Chapter 21

Bibliography.—Holmes’sComplete Works, in 13 volumes, were published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse,Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes(London, 1896); G. B. Ives,Bibliography(Boston, 1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley’sAmerican Authors(Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to the “Golden Treasury” edition (1903) ofThe Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy (Boston, 1882); Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884).

(J. T. Mo.)

HOLMFIRTH,an urban district in the Holmfirth parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m. S. of Huddersfield, and on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 8977. The valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In 1852 great destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a reservoir in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed in woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries.

HOLOCAUST(Gr.ὁλοκαυστον, orὁλόκαυτον, wholly burnt), strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the sacrifices of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as “whole burnt offerings” (seeSacrifice). The term is now often applied to a catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a massacre or slaughter.

HOLOCENE(from Gr.ὅλος, whole,καινός, recent), in geology, the time division which embraces the youngest of all the formations; it is equivalent to the “Recent” of some authors. The name was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits that may be included are those containing neolithic implements; deposits of historic times should also be grouped here; presumably the youngest are those to be chronicled by the last man. The Holocene formations obviously include all the varieties of deposits which are accumulating at the present day: the gravels and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and fluvio-glacial deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the seas, and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline waters; peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes; coral, algal and shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud, lava and dust deposits of volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt and pitch; to all these must be added the works of man.

HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES(1861- ), British artist, was born in Leeds on the 9th of April 1861. He received his art education under Professor Legros at the Slade School, University College, London, where he had a distinguished career. After passing six months at Newlyn, where he painted his first picture exhibited in the Royal Academy, “Fishermen Mending a Sail” (1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied for two years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At his return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself to painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned “The Death of Torrigiano” (1886), “The Satyr King” (1889), “The Supper at Emmaus,” and, perhaps his best picture, “Pan and Peasants” (1893). For the church of Aveley, Essex, he painted a triptych altarpiece, “The Adoration of the Shepherds,” with wings representing “St Michael” and “St Gabriel,” and designed as well the window, “The Resurrection.” His portraits, such as that of “G. F. Watts, R.A.,” in the Legros manner, show much dignity and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his chief reputation as an etcher of exceptional ability, combining strength with delicacy, and a profound technical knowledge of the art. Among the best known are the “Monte Oliveto” series, the “Icarus” series, the “Monte Subasio” series, and the “Eve” series, together with the plates, “The Flight into Egypt,” “The Prodigal Son,” “A Barn on Tadworth Common” (etched in the open air), and “The Storm.” His etched heads of “Professor Legros,” “Lord Courtney” and “Night,” are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness. His principal dry-point is “The Bather.” In all his work Holroyd displays an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and of style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was appointed the first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery), and on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter in 1906 he received the directorship of the National Gallery. He was knighted in 1903. HisMichael Angelo Buonarotti(London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly work of real value.

HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON(1837-1909), German statesman, for more than thirty years head of the political department of the German Foreign Office. Holstein’s importance began with the dismissal of Bismarck in 1890. The new chancellor, Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and Holstein, as the repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became indispensable. This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been ascribed to the part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair, which had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due to a shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness of his position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately responsible. He protested against the despatch of the “Kruger telegram,” but protested in vain. On the other hand, where his ideas were acceptable, he was generally able to realize them. Thus it was almost entirely due to him that Germany acquired Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and the acquisition of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and pertinacity with which Holstein carried through his plans in these matters was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired Bismarck’s faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences. This is true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the Morocco crisis. The emperor William II.’s journey to Tangier was undertaken on his advice, as a protest against the supposed attempt at the isolation of Germany; but of the later developments of German policy in the Morocco question he did not approve, on the ground that the result would merely be to strengthen the Anglo-Frenchentente; and from the 12th of March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To the last he believed that the position of Germany would remain unsafe until an understanding had been arrived at with Great Britain, and it was this belief that determined his attitude towards the question of the fleet, “beside which,” he wrote in February 1909, “all other questions are of lesser account.” His views on this question were summarized in a memorandum of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives arésumé. He objected to the programme of the German Navy League on three main grounds: (1) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in South Germany, (2) the inevitable dislocation of the finances through the huge additional charges involved, (3) the suspicion of Germany’s motives in foreign countries, which would bind Great Britain still closer to France. As for the idea that Germany’s power would be increased, this—he wrote in reply to a letter from Admiral Galster—was “a simple question of arithmetic”; for how would the sea-power of Germany be relatively increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built two? Herr von Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince Bülow, and died on the 8th of May 1909.

