Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design coils of pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single pipe would afford. They are now usually of special design, and may be divided into three classes—indirectRadiators.radiators, direct radiators and direct ventilating radiators. Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor of the apartment to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This method is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their surfaces previously to being admitted through the gratings into the room. Direct radiators are a development of the early coil of pipe; they are made in various types and designs and are usually of cast iron. Ventilating radiators are similar, but have an inlet arrangement at the base to allow external air to pass over the heating surface before passing out through the perforations. Radiators should not be fixed directly on to the main heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter leading from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily controlled by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe. To each radiator should be fitted an air tap, which when opened will permit the escape of any air that has accumulated in the coil; otherwise free circulation is impossible, and the full benefit of the heat is not obtained.
A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house for domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all requirements may be satisfied with a boiler heated by the kitchen fire. For large buildings where large quantitiesHot-water supply.of hot water are used an independent boiler of suitable size should be installed. Every installation is made up of a boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain the water when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply from which to the system is regulated automatically by a ball valve. These containers, proportioned to the required supply of hot water, are connected with each other by means of pipes, a “flow” and a “return” connecting the boiler with the cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from the top of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the return pipe joining the lower portions of the cylinder and boiler. The supply from the cold water cistern enters the bottom of the cylinder, and thence travels by way of the return pipe to the boiler, where it is heated, and back through the flow pipe to the cylinder, which is thus soon filled with hot water. A flow pipe which serves also for expansion is taken from the top of the cylinder to a point above the cold-water supply and turned down to prevent the ingress of dirt. From this pipe at various points are taken the supply pipes to baths, lavatories, sinks and other appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and most effective method, but it may be placed some distance away if desired. The tank system is of much earlier date than this cylinder system, and although the two resemble each other in many respects, the tank system is in practice the less effective. The tank is placed above the level of the topmost draw off, and often in a cupboard which it will warm sufficiently to permit of its being used as a linen airing closet. An expansion pipe is taken from the top of the tank to a point above the roof. All draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which connects the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top of the cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the tank or cylinder and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to 1. Water may also be heated by placing a coil of steam or high-pressure hot-water pipes in a water tank (fig. 6), the water heated in this way circulating in the manner already described. An alternative plan is to pass the water through pipes placed in a steam chest.
Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased in a non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt or asbestos composition. The two first mentioned are affixedby means of bands or straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid on in the form of a plaster from 2 to 6 in. thick.
Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main services by a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly flowing past the tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained immediately. Frequently a single pipe is led to the tap, but the water in this branch cools and must therefore be drawn off before hot water can be obtained.
Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range, and those heated separately or independently. Of the first class there are two varieties in common use—aBoilers.form of “saddle” boiler (fig. 13) and the “boot” boiler (fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every conceivable size and form of construction, and many of them are capable of doing excellent work. In the choice of a boiler of this description it should be remembered that rapid heating, economical combustion of fuel, and facilities for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of any of which considerably lowers the efficiency of the apparatus. Boilers set in brickwork are sometimes used in domestic work, although they are more favoured for horticultural heating. The shape mostly used is the “saddle” boiler, or some variation upon this very old pattern. The coiled pipe fire-box of the high-pressure hot-water system previously described may be also classed with boilers.
A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of building the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical sections. Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and those working independently are formed on the sectional principle, which has many good points. The parts are easy of transport and can be handled without difficulty through narrow doorways and in confined situations. The size of the boiler may be increased or diminished by the addition or subtraction of one or more sections; these, being simple in design, are easily fitted together, and should a section become defective it is a simple matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose of repair to disconnect and remove the whole apparatus, the heating system of which it forms a part being in the meantime useless. In a type built with vertical sections each division is complete in itself, and is not directly connected with the next section, but communicates with flow and return drums. A defective section may thus be left in position and stopped off by means of plugs from the drums until it is convenient to fit a new one in its place. A boiler with horizontal sections is shown in fig. 15; it will be seen that each of the upper sections has a number of cross waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box and intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great economy of fuel.
