See obituary notice read by Henri Wallon at a meeting of the Académie des Inscriptions on the 12th of November 1897; and the notice by Paul Meyer prefixed to vol. xxxiii. of theHistoire littéraire de la France.
See obituary notice read by Henri Wallon at a meeting of the Académie des Inscriptions on the 12th of November 1897; and the notice by Paul Meyer prefixed to vol. xxxiii. of theHistoire littéraire de la France.
HAUSA,sometimes incorrectly writtenHaussa,HoussaorHaoussa, a people inhabiting about half a million square miles in the western and central Sudan from the river Niger in the west to Bornu in the east. Heinrich Barth identifies them with the Atarantians of Herodotus. According to their own traditions the earliest home of the race was the divide between the Sokoto and Chad basins, and more particularly the eastern watershed, whence they spread gradually westward. In the middle ages, to which period the first authentic records refer, the Hausa, though never a conquering race, attained great political power. They were then divided into seven states known as “Hausa bokoy” (“the seven Hausa”) and named Biram, Daura, Gober, Kano, Rano, Katsena and Zegzeg, after the sons of their legendary ancestor. This confederation extended its authority over many of the neighbouring countries, and remained paramount till the Fula under Sheikh Dan Fodio in 1810 conquered the Hausa states and founded the Fula empire of Sokoto (seeFula).
The Hausa, who number upwards of 5,000,000, form the most important nation of the central Sudan. They are undoubtedly nigritic, though in places with a strong crossing of Fula and Arab blood. Morally and intellectually they are, however, far superior to the typical Negro. They are a powerful, heavily built race, with skin as black as most Negroes, but with lips not so thick nor hair so woolly. They excel in physical strength. The average Hausa will carry on his head a load of ninety or a hundred pounds without showing the slightest signs of fatigue during a long day’s march. When carrying their own goods it is by no means uncommon for them to take double this weight. They are a peaceful and industrious people, living partly in farmsteads amid their crops, partly in large trading centres such as Kano, Katsena and Yakoba (Bauchi). They are extremely intelligent and even cultured, and have exercised a civilizing effect upon their Fula conquerors to whose oppressive rule they submitted. They are excellent agriculturists, and, almost unaided by foreign influence, they have developed a variety of industries, such as the making of cloth, mats, leather and glass. In Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast territory they form the backbone of the military police, and under English leadership have again and again shown themselves to be admirable fighters and capable of a high degree of discipline and good conduct. Their food consists chiefly of guinea corn (sorghum vulgare), which is ground up and eaten as a sort of porridge mixed with large quantities of red pepper. The Hausa attribute their superiority in strength to the fact that they live on guinea corn instead of yams and bananas, which form the staple food of the tribes on the river Niger. The Hausa carried on agriculture chiefly by slave labour; they are themselves born traders, and as such are to be met with in almost every part of Africa north of the equator. Small colonies of them are to be found in towns as far distant from one another as Lagos, Tunis, Tripoli, Alexandria and Suakin.
Language.—The Hausa language has a wider range over Africa north of the equator, south of Barbary and west of the valley of the Nile, than any other tongue. It is a rich sonorous language, with a vocabulary containing perhaps 10,000 words. As an example of the richness of the vocabulary Bishop Crowther mentions that there are eight names for different parts of the day from cockcrow till after sunset. About a third of the words are connected with Arabic roots, nor are these such as the Hausa could well have borrowed in anything like recent times from the Arabs. Many words representingideas or things with which the Hausa must have been familiar from the very earliest time are obviously connected with Arabic or Semitic roots. There is a certain amount of resemblance between the Hausa language and that spoken by the Berbers to the south of Tripoli and Tunis. This language, again, has several striking points of resemblance with Coptic. If, as seems likely, the connexion between these three languages should be demonstrated, such connexion would serve to corroborate the Hausa tradition that their ancestors came from the very far east away beyond Mecca. The Hausa language has been reduced to writing for at least a century, possibly very much longer. It is the only language in tropical Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives themselves, unless the Vai alphabet, introduced by a native inventor in the interior of Liberia in the first half of the 19th century be excepted; the character used is a modified form of Arabic. Some fragments of literature exist, consisting of political and religious poems, together with a limited amount of native history. A volume, consisting of history and poems reproduced in facsimile, with translations, has been published by the Cambridge University Press.Religion.—About one-third of the people are professed Mahommedans, one-third are heathen, and the remainder have apparently no definite form of religion. Their Mahommedanism dates from the 14th century, but became more general when the Fula sheikh Dan Fodio initiated the religious war which ended in the founding of the Fula empire. Ever since then the ruler of Sokoto has been acknowledged as the religious head of the whole country, and tribute has been paid to him as such. The Hausa who profess Mahommedanism are extremely ignorant of their own faith, and what little religious fanaticism exists is chiefly confined to the Fula. Large numbers of the Hausa start every year on the pilgrimage to Mecca, travelling sometimes across the Sahara desert and by way of Tripoli and Alexandria, sometimes by way of Wadai, Darfur, Khartum and Suakin. The journey often occupies five or six years, and is undertaken quite as much from trading as from religious motives. Mahommedanism is making very slow, if any, progress amongst the Hausa. The greatest obstacle to its general acceptance is the institution of the Ramadan fast. In a climate so hot as that of Hausaland, the obligation to abstain from food and drink from sunrise to sunset during one month in the year is a serious difficulty. Until the last decade of the 19th century no important attempt had been made to introduce Christianity, but the fact that the Hausa are fond of reading, and that native schools exist in all parts of the country, should greatly facilitate the work of Christian missionaries.Bibliography.—El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny,Account of Timbuctoo and Haussa Territories(1820); Norris,Dialogues and part of the New Testament in the English, Arabic, Haussa and Bornu Languages(1853); Koelle,Polyglotta Africana(1854); Schön,Grammar of the Hausa Language(London, 1862),Hausa Reading Book(1877), and alsoA Dictionary of the Hausa Language(1877). Schön has also produced Hausa translations of Gen. (1858), Matt. (1857) and Luke (1858). Heinrich Barth,Travels in North and Central Africa(2 vols., London, 1857);Central-afrikanische Vokabularien(Gotha, 1867); C. H. Robinson,Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central Soudan(1896);Specimens of Hausa Literature(1896);Hausa Grammar(1897);Hausa Dictionary(1899); P. L. Monteil,De St-Louis à Tripoli par le lac Tchad(Paris, 1895); Lt. Seymour Vandeleur,Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger(1898).