See Hermann von Rath, “Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein” in theDeutsche Revuefor October 1909. He is also frequently mentionedpassimin Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe’sMemoirs.

HOLSTEIN,formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about 1110 the county of Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and it was made a duchy in 1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled by members of the house of Oldenburg, some of whom were also kings of Denmark. It is now the southern part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. (SeeSchleswig-Holstein, and for historySchleswig-Holstein Question.)

HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN(1825-1897), German theologian, was born at Güstrow, Mecklenburg, on the 31st of March 1825, and educated at Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock, where in 1852 he became a teacher of religion in the Gymnasium. In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New Testament studies, passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he remained until his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an adherent of the Tübingen school, and held to Baur’s views on the alleged antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism.

Among his writings areZum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus(1867);Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt(1880);Die synoptischen Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts(1886).

HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS,the Latinized name of Luc Holste (1596-1661), German humanist, geographer and theological writer, was born at Hamburg. He studied at Leiden university, where he became intimate with the most famous scholars of the age—J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius, whom he accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed at his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native town, he left Germany for good. Having spent two years in Oxford and London, he went to Paris. Here he obtained the patronage of N. de Peiresc, who recommended him to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the possessor of the most important private library in Rome. On the cardinal’s return in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his palace and made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman Catholicism in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the Congregation of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the Vatican by Innocent X., and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander VII. to receive Queen Christina’s abjuration of Protestantism. He died in Rome on the 2nd of February 1661. Holstenius was a man of unwearied industry and immense learning, but he lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier’sItalia antiqua(1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630), with a dissertation on his life and writings, described as a model of its kind; notes on EusebiusAgainst Hierocles(1628), on the Sayings of the later Pythagoreans (1638), and theDe diis et mundoof the neo-Platonist Sallustius (1638);Notae et castigationes in Stephani Bysantini ethnica(first published in 1684); andCodex regularum, Collection of the Early Rules of the Monastic Orders(1661). His correspondence (Epistolae ad diversos, ed. J. F. Boissonade, 1817) is a valuable source of information on the literary history of his time.

See N. Wilckens,Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii(Hamburg, 1723); Johann Moller,Cimbria literata, iii. (1744).

HOLSTER,a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman and properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn in the belt. The same word appears in Dutch, from which the English word probably directly derives. The root ishel- orhul- to cover, and is seen in the O. Eng.heolster, a place of shelter or concealment, and in “hull” a sheath or covering. The German word for the same object,holfter, is, according to the NewEnglish Dictionary, from a different root.

HOLT, SIR JOHN(1642-1710), lord chief justice of England, was born at Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of December 1642. His father, Sir Thomas Holt, possessed a small patrimonial estate, but in order to supplement his income had adopted the profession of law, in which he was not very successful, although he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his political services to the “Tories” was rewarded with knighthood. After attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon, of which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year entered Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very dissipated youth, and even to have been in the habit of taking purses on the highway, but after entering Gray’s Inn about 1660 he applied himself with exemplary diligence to the study of law. He was called to the bar in 1663. An ardent supporter of civil and religious liberty, he distinguished himself in the state trials which were then so common by the able and courageous manner in which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In 1685-1686 he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time he was made king’s sergeant and received the honour of knighthood. His giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the king to exercise martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal from the office of recorder, but he was continued in the office of king’s sergeant in order to prevent him from becoming counsel for accused persons. Having been one of the judges who acted as assessors to the peers in the Convention parliament, he took a leading part in arranging the constitutional change by which William III. was called to the throne, and after his accession he was appointed lord chief justice of the King’s Bench. His merits as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable when contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors in office. In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clearness of statement and unbending integrity he has had few if any superiors on the English bench. Over the civil rights of his countrymen he exercised a jealous watchfulness, more especially when presiding at the trial of state prosecutions, and he was especially careful that all accused persons should be treated with fairness and respect. He is, however, best known for the firmness with which he upheld his own prerogatives in opposition to the authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several occasions his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police to help the soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger that if any of the people were shot he would have the soldiers hanged, and proceeding himself to the scene of riot he was successful in preventing bloodshed. While steadfast in his sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained on the bench entire political impartiality, and always held himself aloof from political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the chancellorship in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it. His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710. He was buried in the chancel of Redgrave church.

Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt(1681-1710) appeared at London in 1738; andThe Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby v. White and others, and in the case of John Paty and others, printed from original MSS., at London (1837). See Burnet’sOwn Times;Tatler, No. xiv.; aLife, published in 1764; Welsby,Lives of Eminent English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries(1846); Campbell’sLives of the Lord Chief Justices; and Foss,Lives of the Judges.

HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON(1798-1880), German poet and actor, was born at Breslau on the 24th of January 1798, the son of an officer of Hussars. Having served in the Prussian army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly afterwards entered the university of Breslau as a student of law; but, attracted by the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his début in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller’sMaria Stuart. He led a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less on the stage as an actor than as a reciter of his own poems. In 1821 he married the actress Luise Rogée (1800-1825), and was appointed theatre-poet to the Breslau stage. He next removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an engagement at the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the vaudevillesDie Wiener in Berlin(1824), andDie Berliner in Wien(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour. In 1825 his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an engagement at the Königsstädter theatre in Berlin, when he wrote a number of plays, notablyLenore(1829) andDer alte Feldherr(1829). In 1830 he married Julie Holzbecher (1809-1839), an actress engaged at the same theatre, and with her played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831 he wrote for the composer Franz Gläser (1798-1861) the text of the operaDes Adlers Horst(1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama,Der dumme Peter(1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the stage and toured with his wife to various important cities, Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich and Vienna. In the last his declamatory powers as a reciter, particularly of Shakespeare’s plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor was given the appointment of manager of the Josefstädter theatre in the last-named city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and reciter, Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering through Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement at Breslau, he settled in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself to a literary life and produced the novelsDie Vagabunden(1851),Christian Lammfell(1853) andDer letzte Komödiant(1863). The last years of his life were spent at Breslau, where being in poor circumstances he found a home in theKloster der barmherzigen Brüder, and here he died on the 12th of February 1880.

As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the “vaudeville” into Germany; as an actor, although remaining behind the greater artists of his time, he contrived to fascinate his audience by the dramatic force of his exposition of character; as a reciter, especially of Shakespeare, he knew no rival. AugustLewald said of Holtei that by the energy of his poetic conception and plastic force he brought his audience round to his own ideas; and he added, “an eloquence such as his I have never met with in any other German.”

Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great charm. Notable among such productions areSchlesische Gedichte(1830; 20th ed., 1893),Gedichte(5th ed., 1861),Stimmen des Waldes(2nd ed., 1854). Mention ought also to be made of Holtei’s interesting autobiography,Vierzig Jahre(8 vols., 1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with the supplementary volumeNoch ein Jahr in Schlesien(1864).

Holtei’sTheaterappeared in 6 vols. (1867); hisErzählende Schriften, 39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick,Karl von Holtei, ein Lebensbild(1880); F. Wehl,Zeit und Menschen(1889); O. Storch,K. von Holtei(1898).

HÖLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH(1748-1776), German poet, was born on the 21st of December 1748 at the village of Mariensee in Hanover, where his father was pastor. In 1769 he went to study theology at Göttingen. Here he formed a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H. Boie, the brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders of the famous society of young poets known as theGöttinger DichterbundorHain. When in 1774 he left the university he had abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he was not destined to enter any other profession. He died of consumption on the 1st of September 1776 at Hanover. Hölty was the most gifted lyric poet of the Göttingen circle. He was influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his love for the Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other. A strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads are the pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models, which sprang up in Germany during the next few years. Among his most familiar poems may be mentionedÜb’ immer Treu’ und Redlichkeit,Tanzt dem schönen Mai entgegen,Rosen auf dem Weg gestreut, andWer wollte sich mit Grillen plagen?