In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion pipe already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure occurring in the boiler; should, however, the pipes become blocked in any way while the apparatus isSafety valves.in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting of the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet it would in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a safety valve should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be connected thereto with a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve may be of the dead weight (fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17) or diaphragm variety. The three first named are largely used. In the diaphragm valve a thin piece of metal is fixed to an outlet from the boiler, and when a moderate pressure is exceeded this gives way, allowing the water and steam to escape.
Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer metal inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the heat of the water rise above a certain temperature.
A “Geyser” is a very convenient form of apparatus for heating a quantity of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper or wrought iron is passed through a cylinder in which gas or oil heating burners are placed. The pipingGeysers.takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the outlet is reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature. By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained, greater or smaller in proportion to the size and power of the apparatus. The improved types of gas geysers are provided with a single control to both gas and water supplies, with a small “pilot” burner to ignite the gas. A flue should in all cases be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.
In districts where the water is of a “hard nature,” that is, contains bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the boiler, cylinders, tanks and pipes of a hot water system will become incrusted with a deposit of limeIncrustation.which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated to boiling point. With “very hard” water this deposit may require removal every three months; in London it is usual to clean out the boiler every six months and the cylinders and tanks at longer intervals. For this purpose manlids must be provided (figs. 13 and 14), and pipes should be fitted with removable caps at the bends to allow for periodical cleaning. The lime deposit or “fur” is a poor conductor of heat, and it is therefore most detrimental to the efficiency of the system to allow the interior of the boiler or any other portion to become furred up. Further, if not removed, the fur will in a short time bring about a fracture in the boiler. The use of soft water entails a disadvantage of another character—that of corroding iron and lead work, soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical actionupon these metals. In districts supplied with soft water, copper should be employed to as large an extent as possible.
The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent required when the external air is at freezing point (32° Fahr.):—
In closing this account of heating and the practical methods of application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show the great capabilities of a carefully planned system. At the city of Lockport in New York state, America,Steam supply at Lockport.an interesting example of the direct application of steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out under the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses within a radius of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with superheated steam at a pressure of 35 ℔ to the in. The mains, the largest of which are 4 in. in diameter, and the smallest 2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and other non-conducting materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid under ground like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are 1½ in. in diameter, and ¾-in. pipes are used inside the houses. The steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe radiators, for heating water by steam injections, and for all cooking purposes. The steam mains to the houses are laid by the supply company; the internal pipes and fittings are paid for or rented by the occupier, costing for an installation from £30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to £100 or more for larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance has not been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.
The principal publications on heating are: Hood,Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water; Baldwin,Hot Water Heating and Fittings; Baldwin,Steam Heating for Buildings; Billings,Ventilation and Heating; Carpenter,Heating and Ventilating Buildings; Jones,Heating by Hot Water,Ventilation and Hot Water Supply; Dye,Hot Water Supply.
The principal publications on heating are: Hood,Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water; Baldwin,Hot Water Heating and Fittings; Baldwin,Steam Heating for Buildings; Billings,Ventilation and Heating; Carpenter,Heating and Ventilating Buildings; Jones,Heating by Hot Water,Ventilation and Hot Water Supply; Dye,Hot Water Supply.
(J. Bt.)
HEAVEN(O. Eng.hefen,heofon,heofone; this word appears in O.S.hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger.Himmel, Dutchhemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the suggestion that it is connected with “to heave,” in the sense of something “lifted up,” is erroneous), properly the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault above the earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be placed, the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region of winds, rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven and the earth together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers, and still in poetical language, make up the universe. In the cosmogonies of many ancient peoples there was a plurality of heavens, probably among the earlier Hebrews, the idea being elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the Babylonians and in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the higher transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven. Heaven, as in the Hebrewshamayim, the Greekοὐρανός, the Latincaelum, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (seeEschatologyandParadise).
HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH(1813-1863), German poet and dramatist, was born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen, Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813. Though only the son of a poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for poetry, which was first displayed to the world by the publication, in the HamburgModezeitung, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe (1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery tales. Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several of her friends on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg and there prepare himself for the university. A year later he went to Heidelberg to study law, but finding this uncongenial he passed on to the university of Munich, where he devoted himself to philosophy, history and literature. In 1839 Hebbel left Munich and wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where he resumed his relations with Elsie Lensing, whose self-sacrificing assistance had helped him over the darkest days in Munich. In the same year he wrote his first tragedyJudith(published 1841), which in the following year was performed in Hamburg and Berlin and made his name known throughout Germany. In 1840 he wrote the tragedyGenoveva, and the following year finished a comedy,Der Diamant, which he had begun at Munich. In 1842 he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the king of Denmark a small travelling studentship, which enabled him to spend some time in Paris and two years (1844-1846) in Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine “tragedy of common life,”Maria Magdalene(1844). On his return from Italy Hebbel met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to remain, and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best intellectual society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted life of ease had its effect. The old precarious existence became a horror to him, he made a deliberate breach with it by marrying (in 1846) the beautiful and wealthy actress Christine Enghaus, ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who had given up all for him and who remained faithful till her death, on the ground that “a man’s first duty is to the most powerful force within him, that which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the world”: in his case the poetical faculty, which would have perished “in the miserable struggle for existence.” This “deadly sin,” which, “if peace of conscience be the test of action,” was, he considered, the best act of his life, established his fortunes. Elise, however, still provided useful inspiration for his art. As late as 1855, shortly after her death, he wrote the little epicMutter und Kind, intended to show that the relation of parent and child is the essential factor which makes the quality of happiness among all classes and under all conditions equal. Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German sovereigns bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he was fêted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation to take up his residence at Weimar, where several of his plays were first performed. He remained, however, at Vienna until his death on the 13th of December 1863.
Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel’s principal tragedies areHerodes und Mariamne(1850);Julia(1851);Michel Angelo(1851);Agnes Bernauer(1855);Gyges und sein Ring(1856), and the magnificently conceived trilogyDie Nibelungen(1862), his last work (consisting of a prologue,Der gehörnte Siegfried, and the tragedies,Siegfrieds TodandKriemhilds Rache), which won for the author the Schiller prize. Of his comediesDer Diamant(1847),Der Rubin(1850), and the tragi-comedyEin Trauerspiel in Sizilien(1845), are the more important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity. All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in characterization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by extravagances which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction of incidents the unpleasant character of which is not sufficiently relieved. In many of his lyric poems, and especially inMutter und Kind, published in 1859, Hebbel showed that his poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.
His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols.,Hamburg, 1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, 1892). The best critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., 1901-1903), to which have been added Hebbel’s Diaries (4 vols.) and Correspondence (6 vols.). Hebbel’sBriefwechsel mit Freunden und berühmten Zeitgenossenwas issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). The chief biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and R. M. Werner (1905). See also L. A. Frankl,Zur Biographie F. Hebbels(1884); T. Poppe,F. Hebbel und sein Drama(1900); A. Scheunert,Der Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und Ästhetik Hebbels(1903); E. A. Georgy,Die Tragödie F. Hebbels nach ihrem Ideengehalt(1904).
His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols.,Hamburg, 1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg, 1892). The best critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols., 1901-1903), to which have been added Hebbel’s Diaries (4 vols.) and Correspondence (6 vols.). Hebbel’sBriefwechsel mit Freunden und berühmten Zeitgenossenwas issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892). The chief biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and R. M. Werner (1905). See also L. A. Frankl,Zur Biographie F. Hebbels(1884); T. Poppe,F. Hebbel und sein Drama(1900); A. Scheunert,Der Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und Ästhetik Hebbels(1903); E. A. Georgy,Die Tragödie F. Hebbels nach ihrem Ideengehalt(1904).