Language.—The Hausa language has a wider range over Africa north of the equator, south of Barbary and west of the valley of the Nile, than any other tongue. It is a rich sonorous language, with a vocabulary containing perhaps 10,000 words. As an example of the richness of the vocabulary Bishop Crowther mentions that there are eight names for different parts of the day from cockcrow till after sunset. About a third of the words are connected with Arabic roots, nor are these such as the Hausa could well have borrowed in anything like recent times from the Arabs. Many words representingideas or things with which the Hausa must have been familiar from the very earliest time are obviously connected with Arabic or Semitic roots. There is a certain amount of resemblance between the Hausa language and that spoken by the Berbers to the south of Tripoli and Tunis. This language, again, has several striking points of resemblance with Coptic. If, as seems likely, the connexion between these three languages should be demonstrated, such connexion would serve to corroborate the Hausa tradition that their ancestors came from the very far east away beyond Mecca. The Hausa language has been reduced to writing for at least a century, possibly very much longer. It is the only language in tropical Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives themselves, unless the Vai alphabet, introduced by a native inventor in the interior of Liberia in the first half of the 19th century be excepted; the character used is a modified form of Arabic. Some fragments of literature exist, consisting of political and religious poems, together with a limited amount of native history. A volume, consisting of history and poems reproduced in facsimile, with translations, has been published by the Cambridge University Press.
Religion.—About one-third of the people are professed Mahommedans, one-third are heathen, and the remainder have apparently no definite form of religion. Their Mahommedanism dates from the 14th century, but became more general when the Fula sheikh Dan Fodio initiated the religious war which ended in the founding of the Fula empire. Ever since then the ruler of Sokoto has been acknowledged as the religious head of the whole country, and tribute has been paid to him as such. The Hausa who profess Mahommedanism are extremely ignorant of their own faith, and what little religious fanaticism exists is chiefly confined to the Fula. Large numbers of the Hausa start every year on the pilgrimage to Mecca, travelling sometimes across the Sahara desert and by way of Tripoli and Alexandria, sometimes by way of Wadai, Darfur, Khartum and Suakin. The journey often occupies five or six years, and is undertaken quite as much from trading as from religious motives. Mahommedanism is making very slow, if any, progress amongst the Hausa. The greatest obstacle to its general acceptance is the institution of the Ramadan fast. In a climate so hot as that of Hausaland, the obligation to abstain from food and drink from sunrise to sunset during one month in the year is a serious difficulty. Until the last decade of the 19th century no important attempt had been made to introduce Christianity, but the fact that the Hausa are fond of reading, and that native schools exist in all parts of the country, should greatly facilitate the work of Christian missionaries.
Bibliography.—El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny,Account of Timbuctoo and Haussa Territories(1820); Norris,Dialogues and part of the New Testament in the English, Arabic, Haussa and Bornu Languages(1853); Koelle,Polyglotta Africana(1854); Schön,Grammar of the Hausa Language(London, 1862),Hausa Reading Book(1877), and alsoA Dictionary of the Hausa Language(1877). Schön has also produced Hausa translations of Gen. (1858), Matt. (1857) and Luke (1858). Heinrich Barth,Travels in North and Central Africa(2 vols., London, 1857);Central-afrikanische Vokabularien(Gotha, 1867); C. H. Robinson,Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central Soudan(1896);Specimens of Hausa Literature(1896);Hausa Grammar(1897);Hausa Dictionary(1899); P. L. Monteil,De St-Louis à Tripoli par le lac Tchad(Paris, 1895); Lt. Seymour Vandeleur,Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger(1898).
HAUSER, KASPAR,a German youth whose life was remarkable from the circumstances of apparently inexplicable mystery in which it was involved. He appeared on the 26th of May 1828, in the streets of Nuremberg, dressed in the garb of a peasant, and with such a helpless and bewildered air that he attracted the attention of the passers-by. In his possession was found a letter purporting to be written by a poor labourer, stating that the boy was given into his custody on the 7th of October 1812, and that according to agreement he had instructed him in reading, writing, and the Christian religion, but that up to the time fixed for relinquishing his custody he had kept him in close confinement. Along with this letter was enclosed another purporting to be written by the boy’s mother, stating that he was born on the 30th of April 1812, that his name was Kaspar, and that his father, formerly a cavalry officer in the 6th regiment at Nuremberg, was dead. The appearance, bearing, and professions of the youth corresponded closely with these credentials. He showed a repugnance to all nourishment except bread and water, was seemingly ignorant of outward objects, wrote his name as Kaspar Hauser, and said that he wished to be a cavalry officer like his father. For some time he was detained in prison at Nuremberg as a vagrant, but on the 18th of July 1828 he was delivered over by the town authorities to the care of a schoolmaster, Professor Daumer, who undertook to be his guardian and to take the charge of his education. Further mysteries accumulated about Kaspar’s personality and conduct, not altogether unconnected with the vogue in Germany, at that time, of “animal magnetism,” “somnambulism,” and similar theories of the occult and strange. People associated him with all sorts of possibilities. On the 17th of October 1829 he was found to have received a wound in the forehead, which, according to his own statement, had been inflicted on him by a man with a blackened face. Having on this account been removed to the house of a magistrate and placed under close surveillance, he was visited by Earl Stanhope, who became so interested in his history that he sent him in 1832 to Ansbach to be educated under a certain Dr Meyer. After this he became clerk in the office of Paul John Anselm von Feuerbach, president of the court of appeal, who had begun to pay attention to his case in 1828; and his strange history was almost forgotten by the public when the interest in it was suddenly revived by his receiving a deep wound on his left breast, on the 14th of December 1833, and dying from it three or four days afterwards. He affirmed that the wound was inflicted by a stranger, but many believed it to be the work of his own hand, and that he did not intend it to be fatal, but only so severe as to give a sufficient colouring of truth to his story. The affair created a great sensation, and produced a long literary agitation. But the whole story remains somewhat mysterious. Lord Stanhope eventually became decidedly sceptical as to Kaspar’s stories, and ended by being accused of contriving his death!