Hölty’sGedichtewere published by his friends Count Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783); a new edition, enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but still imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first complete edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had access to MSS. not hitherto known. See H. Ruete,Hölty, sein Leben und Dichten(Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer,Der Göttinger Dichterbund, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Hölty’s poetry will be found.

HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON(1829-1889), German jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 14th of October 1829, was descended from a family of the old nobility. He was educated at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of 1848 inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained for the rest of his life a strong advocate of political liberty. In 1852 he graduated LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was nominated a professor extraordinary. The predominant party in Prussia regarded his political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided to accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he passed the last nineteen years of his life. During the thirty years that he was professor he successively taught several branches of jurisprudence, but he was chiefly distinguished as an authority on criminal and international law. He was especially well fitted for organizing collective work, and he has associated his name with a series of publications of the first value. While acting as editor he often reserved for himself, among the independent monographs of which the work was composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators on account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among the compilations which he superintended may be mentioned hisEncyclopädie der Rechtswissenschaft(Leipzig, 1870-1871, 2 vols.); hisHandbuch des deutschen Strafrechts(Berlin, 1871-1877, 4 vols.), and hisHandbuch des Völkerrechts auf Grundlage europäischer Staatspraxis(Berlin, 1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among his many independent works may be mentioned:Das irische Gefängnissystem(Leipzig, 1859),Französische Rechtszustände(Leipzig, 1859),Die Deportation als Strafmittel(Leipzig, 1859),Die Kürzungsfähigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen(Leipzig, 1861),Die Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deutschland(Berlin, 1864),Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft(Berlin, 1865),Die Principien der Politik(Berlin, 1869),Das Verbrechen des Mordes und die Todesstrafe(Berlin, 1875),Rumäniens Uferrechte an der Donau(Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also edited or assisted in editing a number of periodical publications on legal subjects. From 1866 to the time of his death he was associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow in editingSammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge(Berlin). Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of February 1889.

HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS(1832- ), German Protestant theologian, son of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-1877), was born on the 17th of May 1832 at Karlsruhe, where his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874) was appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately liberal theologian, he became best known as a New Testament critic and exegete, being the author of the Commentary on the Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed., 1901), the Johannine books (1890; 2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the Apostles (1901), in the seriesHandkommentar zum Neuen Testament. On the question of the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in his early work,Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und geschichtlicher Charakter(1863), presents a view which has been widely accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving Matthew in its present form from Mark and from Matthew’s earlier “collection of Sayings,” the Logia of Papias, and Luke from Matthew and Mark in the form in which we have them.

Other noteworthy works are theLehrbuch der histor.-kritischen Einleitung in das Neue Testament(1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and theLehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie(2 vols., 1896-1897). He also collaborated with R. Zöpffel in the preparation of a smallLexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen(1882; 3rd ed., 1895), and in 1893 became editor of theTheol. Jahresbericht.

HOLUB, EMIL(1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-central Africa, was born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the 7th of October 1847. He was educated at Prague University, where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went to the Kimberley diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his practice as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal, Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria Falls, making extensive natural history collections, which he brought to Europe in 1879 and distributed among over a hundred museums and schools. In 1883 he went back to South Africa with his wife, intending to cross the continent to Egypt. In June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of the Victoria Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the Kafue the camp was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and Holub was obliged to retrace his steps. He returned to Austria in 1887 with a collection of great scientific interest, of over 13,000 objects, now in various museums. Holub died at Vienna on the 21st of February 1902.

His principal works are:Eine Culturskizze des Marutse-Mambunda-reichs(Vienna, 1879);Sieben Jahre in Südafrika, &c. (2 vols., Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation appeared;Die Colonisation Afrikas(Vienna, 1882); andVon der Kapstadt ins Land der Maschukulumbe(2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890).