HEBBURN,an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 4½ m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881), 11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive shipbuilding and engineering works, rope and sail factories, chemical, colour and cement works, and collieries.
HEBDEN BRIDGE,an urban district in the Sowerby parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Calder and Hebden rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 7536. The town has cotton factories, dye-works, foundries and manufactories of shuttles. The upper Calder valley, between Halifax and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of which consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated, but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate surroundings is remarkable.
HEBE,in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the goddess of youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female counterpart of Ganymede, and acts as cupbearer to the gods (Iliad, iv. 2). She was the special attendant of her mother, whose horses she harnessed (Iliad, v. 722). When Heracles was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him in marriage (Odyssey, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic age, which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe was replaced by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To account for her retirement from her office, it was said that she fell down in the presence of the gods while handing the wine, and was so ashamed that she refused to appear before them again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance with the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus and Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera are often identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of Aphrodite; at Phlius, a festival calledΚισσοτόμοι(the days of ivy-cutting) was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias, ii. 13); and ivy was sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis of Heracles and his marriage with Hebe became a favourite subject with poets and painters, and many instances occur on vases. In later art she is often represented, like Ganymede, caressing the eagle.
See R. Kekulé,Hebe(1867), mainly dealing with the representations of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio’sDictionnaire des antiquités.
See R. Kekulé,Hebe(1867), mainly dealing with the representations of Hebe in art; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio’sDictionnaire des antiquités.
The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the goddess into a mere personification of the eternal youth that belongs to the gods, and this conception is frequently met with. Then she becomes identical with the Roman Juventas, who is simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter Juventus, the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel was dedicated in very early times in thecellaof Minerva in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected the legend of Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods refused to give way when it was being built—an indication of the eternal solidity and youth of Rome. The cult of Juventas did not, however, become firmly established until the time of the second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline books ordered a lectisternium in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in honour of Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the personification, not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor, who assumed the attributes of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G. Wissowa in Roscher’sLexikon der Mythologie).
HEBEL, JOHANN PETER(1760-1826), German poet and popular writer, was born at Basel on the 10th of May 1760. The father dying when the child was little over a year old, he was brought up amidst poverty-stricken conditions in the village of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received his earliest education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who enabled him to complete his school education and to study theology (1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university course he was for a time a private tutor, then became teacher at the Gymnasium in Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director of the school. He was subsequently appointed member of the Consistory and “evangelical prelate.” He died at Schwetzingen, near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of September 1826. Hebel is one of the most widely read of all German popular poets and writers. His poetical narratives and lyric poems, written in the “Alemanic” dialect, are “popular” in the best sense. HisAllemannische Gedichte(1803) “bucolicize,” in the words of Goethe, “the whole world in the most attractive manner” (verbauert das ganze Universum auf die anmutigste Weise). Indeed, few modern German poets surpass him in fidelity,naïveté, humour, and in the freshness and vigour of his descriptions. His poem,Die Wiese, has been described by Johannes Scherr as the “pearl of German idyllic poetry”; while his prose writings, especially the narratives and essays contained in theSchatzkästlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes(Tübingen, 1811; new edition, Stuttg. 1869, 1888), belong to the best class of German stories, and according to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868) in hisGeschichte der deutschen Literaturare “worth more than a cartload of novels” (wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf). Memorials have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.
A complete edition of Hebel’s works—Sämtliche Werke—was first published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent editions appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by G. Wendt, 2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and 1905 (edited by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. Hebel’s correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). See G. Längin,J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild(1894), and the introduction to Behaghel’s edition.
A complete edition of Hebel’s works—Sämtliche Werke—was first published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent editions appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by G. Wendt, 2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and 1905 (edited by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints. Hebel’s correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883). See G. Längin,J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild(1894), and the introduction to Behaghel’s edition.