In 1830 a pamphlet was published at Berlin, entitledKaspar Hauser nicht unwahrscheinlich ein Betrüger; but the truthfulness of his statements was defended by Daumer, who publishedMitteilungen über Kaspar Hauser(Nuremberg, 1832), andEnthüllungen über Kaspar Hauser(Frankfort, 1859); as well asKaspar Hauser, sein Wesen, seine Unschuld, &c. (Regensburg, 1873), in answer to Meyer’s (a son of Kaspar’s tutor)Authentische Mitteilungen über Kaspar Hauser(Ansbach, 1872). Feuerbach awakened considerable psychological interest in the case by his pamphletKaspar Hauser, Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben(Ansbach, 1832), and Earl Stanhope also took part in the discussion by publishingMaterialienzur Geschichte K. Hausers(Heidelberg, 1836). The theory of Daumer and Feuerbach and other pamphleteers (finally presented in 1892 by Miss Elizabeth E. Evans in herStory of Kaspar Hauser from Authentic Records) was that the youth was the crown prince of Baden, the legitimate son of the grand-duke Charles of Baden, and that he had been kidnapped at Karlsruhe in October 1812 by minions of the countess of Hochberg (morganatic wife of the grand-duke) in order to secure the succession to her offspring; but this theory was answered in 1875 by the publication in the AugsburgAllgemeine Zeitungof the official record of the baptism, post-mortem examination and burial of the heir supposed to have been kidnapped. SeeKaspar Hauser und sein badisches Prinzentum(Heidelberg, 1876). In 1883 the story was again revived in a Regensburg pamphlet attacking, among other people, Dr Meyer; and the sons of the latter, who was dead, brought an action for libel, under the German law, to which no defence was made; all the copies of the pamphlet were ordered to be destroyed. The evidence has been subtly analyzed by Andrew Lang in hisHistorical Mysteries(1904), with results unfavourable to the “romantic” version of the story. Lang’s view is that possibly Kaspar was a sort of “ambulatory automatist,” an instance of a phenomenon, known by other cases to students of psychical abnormalities, of which the characteristics are a mania for straying away and the persistence of delusions as to identity; but he inclines to regard Kaspar as simply a “humbug.” The “authentic records” purporting to confirm the kidnapping story Lang stigmatizes as “worthless and impudent rubbish.” The evidence is in any case in complete confusion.
In 1830 a pamphlet was published at Berlin, entitledKaspar Hauser nicht unwahrscheinlich ein Betrüger; but the truthfulness of his statements was defended by Daumer, who publishedMitteilungen über Kaspar Hauser(Nuremberg, 1832), andEnthüllungen über Kaspar Hauser(Frankfort, 1859); as well asKaspar Hauser, sein Wesen, seine Unschuld, &c. (Regensburg, 1873), in answer to Meyer’s (a son of Kaspar’s tutor)Authentische Mitteilungen über Kaspar Hauser(Ansbach, 1872). Feuerbach awakened considerable psychological interest in the case by his pamphletKaspar Hauser, Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben(Ansbach, 1832), and Earl Stanhope also took part in the discussion by publishingMaterialienzur Geschichte K. Hausers(Heidelberg, 1836). The theory of Daumer and Feuerbach and other pamphleteers (finally presented in 1892 by Miss Elizabeth E. Evans in herStory of Kaspar Hauser from Authentic Records) was that the youth was the crown prince of Baden, the legitimate son of the grand-duke Charles of Baden, and that he had been kidnapped at Karlsruhe in October 1812 by minions of the countess of Hochberg (morganatic wife of the grand-duke) in order to secure the succession to her offspring; but this theory was answered in 1875 by the publication in the AugsburgAllgemeine Zeitungof the official record of the baptism, post-mortem examination and burial of the heir supposed to have been kidnapped. SeeKaspar Hauser und sein badisches Prinzentum(Heidelberg, 1876). In 1883 the story was again revived in a Regensburg pamphlet attacking, among other people, Dr Meyer; and the sons of the latter, who was dead, brought an action for libel, under the German law, to which no defence was made; all the copies of the pamphlet were ordered to be destroyed. The evidence has been subtly analyzed by Andrew Lang in hisHistorical Mysteries(1904), with results unfavourable to the “romantic” version of the story. Lang’s view is that possibly Kaspar was a sort of “ambulatory automatist,” an instance of a phenomenon, known by other cases to students of psychical abnormalities, of which the characteristics are a mania for straying away and the persistence of delusions as to identity; but he inclines to regard Kaspar as simply a “humbug.” The “authentic records” purporting to confirm the kidnapping story Lang stigmatizes as “worthless and impudent rubbish.” The evidence is in any case in complete confusion.
HAUSMANN, JOHANN FRIEDRICH LUDWIG(1782-1859), German mineralogist, was born at Hanover on the 22nd of February 1782. He was educated at Göttingen, where he obtained the degree of Ph.D. After making a geological tour in Denmark, Norway and Sweden in 1807, he was two years later placed at the head of a government mining establishment in Westphalia, and he established a school of mines at Clausthal in the Harz mountains. In 1811 he was appointed professor of technology and mining, and afterwards of geology and mineralogy in the university of Göttingen, and this chair he occupied until a short time before his death. He was also for many years secretary of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Göttingen. He published observations on geology and mineralogy in Spain and Italy as well as in central and northern Europe: he wrote on gypsum, pyrites, felspar, tachylite, cordierite and on some eruptiverocks, and he devoted much attention to the crystals developed during metallurgical processes. He died at Hanover on the 26th of December 1859.
Publications.—Grundlinien einer Encyklopädie der Bergwerkswissenschaften(1811);Reise durch Skandinavien(5 vols., 1811-1818);Handbuch der Mineralogie(3 vols., 1813; 2nd ed., 1828-1847).