HOLY,sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or observance; a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection and sinlessness of the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of human worship and reverence, and hence transferred to those human persons who, either by their devotion to a spiritual ascetic life or by their approximation to moral perfection, are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old English washálig, and is common to other Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. and Dutchheilig, Swed.helig, Dan.hellig. It is derived fromhál, hale, whole, and cognate with “health.” TheNew English Dictionarysuggests that the sense-development may be from “whole,”i.e.inviolate, from “health,well-being,” or from “good-omen,” “augury.” It is impossible to get behind the Christian uses, in which from the earliest times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latinsacerandsanctus.

HOLY ALLIANCE, THE.The famous treaty, or declaration, known by this name was signed in the first instance by Alexander I., emperor of Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and Frederick William III., king of Prussia, on the 26th of September 1815, and was proclaimed by the emperor Alexander the same day at a great review of the allied troops held on the Champ des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text is as follows:—

In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia.Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events which have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to shower down upon those States which place their confidence and their hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the necessity of settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their reciprocal relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion of our Saviour teaches;Government and Political Relations.They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object than to publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, both in the administration of their respective States, and in their political relations with every other Government, to take for their sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed on the following Articles:—Principles of the Christian Religion.Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which command all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and indissoluble fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen, they will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid and assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects and armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same spirit of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion, Peace and Justice.Fraternity and Affection.Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether between the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be that of doing each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be animated, to consider themselves all as members of one and the same Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One family, namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love, science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour, the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises from a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise of the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.Accession of Foreign Powers.Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations, too long agitated, that these truths should henceforth exercise over the destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will be received with equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.

In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.

Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia.

Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events which have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to shower down upon those States which place their confidence and their hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the necessity of settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their reciprocal relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion of our Saviour teaches;

Government and Political Relations.

They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object than to publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution, both in the administration of their respective States, and in their political relations with every other Government, to take for their sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts of Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed on the following Articles:—

Principles of the Christian Religion.

Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which command all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three contracting Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and indissoluble fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow countrymen, they will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid and assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects and armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same spirit of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion, Peace and Justice.

Fraternity and Affection.

Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether between the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be that of doing each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by unalterable good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be animated, to consider themselves all as members of one and the same Christian nation; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as merely delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One family, namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love, science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour, the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises from a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise of the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.

Accession of Foreign Powers.

Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the sacred principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations, too long agitated, that these truths should henceforth exercise over the destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will be received with equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.

The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by the Baroness von Krüdener (q.v.); in any case it was the outcome of the tsar’s mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its inception perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor Francis signed willingly, the latter remarking that “if it was a question of politics, he must refer it to his chancellor, if of religion, to his confessor.” Metternich called it a “loud-sounding nothing,” Castlereagh, “a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense.” None the less, in accordance with its last article, the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited to the instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being excepted. The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on the constitutional ground that all acts of the British crown required the counter-signature of a minister, but he sent a letter expressing his “entire concurrence with the principles laid down by the ‘august sovereigns’ and stating that it would always be his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their ‘sacred maxims.’” With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns sooner or later appended their names.

In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language of serious historians, the “Holy Alliance” soon became synonymous with the combination of the great powers by whom Europe was ruled in concert during the period of the congresses, and associated with the policy of reaction which gradually dominated their counsels. For the understanding of the inner history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear distinction must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand, or Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was established on definite treaties concluded for definite purposes, of which the chief was the preservation of peace on the basis of the territorial settlement of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a general treaty—hardly indeed a treaty at all—which bound its signatories to act on certain vague principles for no well-defined end; and in its essence it was so far from necessarily reactionary that the emperor Alexander at one time declared that it involved the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their subjects. Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the tsar to make it the basis of the “universal union,” or general confederation of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated by the vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the mouthpiece of the British government (seeEurope:History;Alexander I.of Russia;Londonderry, Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquis of).

As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a matter of fact, became effective. None the less, its principles and the fact of its signature powerfully affected the course of European diplomacy during the 19th century. It strongly influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, to whom the brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an article of faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin (between Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar’s intervention in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of his brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a conspiracy against popular liberties was, however, a mere accident of the point of view of those who interpreted its principles. It was capable of other and more noble interpretations, and it was avowedly the inspiration of the famous rescript of the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the circular of Count Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898), which issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague in 1899.