HEBER, REGINALD(1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-writer, was born at Malpas in Cheshire on the 21st of April 1783. His father, who belonged to an old Yorkshire family, held a moiety of the living of Malpas. Reginald Heber early showed remarkable promise, and was entered in November 1800 at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a distinguished student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitledCarmen seculare, an English poem onPalestine, and a prose essay onThe Sense of Honour. In November 1804 he was elected a fellow of All Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished university career, he made a long tour in Europe. He was admitted to holy orders in 1807, and was then presented to the family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In 1809 Heber married Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He was made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton lecturer for 1815, preacher at Lincoln’s Inn in 1822, and bishop of Calcutta in January 1823. Before sailing for India he received the degree of D.D. from the university of Oxford. In India Bishop Heber laboured indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for the spread of Christianity throughout the East. He undertook numerous tours in India, consecrating churches, founding schools and discharging other Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told severely on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A statue of him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.
Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste and great practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his hymns, which rank among the best in the English language. The following may be instanced: “Lord of mercy and of might”; “Brightest and best of the sons of the morning”; “By cool Siloam’s shady rill”; “God, that madest earth and heaven”; “The Lord of might from Sinai’s brow”; “Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty”; “From Greenland’s icy mountains”; “The Lord will come, the earth shall quake”;“The Son of God goes forth to war.” Heber’s hymns and other poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical than poetical in the strict sense.
Among Heber’s works are:Palestine: a Poem, to which is added the Passage of the Red Sea(1809);Europe: Lines on the Present War(1809); a volume of poems in 1812;The Personality and Office of the Christian Comforter asserted and explained(being the Bampton Lectures for 1815);The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with a Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings(1822);Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year, principally by Bishop Heber(1827);A Journey through India(1828);Sermons preached in England, andSermons preached in India(1829);Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every Sunday in the Year(1837).The Poetical Works of Reginald Heberwere collected in 1841.See theLife of Reginald Heber, D.D. ..., by his widow, Amelia Heber (1830), which also contains a number of Heber’s miscellaneous writings;The Last Days of Bishop Heber, by Thomas Robinson, A.M., archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character and Religious Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), andMemorials of a Quiet Life, by Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).
Among Heber’s works are:Palestine: a Poem, to which is added the Passage of the Red Sea(1809);Europe: Lines on the Present War(1809); a volume of poems in 1812;The Personality and Office of the Christian Comforter asserted and explained(being the Bampton Lectures for 1815);The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with a Life of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings(1822);Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year, principally by Bishop Heber(1827);A Journey through India(1828);Sermons preached in England, andSermons preached in India(1829);Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every Sunday in the Year(1837).The Poetical Works of Reginald Heberwere collected in 1841.
See theLife of Reginald Heber, D.D. ..., by his widow, Amelia Heber (1830), which also contains a number of Heber’s miscellaneous writings;The Last Days of Bishop Heber, by Thomas Robinson, A.M., archdeacon of Madras (1830); T. S. Smyth, The Character and Religious Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), andMemorials of a Quiet Life, by Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).
HEBER, RICHARD(1773-1833), English book-collector, the half-brother of Reginald Heber, was born in London on the 5th of January 1773. As an undergraduate at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely classical library, but his taste broadening, he became interested in early English drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection of rare books in these departments. He attended continental book-sales, purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole libraries. Sir Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and who dedicated to him the sixth canto ofMarmion, classed Heber’s library as “superior to all others in the world”; Campbell described him as “the fiercest and strongest of all the bibliomaniacs.” He did not confine himself to the purchase of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. “No gentleman,” he remarked, “can be without three copies of a book, one for show, one for use, and one for borrowers.” To such a size did his library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England, some on the Continent. It is estimated to have cost over £100,000, and after his death the sale of that part of his collection stored in England realized more than £56,000. He is known to have owned 150,000 volumes, and probably many more. He possessed extensive landed property in Shropshire and Yorkshire, and was sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member of Parliament for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the Athenaeum Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of October 1833.