Publications.—Grundlinien einer Encyklopädie der Bergwerkswissenschaften(1811);Reise durch Skandinavien(5 vols., 1811-1818);Handbuch der Mineralogie(3 vols., 1813; 2nd ed., 1828-1847).
HAUSRATH, ADOLPH(1837-1909), German theologian, was born at Karlsruhe on the 13th of January 1837 and was educated at Jena, Göttingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, where he becamePrivatdozentin 1861, professor extraordinary in 1867 and ordinary professor in 1872. He was a disciple of the Tübingen school and a strong Protestant. Among other works he wroteDer Apostel Paulus(1865),Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte(1868-1873, 4 vols.; Eng. trans.),D. F. Strauss und die Theologie seiner Zeit(1876-1878, 2 vols.), and lives ofRichard Rothe(2 vols. 1902), andLuther(1904). His scholarship was sound and his style vigorous. Under the pseudonym George Taylor he wrote several historical romances, especiallyAntinous(1880), which quickly ran through five editions, and is the story of a soul “which courted death because the objective restraints of faith had been lost.”Klytia(1883) was a 16th-century story,Jetta(1884) a tale of the great immigrations, andElfriede“a romance of the Rhine.” He died on the 2nd of August 1909.
HÄUSSER, LUDWIG(1818-1867), German historian, was born at Kleeburg, in Alsace. Studying philology at Heidelberg in 1835, he was led by F. C. Schlosser to give it up for history, and after continuing his historical work at Jena and teaching in the gymnasium at Wertheim he made his mark by hisDie teutschen Geschichtsschreiber vom Anfang des Frankenreichs bis auf die Hohenstaufen(1839). Next year appeared hisSage von Tell. After a short period of study in Paris on the French Revolution, he spent some time working in the archives of Baden and Bavaria, and published in 1845Die Geschichte der rheinischen Pfalz, which won for him a professorshipextraordinariusat Heidelberg. In 1850 he becameprofessor ordinarius. Häusser also interested himself in politics while at Heidelberg, publishing in 1846Schleswig-Holstein, Dänemark und Deutschland, and editing with Gervinus theDeutsche Zeitung. In 1848 he was elected to the lower legislative chamber of Baden, and in 1850 advocated the project of union with Prussia at the parliament held at Erfurt. Another timely work was his edition of Friedrich List’sGesammelte Schriften(1850), accompanied with a life of the author. His greatest achievement, and the one on which his fame as an historian rests, is hisDeutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Gründung des deutschen Bundes(Leipzig, 1854-1857, 4 vols.). This was the first work covering that period based on a scientific study of the archival sources. In 1859 he again took part in politics, resuming his place in the lower chamber, opposing in 1863 the project of Austria for the reform of the Confederation brought forward in the assembly of princes at Frankfort, in his bookDie Reform des deutschen Bundestages, and becoming one of the leaders of the “little German” (kleindeutsche) party, which advocated the exclusion of Austria from Germany. In addition to various essays (in hisGesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1869-1870, 2 vols.), Häusser’s lectures have been edited by W. Oncken in theGeschichte des Zeitalters der Reformation(1869, 2nd ed. 1880), andGeschichte der französischen Revolution(1869, 2nd ed. 1870). These lectures reveal all the charm of style and directness of presentation which made Häusser’s work as a professor so vital.
See W. Wattenbach,Lud. Häusser, ein Vortrag(Heidelberg, 1867).
See W. Wattenbach,Lud. Häusser, ein Vortrag(Heidelberg, 1867).
HAUSSMANN, GEORGES EUGÈNE,Baron(1809-1891), whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris, was born in that city on the 27th of March 1809 of a Protestant family, German in origin. He was educated at the Collège Henri IV, and subsequently studied law, attending simultaneously the classes at the Paris conservatoire of music, for he was a good musician. He became sous-préfet of Nérac in 1830, and advanced rapidly in the civil service until in 1853 he was chosen by Persigny prefect of the Seine in succession to Jean Jacques Berger, who hesitated to incur the vast expenses of the imperial schemes for the embellishment of Paris. Haussmann laid out the Bois de Boulogne, and made extensive improvements in the smaller parks. The gardens of the Luxembourg Palace were cut down to allow of the formation of new streets, and the Boulevard de Sebastopol, the southern half of which is now the Boulevard St Michel, was driven through a populous district. A new water supply, a gigantic system of sewers, new bridges, the opera, and other public buildings, the inclusion of outlying districts—these were among the new prefect’s achievements, accomplished by the aid of a bold handling of the public funds which called forth Jules Ferry’s indictment,Les Comptes fantastiques de Haussmann, in 1867. A loan of 250 million francs was sanctioned for the city of Paris in 1865, and another of 260 million in 1869. These sums represented only part of his financial schemes, which led to his dismissal by the government of Émile Ollivier. After the fall of the Empire he spent about a year abroad, but he re-entered public life in 1877, when he became Bonapartist deputy for Ajaccio. He died in Paris on the 11th of January 1891. Haussmann had been made senator in 1857, member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1867, and grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1862. His name is preserved in the Boulevard Haussmann. His later years were occupied with the preparation of hisMémoires(3 vols., 1890-1893).
HAUSSONVILLE, JOSEPH OTHENIN BERNARD DE CLÉRON,Comte d’(1809-1884), French politician and historian, was born in Paris on the 27th of May 1809. His grandfather had been “grand louvetier” of France; his father Charles Louis Bernard de Cléron, comte d’Haussonville (1770-1846), was chamberlain at the court of Napoleon, a count of the French empire, and under the Restoration a peer of France and an opponent of the Villéle ministry. Comte Joseph had filled a series of diplomatic appointments at Brussels, Turin and Naples before he entered the chamber of deputies in 1842 for Provins. Under the Second Empire he published a liberal anti-imperial paper at Brussels,Le Bulletin français, and in 1863 he actively supported the candidature of Prévost Paradol. He was elected to the French Academy in 1869, in recognition of his historical writings,Histoire de la politique extérieure du gouvernement français de 1830 à 1848(2 vols., 1850),Histoire de la réunion de la Lorraine à la France(4 vols., 1854-1859),L’Église romaine et le premier empire 1800-1814(5 vols., 1864-1879). In 1870 he published a pamphlet directed against the Prussian treatment of France,La France et la Prusse devant l’Europe, the sale of which was prohibited in Belgium at the request of King William of Prussia. He was the president of an association formed to provide new homes in Algeria for the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine who elected to retain their French nationality. In 1878 he was made a life-senator, in which capacity he allied himself with the Right Centre in defence of the religious associations against the anti-clericals. He died in Paris on the 28th of May 1884.
