1882-1885). He died in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the 5th of October 1899.

HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL(1833- ), American jurist, was born in Boyle county, Kentucky, on the 1st of June 1833. He graduated at Centre College, Danville, Ky., in 1850, and at the law department of Transylvania University, Lexington, in 1853. He was county judge of Franklin county in 1858-1859, was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress on the Whig ticket in 1859, and was elector on the Constitutional Union ticket in 1860. On the outbreak of the Civil War he recruited and organized the Tenth Kentucky United States Volunteer Infantry, and in 1861-1863 served as colonel. Retiring from the army in 1863, he was elected by the Union party attorney-general of the state, and was re-elected in 1865, serving from 1863 to 1867, when he removed to Louisville to practise law. He was the Republican candidate for governor in 1871 and in 1875, and was a member of the commission which was appointed by President Hayes early in 1877 to accomplish the recognition of one or other of the existing state governments of Louisiana (q.v.); and he was a member of the Bering Sea tribunal which met in Paris in 1893. On the 29th of November 1877 he became an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. In this position he showed himself a liberal constructionist. In opinions on the Civil Rights cases and in the interpretation of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, he dissented from the majority of the court and advocated increasing the power of the Federal government. He supported the constitutionality of the income tax clause in the Wilson Tariff Bill of 1894, and he drafted the decision of the court in the Northern Securities Company Case, which applied to railways the provisions of the Sherman Anti-Trust Law. In 1889 he became a professor in the Law School of the Columbian University (afterwards George Washington University) in Washington, D.C.

HARLAND, HENRY(1861-1905), American novelist, was born in St Petersburg, Russia, in March 1861, and was educated in New York and at Harvard. He went to Europe as a journalist, and, after publishing several novels, mainly of American-Jewish life (under the name of Sidney Luska), first made his literary reputation in London as editor of theYellow Bookin 1894. His association with this clever publication, and his own contributions to it, brought his name into prominence, but it was not till he publishedThe Cardinal’s Snuff-box(1900), followed byThe Lady Paramount(1902), that his lightly humorous touch and picturesque style as a novelist brought him any real success. His health was always delicate, and he died at San Remo on the 20th of December 1905.

HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE(1625-1695), 5th archbishop of Paris, was born in that city on the 14th of August 1625. Nephew of François de Harlay, archbishop of Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of Jumièges immediately on leaving the Collège de Navarre, and he was only twenty-six when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the king for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was erected into a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the order of the Saint Esprit and a member of the French Academy. During the early part of his political career he was a firm adherent of Mazarin, and is said to have helped to procure his return from exile. His private life gave rise to much scandal, but he had a great capacity for business, considerable learning, and was an eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely secured the favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the Gallican Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in assembly on the 19th of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him of truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses of the king’s marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated by her for using his influence with the king to keep the matter secret. He had a weekly audience of Louis XIV. in company with Père la Chaise on the affairs of the Church in Paris, but his influence gradually declined, and Saint-Simon, who bore him no good will for his harsh attitude to the Jansenists, says that his friends deserted him as the royal favour waned, until at last most of his time was spent at Conflans in company with the duchess of Lesdiguières, who alone was faithful to him. He urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great severity to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal and spiritual lord. He died suddenly, without having received the sacraments, on the 6th of August 1695. His funeral discourse was delivered by the Père Gaillard, and Mme de Sévigné made on the occasion the severe comment that there were only two trifles to make this a difficult matter—his life and his death.

See Abbé Legendre,Vita Francisci de Harlay(Paris, 1720) andÉloge de Harlay(1695); Saint-Simon,Mémoires(vol. ii., ed. A. de Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in theLettresof Mme de Sévigné.

HARLECH(perhaps forHardd lech, fair slate, orHarleigh, an Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m. from Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian railway. Pop. 900. Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of Harlech, about half a mile from the sea. Discovery of Roman coins makes it probable that it was once occupied by the Romans. In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), daughter of Bran Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, perhaps by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen, and replaced aboutA.D.550 by the building of Maelgwyn Gwynedd, prince of North Wales. In the early 10th century, Harlech castle was, apparently, repaired by Colwyn, lord of Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North Wales tribes, and thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure dates, like many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps even from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles, but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have been square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and turrets. Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460, Margaret, wife of Henry VI., defeated at Northampton, took refuge. Dafydd ap Ieuan ap Einion held it for the Lancastrians, until famine, rather than Edward IV., made him surrender. From this time is said to date the air “March of the men of Harlech” (Rhyfelgerdd gwyr Harlech). The castle was alternately Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made Harlech a free borough, and it was formerly the county town. It is in the parish of Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though interesting from an antiquarian point of view, the district around, especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the valley), is dreary and desolate,e.g.Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, Rhinog fawr and Rhinog fach (cliffs); an exception is the verdant Cwm bychan (little combe or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the men of Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight.

HARLEQUIN,in modern pantomime, the posturing and acrobatic character who gives his name to the “harlequinade,” attired in mask and parti-coloured and spangled tights, and provided with a sword like a bat, by which, himself invisible, he works wonders. It has generally been assumed that Harlequin was transferred to France from the “Arlecchino” of Italian medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr Driesen in hisUrsprung des Harlekins(Berlin, 1904) shows that this is incorrect. An old French “Harlekin” (Herlekin, Hellequin and other variants) is found in folk-literature as early as 1100; he had already become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal appearance and character; in 1262 a number of harlekins appear in a play by Adam de la Halle as the intermediaries of King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in courting Morgan le Fay; and it was not till much later that the French Harlekin was transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical French form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air, deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light and aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian to the French stage, being imported by Marivaux into light comedy; and his various attributes gradually became amalgamated into the latter form taken in pantomime.

HARLESS(originallyHarles),GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH(1738-1815), German classical scholar and bibliographer, was born at Culmbach in Bavaria on the 21st of June 1738. He studied at Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1765 he was appointed professor of oriental languages and eloquence at the Gymnasium Casimirianum in Coburg, in 1770 professor of poetry and eloquence at Erlangen, and in 1776 librarian of the university. He held his professorship for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of November 1815. Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous editions of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical judgment, although valuable at the time as giving the student the results of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded. But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in connexion with the greatBibliotheca Graecaof J. A. Fabricius, of which he published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790-1809, not quite completed),—a task for which he was peculiarly qualified. He also wrote much on the history and bibliography of Greek and Latin literature.

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