HEBERDEN, WILLIAM(1710-1801), English physician, was born in London in 1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St John’s College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship about 1730, became master of arts in 1732, and took the degree of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge nearly ten years longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course of lectures on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled in London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1749, and enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more than thirty years. At the age of seventy-two he partially retired, spending his summers at a house which he had taken at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London during the winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in London on the 17th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good classical scholar, published several papers in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, and among his noteworthy contributions to theMedical Transactions(issued, largely at his suggestion, by the College of Physicians) were papers on chicken-pox (1767) and angina pectoris (1768). HisCommentarii de morborum historia et curatione, the result of careful notes made in his pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in 1802; in the following year an English translation appeared, believed to be from the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-1845), also a distinguished scholar and physician, who attended King George III. in his last illness.
HÉBERT, EDMOND(1812-1890), French geologist, was born at Villefargau, Yonne, on the 12th of June 1812. He was educated at the Collège de Meaux, Auxerre, and at the École Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became professor at Meaux, in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the École Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and lecturer on geology. In 1857 the degree of D. ès Sc. was conferred upon him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the Sorbonne. There he was eminently successful as a teacher, and worked with great zeal in the field, adding much to the knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He devoted, however, special attention to the subdivisions of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation with the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe the first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological zones (see Table inGeol. Mag., 1869, p. 200). During his later years he was regarded as the leading geologist in France. He was elected a member of the Institute in 1877, Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he was three times president of the Geological Society of France. He died in Paris on the 4th of April 1890.
HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ(1757-1794), French Revolutionist, called “Père Duchesne,” from the newspaper he edited, was born at Alençon, on the 15th of November 1757, where his father, who kept a goldsmith’s shop, had held some municipal office. His family was ruined, however, by a lawsuit while he was still young, and Hébert came to Paris, where in his struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the accusations of theft directed against him later by Camille Desmoulins were, however, without foundation. In 1790 he attracted attention by some pamphlets, and became a prominent member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On the 10th of August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune of Paris, and became second substitute of theprocureurof the Commune on the 2nd of December 1792. His violent attacks on the Girondists led to his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but he was released owing to the threatening attitude of the mob. Henceforth very popular, Hébert organized with P. G. Chaumette (q.v.) the “worship of Reason,” in opposition to the theistic cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom he tried to excite a popular movement. The failure of this brought about the arrest of the Hébertists, orenragés, as his partisans were called. Hébert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife, who had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hébert’s influence was mainly due to his articles in his journalLe Père Duchesne,1which appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles, while not lacking in a certain cleverness, were violent and abusive, and purposely couched in foul language in order to appeal to the mob.
See Louis Duval, “Hébert chez lui,” inLa Révolution Française, revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater,J. R. Hébert, l’auteur du Père Duchesne avant la journée du 10 août 1792(Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard,Le Culte de la raison et de l’être suprême(Paris, 1892).
See Louis Duval, “Hébert chez lui,” inLa Révolution Française, revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, t. xii. and t. xiii.; D. Mater,J. R. Hébert, l’auteur du Père Duchesne avant la journée du 10 août 1792(Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard,Le Culte de la raison et de l’être suprême(Paris, 1892).
1There were several journals of this name, the best known of the others being that edited by Lemaire.
1There were several journals of this name, the best known of the others being that edited by Lemaire.