His wife Louise (1818-1882), a daughter of Duc Victor de Broglie, published in 1858 a novelRobert Emmet, followed byMarguerite de Valois reine de Navarre(1870),La Jeunesse de Lord Byron(1872), andLes Dernières Années de Lord Byron(1874).
His son,Gabriel Paul Otherin de Cléron, comte d’Haussonville, was born at Gurcy de Châtel (Seine-et-Marne) on the 21st of September 1843, and married in 1865 Mlle Pauline d’Harcourt. He represented Seine-et-Marne in the National Assembly (1871) and voted with the Right Centre. Though he was not elected to the chamber of deputies he became the right-hand man of his maternal uncle, the duc de Broglie, in the attempted coup of the 16th of May. HisÉtablissements pénitentiaires en France et aux colonies(1875) was crowned by the Academy, of which he was admitted a member in 1888. In 1891 the resignation of Henri Édouard Bocher from the administration of the Orleans estates led to the appointment of M d’Haussonville as accredited representative of the comte de Paris in France. He at once set to work to strengthen the Orleanist party by recruiting from the smaller nobility the officials of the local monarchical committees. He establishednew Orleanist organs, and sent out lecturers with instructions to emphasize the modern and democratic principles of the comte de Paris; but the prospects of the party were dashed in 1894 by the death of the comte de Paris. In 1904 he was admitted to the Academy of Moral and Political Science. The comte d’Haussonville published:—C. A. Sainte-Beuve, sa vie et ses œuvres(1875),Études biographiques et littéraires, 2 series (1879 and 1888),Le Salon de Mme Necker(1882, 2 vols.),Madame de La Fayette(1891),Madame Ackermann(1892),Le Comte de Paris, souvenirs personnels(1895),La Duchesse de Bourgogne et l’alliance savoyarde(1898-1903),Salaire et misères de femme(1900), and, with G. Hanotaux,Souvenirs sur Madame de Maintenon(3 vols., 1902-1904).
HAUTE-GARONNE, a frontier department of south-western France, formed in 1790 from portions of the provinces of Languedoc (Toulousain and Lauraguais) and Gascony (Comminges and Nébouzan). Pop. (1906), 442,065. Area, 2458 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, E. by Tarn, Aude and Ariége, S. by Spain and W. by Gers and Hautes-Pyrénées. Long and narrow in shape, the department consists in the north of an undulating stretch of country with continual interchange of hill and valley nowhere thrown into striking relief; while towards the south the land rises gradually to the Pyrenees, which on the Spanish border attain heights of upwards of 10,000 ft. Two passes, the Port d’Oo, near the beautiful lake and waterfall of Oo, and the Port de Vénasque, exceed 9800 and 7900 ft. in altitude respectively. Entering the department in the south-east, the Garonne flows in a northerly direction and traverses almost its entire length, receiving in its course the Pique, the Salat, the Louge, the Ariége, the Touch and the Save. Except in the mountainous region the climate is mild, the mean annual temperature being rather higher than that of Paris. The rainfall, which averages 24 in. at Toulouse, exceeds 40 in. in some parts of the mountains; and sudden and destructive inundations of the Garonne—of which that of 1875 is a celebrated example—are always to be feared. The valley of the Garonne is also frequently visited by severe hail-storms. Thick forests of oak, fir and pine exist in the mountains and furnish timber for shipbuilding. The arable land of the plains and valleys is well adapted for the cultivation of wheat, maize and other grain crops; and the produce of cereals is generally much more than is required for the local consumption. Market-gardening flourishes around Toulouse. A large area is occupied by vineyards, though the wine is only of medium quality; and chestnuts, apples and peaches are grown. As pasture land is abundant a good deal of attention is given to the rearing of cattle and sheep, and co-operative dairies are numerous in the mountains; but deforestation has tended to reduce the area of pasture-land, because the soil, unretained by the roots of trees, has been gradually washed away. Haute-Garonne has deposits of zinc and lead, and salt-workings; there is an ancient and active marble-working industry at St Béat. Mineral springs are common, those of Bagnères-de-Luchon Encausse, Barbazan and Salies-du-Salat being well known. The manufactures are various though not individually extensive, and include iron and copper goods, woollen, cotton and linen goods, leather, paper, boots and shoes, tobacco and table delicacies. Flour-mills, iron-works and brick-works are numerous. Railway communication is furnished by the Southern and the Orléans railways, the main line of the former from Bordeaux to Cette passing through Toulouse. The Canal du Midi traverses the department for 32 m. and the lateral canal of the Garonne for 15 m. The Garonne is navigable below its confluence with the Salat. There are four arrondissements—Toulouse, Villefranche, Muret and St Gaudens, subdivided into 39 cantons and 588 communes. The chief town is Toulouse, which is the seat of a court of appeal and of an archbishop, the headquarters of the XVIIth army corps and the centre of an academy; and St Gaudens, Bagnères-de-Luchon and, from an architectural and historical standpoint, St Bertrand-de-Comminges are of importance and receive separate treatment. Other places of interest are St Aventin, Montsaunès and Vénerque, which possess ancient churches in the Romanesque style. The church of St Just at Valcabrère is of still greater age, the choir dating from the 8th or 9th century and part of the nave from the 11th century. There are ruins of a celebrated Cistercian abbey at Bonnefont near St Martory. Gallo-Roman remains and works of art have been discovered at Martres. Near Revel is the fine reservoir of St Ferréol, constructed for the canal du Midi in the 17th century.