HEBREW LANGUAGE.The name “Hebrew” is derived, through the GreekἙβραῖος, from‘ibhray, the Aramaic equivalent of the Old Testament word‘ibhrī, denoting the people who commonly spoke of themselves as Israel or Children of Israel from the name of their common ancestor (seeJews). The later derivativeYisra’elī, Israelite, from Yisra’el, is not found in the Old Testament.1Other names used for the language of Israel arespeech of Canaan(Isa. xix. 18) andYehūdhīth, Jewish, (2 Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called theholy tongue. The real meaning of the word‘ibhrīmust ultimately be sought in the root‘abhar, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is derived the noun‘ebher, meaning the “farther bank” of a river. The usual explanation of the term is that of Jewish traditionthat’ibhrīmeans the man “from the other side,”i.e.either of the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence the Septuagint in Gen. xiv. 13 render Abramha-‘ibhrībyὁ περάτης, the “crosser,” and Aquila, following the same tradition, hasὁ περαἴτης, the man “from beyond.” This view of course implies that the term was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a people living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has been suggested that the root‘abharis to be taken in the sense of “travelling,” and that Abram the wandering Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5) was calledha-‘ibhrībecause he travelled about for trading purposes, his language,‘ibhrī, being thelingua francaof Eastern trade. The use of the termἑβραϊστίfor biblical Hebrew is first found in the Greek prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c.130B.C.). In the New Testament it denotes the native language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being popularly confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name Hebrew is applied to that branch of the northern part of the Semitic family of languages which was used by the Israelites during most of the time of their national existence in Palestine, and in which nearly all their sacred writings are composed. As to its characteristics and relation to other languages of the same stock, seeSemitic Languages. It also includes the later forms of the same language as used by Jewish writers after the close of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical Hebrew) and to the present day (New Hebrew).
Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular opinion that Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from which all others were descended. This belief, derived from the Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi. 1), was supported by the etymologies and other data supplied by the early chapters of Genesis. But though Hebrew possesses a very old literature, it is not, as we know it, structurally as early as,e.g.Arabic, or, in other words, it does not come so near to that primitive Semitic speech which may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the Semitic languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet, which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of expressing vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the development of the language. In its earliest form it was no doubt most closely allied to the Canaanite or Phoenician stock, to the language of Moab, as revealed by the stele of Mesha (c.850B.C.), and to Edomite. The vocalization of Canaanite, as far as it is known to us,e.g.from glosses in the Tell-el-Amarna tablets (15th centuryB.C.)2and much later from the Punic passages in thePoenulusof Plautus, differs in many respects from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity, however, of the Old Testament text is due to the labours of successive schools of grammarians who elaborated the Massorah (seeHebrew Literature), thereby obliterating local or dialectic differences, which undoubtedly existed, and establishing the pronunciation current in the synagogues about the 7th centuryA.D.The only mention of such differences in the Old Testament is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites pronouncedש(sh) asשorס(s). In Neh. xiii. 24, the “speech of Ashdod” is more probably a distinct (Philistine) language. Certain peculiarities in the language of the Pentateuch (הואforהיא,נערforנערה), which used to be regarded as archaisms, are to be explained as purely orthographical.3In a series of writings, however, extending over so long a period as those of the Old Testament, some variation or development in language is to be expected apart from the natural differences between the poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The consonantal text sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In general, the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking, a greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency to Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people of Palestine must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for ordinary purposes, but still at least understanding Hebrew. Not that they forgot their own tongue in the Captivity and learnt Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be supposed. In the western provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the official language, spoken not only in Palestine but in all the surrounding countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even of the Old Testament eventually appear in it (Targums). Meanwhile Hebrew did not become a dead language—indeed it can hardly be said ever to have died, since it has continued in use till the present day for the purposes of ordinary life among educated Jews in all parts of the world. It gradually became a literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears from the style of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan., Eccles.), and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (c.170B.C.). During the 1st centuryB.C.and the 1st centuryA.D.we have no direct evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living Hebrew, although mainly confined to the schools, with very clear differences from the biblical language. In the Old Testament the range of subjects was limited. In the Mishna it was very much extended. Matters relating to daily life had to be discussed, and words and phrases were adopted from what was no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A great many foreign words were also introduced. The language being no longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness of expression became necessary in the written style. In order to avoid the uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels to distinguish forms consisting of the same consonants (for the vowel-points were not yet invented), the aramaising use of the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa‘el, Nithpa‘el) for the internal passives (Pu‘al, Hoph‘al) became common; particles were used to express the genitive and other relations, and in general there was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely consonantal writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both Talmuds, which, roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously with Midrash, is a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic (Eastern Aram. in the Babylonian, Western in the Jerusalem Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators. As the popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread of Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards), while the dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew again came to be the natural standard both of East and West. The cultivation of it is shown and was no doubt promoted by the many philological works (grammars, lexicons and masorah) which are extant from the 10th century onward. In Spain, under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of that period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic writers both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous Hebrew compositions. No other vernacular (except, of course, Aramaic) ever had the same influence upon Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close a relation to it. At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews elsewhere, Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is widely used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds of subjects are produced in various countries, periodicals flourish, and Hebrew is the vehicle of correspondence between Jews in all parts of the world. Naturally its quality varies with the ability and education of the writer. In the modernpronunciationthe principal differences are between the Ashkenazim (German and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also certain consonants, and in some cases probably go back to early times. As regardswriting, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet (seeWriting) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form on the stele of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications, by the Samaritans. According to Jewish tradition Ezra introduced the Assyrian character (כתב אשורי), a much-debated statement which no doubt means that the Aramaic hand in use in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about the 5th centuryB.C.Another form of the same hand, allowing for differences of material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the 5th and 4thcenturiesB.C.From this were developed (a) thesquarecharacter used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most printed books, (b) theRabbinic(or Rashi) character, used in commentaries and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed books, (c) theCursivecharacter, used in letters and for informal purposes, not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew palaeography it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written. The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish, French, German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including Egyptian), Yemenite, Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the Rabbinic and Cursive characters that the differences are most noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also used, generally with the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to write other languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar (by Qaraites) and in later times German.
The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described below, under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral part. Among Christian scholars there was no independent school of Hebraists before the revival of learning. In the Greek and Latin Church the few fathers who, like Origen and Jerome, knew something of the language, were wholly dependent on their Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as depositaries of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac version of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the synagogue, and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic lore. In the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was preserved in the Church by converted Jews and even by non-Jewish scholars, of whom the most notable were the Dominican controversialist Raymundus Martini (in hisPugio fidei) and the Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely in his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of Hebrew study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century when an interest in the subject was awakened, only the most ardent zeal could conquer the obstacles that lay in the way. Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who were not of their faith, and on the other hand many churchmen conscientiously believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish learning. Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty, at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat better. Jews expelled from Spain received favour from the popes. Study was facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some of the earliest books printed were in Hebrew. The father of Hebrew study among Christians was the humanist Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of theRudimenta Hebraica(Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the converted Jew Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the claim of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin’s own pupils were Melanchthon, Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian Münster in Heidelberg (afterwards professor at Basel), and Büchlein (Fagius) at Isny, Strasburg and Cambridge, were pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias Levita. France drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with Vatablus and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners, Giustiniani, bishop of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter of 1516. In Rome the converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught under the patronage of Leo X., and did useful work in connexion with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain Hebrew learning was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the Complutensian Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and Etienne at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time Christian scholars still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more independent spirit soon arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th, and Drusius early in the 17th century, may be taken as representatives. In the 17th century too the cognate languages were studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott lexicon) and E. Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in Holland, S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger (Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar and lexicon. Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at Basel by the elder Buxtorf who was the author of grammatical works and a lexicon. With the rise of criticism Hebrew philology soon became a necessary department of theology. Cappellus (d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against Buxtorf, the late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in which the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the 18th century in Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the comparative method, with great success, relying mainly on Arabic. In Germany there was the meritorious J. D. Michaelis and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In the 19th century the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius, at Halle, whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in 1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which his pupil E. Rödiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised and enlarged it. Important work was also done by G. H. A. Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A. de Lagarde, not to mention later scholars who have utilized the valuable results of Assyriological research.