HAUTE-LOIRE,a department of central France, formed in 1790 of Velay and portions of Vivarais and Gévaudan, three districts formerly belonging to the old province of Languedoc, of a portion of Forez formerly belonging to Lyonnais, and a portion of lower Auvergne. Pop. (1906), 314,770. Area, 1931 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Puy-de-Dôme and Loire, E. by Loire and Ardèche, S. by Ardèche and Lozère and W. by Lozère and Cantal. Haute-Loire, which is situated on the central plateau of France, is traversed from north to south by four mountain ranges. Its highest point, the Mont Mézenc (5755 ft.), in the south-east of the department, belongs to the mountains of Vivarais, which are continued along the eastern border by the Boutières chain. The Lignon divides the Boutières from the Massif du Mégal, which is separated by the Loire itself from the mountains of Velay, a granitic range overlaid with the eruptions of more than one hundred and fifty craters. The Margeride mountains run along the western border of the department. The Loire enters the department at a point 16 m. distant from its source in Ardèche, and first flowing northwards and then north-east, waters its eastern half. The Allier, which joins the Loire at Nevers, traverses the western portion of Haute-Loire in a northerly direction. The chief affluents of the Loire within the limits of the department are the Borne on the left, joining it near Le Puy, and the Lignon, which descends from the Mézenc, between the Boutières and Mégal ranges, on the right. The climate, owing to the altitude, the northward direction of the valleys, and the winds from the Cévennes, is cold, the winters being long and rigorous. Storms and violent rains are frequent on the higher grounds, and would give rise to serious inundations were not the rivers for the most part confined within deep rocky channels. Cereals, chiefly rye, oats, barley and wheat, are cultivated in the lowlands and on the plateaus, on which aromatic and medicinal plants are abundant. Lentils, peas, mangel-wurzels and other forage and potatoes are also grown. Horned cattle belong principally to the Mézenc breed; goats are numerous. The woods yield pine, fir, oak and beech. Lace-making, which employs about 90,000 women, and coal-mining are main industries; the coal basins are those of Brassac and Langeac. There are also mines of antimony and stone-quarries. Silk-milling, caoutchouc-making, various kinds of smith’s work, paper-making, glass-blowing, brewing, wood-sawing and flour-milling are also carried on. The principal imports are flour, brandy, wine, live-stock, lace-thread and agricultural implements. Exports include fat stock, wool, aromatic plants, coal, lace. The department is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée company. There are three arrondissements—Le Puy, Brioude and Yssingeaux, with 28 cantons and 265 communes.
Haute-Loire forms the diocese of Le Puy and part of the ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and belongs to the academie (educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand. Its court of appeal is at Riom. Le Puy the capital, Brioude and La Chaise-Dieu the principal towns of the department, receive separate treatment. It has some notable churches, of which those of Chamalières, St Paulien and Sainte-Marie-des-Chazes are Romanesque in style; Le Monastier preserves the church, in part Romanesque, and the buildings of the abbey to which it owes its origin. Arlempdes and Bouzols (near Coubon) have the ruins of large feudal châteaus. The rocky plateau overlooking Polignac is occupied by the ruins of the imposing stronghold of the ancient family of Polignac, including a square donjon of the 14th century. Interesting Gallo-Roman remains have been found on the site.
HAUTE-MARNE,a department of north-eastern France, made up for the most part of districts belonging to the former province of Champagne (Bassigny, Perthois, Vallage), with smaller portions of Lorraine and Burgundy, and some fragments ofFranche-Comté. Area, 2415 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 221,724. It is bounded N.E. by Meuse, E. by Vosges, S.E. by Haute-Saône, S. and S.W. by Côte d’Or, W. by Aube, and N.W. by Marne. Its greatest elevation (1693 ft.) is in the plateau of Langres in the south between the sources of the Marne and those of the Aube; the watershed between the basin of the Rhone on the south and those of the Seine and Meuse on the north, which is formed by the plateau of Langres continued north-east by the Monts Faucilles, has an average height of 1500 or 1600 ft. The country descends rapidly towards the south, but in very gentle slopes northwards. To the north is Bassigny (the paybas or low country, as distinguished from the highlands), a district characterized by monotonous flats of little fertility and extensive wooded tracts. The lowest level of the department is 361 ft. Hydrographically Haute-Marne belongs for the most part to the basin of the Seine, the remainder to those of the Rhone and the Meuse. The principal river is the Marne, which rises here, and has a course of 75 m. within the department. Among its more important affluents are, on the right the Rognon, and on the left the Blaise. The Saulx, another tributary of the Marne on the right, also rises in Haute-Marne. Westward the department is watered by the Aube and its tributary the Aujon, both of which have their sources on the plateau of Langres. The Meuse also rises in the Monts Faucilles, and has a course of 31 m. within the department. On the Mediterranean side the department sends to the Saône the Apance, the Amance, the Salon and the Vingeanne. The climate is partly that of the Seine region, partly that of the Vosges, and partly that of the Rhone; the mean temperature is 51° F., nearly that of Paris; the rainfall is slightly below the average for France.
The agriculture of the department is carried on chiefly by small proprietors. The chief crops are wheat and oats, which are more than sufficient for the needs of the inhabitants; potatoes, lucerne and mangel-wurzels are next in importance. Natural pasture is abundant, especially in Bassigny, where horse and cattle-raising flourish. The vineyards produce some fair wines, notably the white wine of Soyers. More than a quarter of the territory is under wood. The department is rich in iron and building and other varieties of stone are quarried. The warm springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains are among the earliest known and most frequented in France. The leading industry is the metallurgical; its establishments include blast furnaces, foundries, forges, plate-rolling works, and shops for nailmaking and smith’s work of various descriptions. St Dizier is the chief centre of manufacture and distribution. The cutlery trade occupies thousands of hands at Nogent-en-Bassigny and in the neighbourhood of Langres. Val d’Osne is well known for its production of fountains, statues, &c., in metal-work. Flour-milling, glove-making (at Chaumont), basket-making, brewing, tanning and other industries are also carried on. The principal import is coal, while manufactured goods, iron, stone, wood and cereals are exported. The department is served by the Eastern railway, of which the line from Paris to Belfort passes through Chaumont and Langres. The canal from the Marne to the Saône and the canal of the Haute-Marne, which accompany the Marne, together cover 99 m.; there is a canal 14 m. long from St Dizier to Wassy. There are three arrondissements (Chaumont, Langres and Wassy), with 28 cantons and 550 communes. Chaumont is the capital. The department forms the diocese of Langres; it belongs to the VII. military region and to the educational circumscription (académie) of Dijon, where also is its court of appeal. The principal towns—Chaumont, Langres, St Dizier and Bourbonne-les-Bains—receive separate notice. At Montier-en-Der the remains of an abbey founded in the 7th century include a fine church with nave and aisles of the 10th, and choir of the 13th century. Wassy, the scene in 1562 of the celebrated massacre of Protestants by the troops of Francis, duke of Guise, has among its old buildings a church much of which dates from the Romanesque period. Vignory has a church of the 11th century. Joinville, a metallurgical centre, preserves a chateau of the dukes of Guise in the Renaissance style. Pailly, near Langres, has a fine chateau of the last half of the 16th century.
HAUTERIVE, ALEXANDRE MAURICE BLANC DE LANAUTTE,Comte d’(1754-1830), French statesman and diplomatist, was born at Aspres (Hautes-Alpes) on the 14th of April 1754, and was educated at Grenoble, where he became a professor. Later he held a similar position at Tours, and there he attracted the attention of the duc de Choiseul, who invited him to visit him at Chanteloup. Hauterive thus came in contact with the great men who visited the duke, and one of these, the comte de Choiseul-Goiffier, on his appointment as ambassador to Constantinople in 1784 took him with him. Hauterive was enriched for a time by his marriage with a widow, Madame de Marchais, but was ruined by the Revolution. In 1790 he applied for and received the post of consul at New York. Under the Consulate, however, he was accused of embezzlement and recalled; and, though the charge was proved to be false, was not reinstated. In 1798, after trying his hand at farming in America, Hauterive was appointed to a post in the French foreign office. In this capacity he made a sensation by hisL’État de la France à la fin de l’an VIII(1800), which he had been commissioned by Bonaparte to draw up, as a manifesto to foreign nations, after thecoup d’étatof the 18th Brumaire. This won him the confidence of Bonaparte, and he was henceforth employed in drawing up many of the more important documents. In 1805 he was made a councillor of state and member of the Legion of Honour, and between 1805 and 1813 he was more than once temporarily minister of foreign affairs. He attempted, though vainly, to use his influence to moderate Napoleon’s policy, especially in the matter of Spain and the treatment of the pope. In 1805 a difference of opinion with Talleyrand on the question of the Austrian alliance, which Hauterive favoured, led to his withdrawal from the political side of the ministry of foreign affairs, and he was appointed keeper of the archives of the same department. In this capacity he did very useful work, and after the Restoration continued in this post at the request of the duc de Richelieu, his work being recognized by his election as a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1820. He died at Paris on the 28th of July 1830.
There is a detailed account of Hauterive, with considerable extracts from his correspondence with Talleyrand, in theBiographie universelleby A. F. Artand de Montor, who published a separate life in 1831. Criticisms of hisÉtat de la Franceappeared in Germany and England by F. von Gentz (Von dem politischen Zustände, 1801), and by T. B. Clarke (A Hist. and Pol. View ..., 1803).
There is a detailed account of Hauterive, with considerable extracts from his correspondence with Talleyrand, in theBiographie universelleby A. F. Artand de Montor, who published a separate life in 1831. Criticisms of hisÉtat de la Franceappeared in Germany and England by F. von Gentz (Von dem politischen Zustände, 1801), and by T. B. Clarke (A Hist. and Pol. View ..., 1803).
HAUTES ALPES,a department in S.E. France, formed in 1790 out of the south-eastern portion of the old province of Dauphiné, together with a small part of N. Provence. It is bounded N. by the department of Savoie, E. by Italy and the department of the Basses Alpes, S. by the last-named department and that of the Drôme, and W. by the departments of the Drôme and of the Isère. Its area is 2178 sq. m., its greatest length is 85 m. and its greatest breadth 62 m. It is very mountainous, and includes the Pointe des Écrins (13,462 ft.), the loftiest summit in France before the annexation of Savoy in 1860, as well as the Meije (13,081 ft.), the Ailefroide (12,989 ft.) and the Mont Pelvoux (12,973 ft.), though Monte Viso (12,609 ft.) is wholly in Italy, rising just over the border. The department is to a large extent made up of the basins of the upper Durance (with its tributaries, the Guisane, the Gyronde and the Guil), of the upper Drac and of the Buëch—all being to a very large extent wild mountain torrents in their upper course. The department is divided into three arrondissements (Gap, Briançon and Embrun), 24 cantons and 186 communes. In 1906 its population was 107,498. It is a very poor department owing to its great elevation above the sea-level. There are no industries of any extent, and its commerce is almost wholly of local importance. The prolonged winter greatly hinders agricultural development, while the pastoral region has been greatly damaged and the forests destroyed by the ravages of the Provençal sheep, vast flocks of which are driven up here in the summer, as the pastures are leased out to a large extent, and but little utilized by the inhabitants. It now forms the diocese of Gap (this see is first certainly mentioned in the 6th century), which is in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence; in 1791 there was annexedto it the archiepiscopal see of Embrun, which was then suppressed. There are 114 m. of railway in the department. This includes the main line from Briançon past Gap towards Grenoble. About 16½ m. W. of Gap is the important railway junction of Veynes, whence branch off the lines to Grenoble, to Valence by Die and Livron, and to Sisteron for Marseilles. The chief town is Gap, while Briançon and Embrun are the only other important places.
See J. Roman,Dictionnaire topographique du dép. des Htes-Alpes(Paris, 1884),Tableau historique du dép. des Htes-Alpes(Paris, 1887-1890, 2 vols.), andRépertoire archéologique du dép. des Htes-Alpes(Paris, 1888); J. C. F. Ladoucette,Histoire, topographie, &c., des Hautes-Alpes(3rd ed., Paris, 1848).
(W. A. B. C.)
HAUTE-SAÔNE, a department of eastern France, formed in 1790 from the northern portion of Franche Comté. It is traversed by the river Saône, bounded N. by the department of the Vosges, E. by the territory of Belfort, S. by Doubs and Jura, and W. by Côte-d’Or and Haute-Marne. Pop. (1906), 263,890; area, 2075 sq. m. On the north-east, where they are formed by the Vosges, and to the south along the course of the Ognon the limits are natural. The highest point of the department is the Ballon de Servance (3970 ft.), and the lowest the confluence of the Saône and Ognon (610 ft.). The general slope is from north-east to south-west, the direction followed by those two streams. In the north-east the department belongs to the Vosgian formation, consisting of forest-clad mountains of sandstone and granite, and is of a marshy nature; but throughout the greater part of its extent it is composed of limestone plateaus 800 to 1000 ft. high pierced with crevasses and subterranean caves, into which the rain water disappears to issue again as springs in the valleys 200 ft. lower down. In its passage through the department the Saône receives from the right the Amance and the Salon from the Langres plateau, and from the left the Coney, the Lanterne (augmented by the Breuchin which passes by Luxeuil), the Durgeon (passing Vesoul), and the Ognon. The north-eastern districts are cold and have an annual rainfall ranging from 36 to 48 in. Towards the south-west the climate becomes more temperate. At Vesoul and Gray the rainfall only reaches 24 in. per annum.
Haute-Saône is primarily agricultural. Of its total area nearly half is arable land; wheat, oats, meslin and rye are the chief cereals and potatoes are largely grown. The vine flourishes mainly in the arrondissement of Gray. Apples, plums and cherries (from which the kirsch, for which the department is famous, is distilled) are the chief fruits. The woods which cover a quarter of the department are composed mainly of firs in the Vosges and of oak, beech, hornbeam and aspen in the other districts. The river-valleys furnish good pasture for the rearing of horses and of horned cattle. The department possesses mines of coal (at Ronchamp) and rock-salt (at Gouhenans) and stone quarries are worked. Of the many mineral waters of Haute-Saône the best known are the hot springs of Luxeuil (q.v.). Besides iron-working establishments (smelting furnaces, foundries and wire-drawing mills), Haute-Saône possesses copper-foundries, engineering works, steel-foundries and factories at Plancher-les-Mines and elsewhere for producing ironmongery, nails, pins, files, saws, screws, shot, chains, agricultural implements, locks, spinning machinery, edge tools. Window-glass and glass wares, pottery and earthenware are manufactured; there are also brick and tile-works. The spinning and weaving of cotton, of which Héricourt (pop. in 1906, 5194) is the chief centre, stand next in importance to metal working, and there are numerous paper-mills. Print-works, fulling mills, hosiery factories and straw-hat factories are also of some account; as well as sugar works, distilleries, dye-works, saw-mills, starch-works, the chemical works at Gouhenans, oil-mills, tanyards and flour-mills. The department exports wheat, cattle, cheese, butter, iron, wood, pottery, kirschwasser, plaster, leather, glass, &c. The Saône provides a navigable channel of about 70 m., which is connected with the Moselle and the Meuse at Corre by the Canal de l’Est along the valley of the Coney. Gray is the chief emporium of the water-borne trade of the Saône. Haute-Saône is served chiefly by the Eastern railway. There are three arrondissements—Vesoul, Gray, Lure—comprising 28 cantons, 583 communes. Haute-Saône is in the district of the VII. army corps, and in its legal, ecclesiastical and educational relations depends on Besançon.
Vesoul, the capital of the department, Gray and Luxeuil are the principal towns. There is an important school of agriculture at St Rémy in the arrondissement of Vesoul. The Roman ruins and mosaics at Membrey in the arrondissement of Gray and the church (13th and 15th centuries) and abbey buildings at Faverney, in the arrondissement of Vesoul, are of antiquarian interest.
HAUTE-SAVOIE,a frontier department of France, formed in 1860 of the old provinces of the Genevois, the Chablais and the Faucigny, which constituted the northern portion of the duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N. by the canton and Lake of Geneva, E. by the Swiss canton of the Valais, S. by Italy and the department of Savoie, and W. by the department of the Ain. It is mainly made up of the river-basins of the Arve (flowing along the northern foot of the Mont Blanc range, and receiving the Giffre, on the right, and the Borne and Foron, on the left—the Arve joins the Rhone, close to Geneva), of the Dranse (with several branches, all flowing into the Lake of Geneva), of the Usses and of the Fier (both flowing direct into the Rhone, the latter after forming the Lake of Annecy). The upper course of the Arly is also in the department, but the river then leaves it to fall into the Isère. The whole of the department is mountainous. But the hills attain no very great height, save at its south-east end, where rises the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, with many high peaks (culminating in Mont Blanc, 15,782 ft.) and many glaciers. That portion of the department is alone frequented by travellers, whose centre is Chamonix in the upper Arve valley. The lowest point (945 ft.) in the department is at the junction of the Fier with the Rhone. The whole of the department is included in that portion of the duchy of Savoy which was neutralized in 1815. In 1906 the population of the department was 260,617. Its area is 1775 sq. m., and it is divided into four arrondissements (Annecy, the chief town, Bonneville, St Julien and Thonon), 28 cantons and 314 communes. It forms the diocese of Annecy. There are in the department 176 m. of broad-gauge railways, and 70 m. of narrow-gauge lines. There are also a number of mineral springs, only three of which are known to foreigners—the chalybeate waters of Évian and Amphion, close to each other on the south shore of the Lake of Geneva, and the chalybeate and sulphurous waters of St Gervais, at the north-west end of the chain of Mont Blanc. Anthracite and asphalte mines are numerous, as well as stone quarries. Cotton is manufactured at Annecy, while Cluses is the centre of the clock-making industry. There is a well-known bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux. Thonon (the old capital of the Chablais) is the most important town on the southern shore of the Lake of Geneva and, after Annecy, the most populous place in the department.