(W. A. P.)

HOLYHEAD(Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned by Matthew Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penmôn, Anglesey), a seaport and market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the small Holy Island, at the western end of the county. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,079. Here the London and North-Western railway has a terminus, 263½ m. from London by rail. Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an embankment, ¾ m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the tide flowing fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village, the town has since William IV.’s reign acquired importance as the Dublin mail steam station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge was begun in 1847 and opened in September 1873. The east breakwater scheme, which would have covered the Platter’s rocks—still very troublesome—and the Skinner’s, was abandoned for buoys which mark the spots. The north breakwater is 7860 ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned). The roadstead (400 acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together make a magnificent shelter for shipping. The rubble mound of the breakwater was very costly to the railway company, as time after time it was swept away by storms. On it is a centralwall of some 38 ft. above low water, and on the wall a promenade sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the end of the breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 1½ million sterling. Additional works, begun in 1873 by the company, to extend the old harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft., were opened by King Edward VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880. These cost another half million. George IV. passed through Holyhead in 1821 on his way to Ireland, and there is a commemorative tablet on the old harbour pier. The church is said to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early 7th century) of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch. The churchyard wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the south of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner, of the steam packets, washed overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi rises perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 719 ft., at some 2 m. from the town; it is a mass of serpentine rocks, off which lie the North and South Stacks, each with a lighthouse with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and 197 ft. above high water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of British fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding and the Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants.

See Hon. W. Stanley’sHoly Island and Holyhead.

HOLY ISLAND,orLindisfarne, an irregularly shaped island in the North Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in which county it is included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to the mainland at low water by flat sands, over which a track, marked by wooden posts and practicable for vehicles, leads to the island. There is a station on the North-Eastern railway at Beak 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island, but 1¼ m. inland. The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 1½ N. to S., extreme distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it is sandy and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation. Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands, and, with fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported. There are several fresh springs on the island, and in the north-east is a lake of 6 acres. At the south-west angle is the little fishing village (formerly much larger) which is now a favourite summer watering-place. Here is the harbour, offering good shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its name from a monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as a cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott’s description of it as a “solemn, huge and dark-red pile.” An islet, lying off the S.W. angle, has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to have offered a retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The castle, situated east of the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft. high, dates fromc.1500.

When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach to the Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the site of his church and monastery, and made it the head of the diocese which he founded in 635. For some years the see continued in peace, numbering among its bishops St Cuthbert, but in 793 the Danes landed on the island and burnt the settlement, killing many of the monks. The survivors, however, rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when, through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland, taking with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics. The church and monastery were again destroyed and the bishop and monks, on account of the exposed situation of the island, determined not to return to it, and settled first at Chester-le-Street and finally at Durham. With the fall of the monastery the island appears to have become again untenanted, and probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham established there a cell of monks from their own house. The inhabitants of Holy Island were governed by two bailiffs at least as early as the 14th century, and, according to J. Raine in hisHistory of North Durham(1852), are called “burgesses or freemen” in a private paper dated 1728. In 1323 the bailiffs and community of Holy Island were commanded to cause all ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under double manning to be ready to set out on the kings service. Towards the end of the 16th century the fort on Holy Island was garrisoned for fear of foreign invasion by Sir William Read, who found it very much in need of repair, the guns being so decayed that the gunners “dare not give fire but by trayne,” and the master gunner had been “miserably slain” in discharging one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected with the island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to hold it for the Pretender.

HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB(1817-1906), English secularist and co-operator, was born at Birmingham, on the 13th of April 1817. At an early age he became an Owenite lecturer, and in 1841 was the last person convicted for blasphemy in a public lecture, though this had no theological character and the incriminating words were merely a reply to a question addressed to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless underwent six months’ imprisonment, and upon his release invented the inoffensive term “secularism” as descriptive of his opinions, and established theReasonerin their support. He was also the last person indicted for publishing an unstamped newspaper, but the prosecution dropped upon the repeal of the tax. His later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion of the co-operative movement among the working classes. He wrote the history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857),The History of Co-operation in England(1875; revised ed., 1906), andThe Co-operative Movement of To-day(1891). He also published (1892) his autobiography, under the title ofSixty Years of an Agitator’s Life, and in 1905 two volumes of reminiscences,Bygones worth Remembering. He died at Brighton on the 22nd of January 1906.

See J. McCabe,Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake(2 vols., 1908); C. W. F. Goss,Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J. Holyoake(1908).

HOLYOKE,a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in a bend of the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N. of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915; (1890) 35,637; (1900) 45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total population in 1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991 French-Canadians, 5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626 were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 12,370 of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The city’s area is about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston & Maine, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by an interurban line. Holyoke is characteristically an industrial and mercantile city; it has some handsome public buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded in 1870, being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley, about 4 m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with South Hadley by an electric line. Just above Holyoke the Connecticut leaves the rugged highlands through a rift between Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a mountain-railway from Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a meandering valley course, falling (in the Hadley halls) in great volume some 60 ft. in about 1½ m. The water-power was unutilized until 1849, when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which enabled vast power to be developed along a series of canals laid out from the river. This was, in its day, a colossal undertaking; and its success transformed Holyoke from a farming village into a great manufacturing centre—in 1900 and 1905 the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam (1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was completed at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures first, and later paper products were chief in importance, and Holyoke now leads all the cities in the United States in the manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total value of all factory products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or 34.6% of the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding and blank books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shopproducts. Silk and worsted goods are other important manufactures. Opposite Holyoke, in Hampshire county, is South Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and operates the gas and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the water-supply being derived from natural ponds, some of which are outside the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10.3 m.) to Westfield, Mass. Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield, and after 1774 of West Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated as a township, and in 1873 was chartered as a city.

HOLYSTONE,a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for scrubbing and cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word is doubtful. Some authorities hold that it arose from the general practice of scrubbing the decks for Sunday service; while others think the name arises from the fact that the stone so employed is naturally porous and full of holes. A small flint or stone having a natural hole in it, and worn as a charm, is also called a holystone.

HOLY WATER,technically the water with which Christian believers sign the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving church. The edict of Gratian lays down that it should be exorcized and blessed by the priest and sprinkled with exorcized salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian, Gregorian and other sacramentaries. In the East the water was blessed once a month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday. In the 4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on entering the church (seeAblution).

In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for baptisms and other lustrations. “Water,” says Tertullian in his tract on baptism, “was the abode at the first of the divine Spirit, being more acceptable then (to God) than the other elements.” He pictures the world in the beginning: “total darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars, the melancholy abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The liquid alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God.” Water was similarly pure in itself in the old Persian religion.

TheCanons of Hippolytus, or Egyptian church order, of aboutA.D.250, give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact that “at cock crow the baptismal party shall take their stand near waving water, pure, prepared, sacred, of the sea.” TheTeaching of the Apostles,c.100, merely insists on “living,” that is, clear and running water. The ancient feeling, especially Jewish, was that in lustrations the same water must not pass twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless. Bubbling waters too seemed to have a spirit in them.

Either because running water was not always at hand, or as part of the growing tendency of the church to multiply ceremonies, rituals arose late in the 3rd century for consecrating water. The sacramentary of Serapion,c.350, provides a prayer asking that the divine Word may descend into the water and hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan. In the Roman order of baptism the priest prays that “the font may receive the grace of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and that the latter may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this water prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb of the divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a new creature.” The water is then exorcized and evil spirits warned off, and lastly blessed. During the prayer the priest twice signs the water with the cross, and once blows upon it.

The first mention of a special consecration of water for other ends than baptism is in theActs of Thomas(?A.D.200); it is for the purgation of a youth already baptized who had killed his mistress because she would not live chastely with him. The apostle prays: “Fountain sent unto us from Rest, Power of Salvation from that Power proceeding which overcomes and subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these waters, that theCharisma(gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully perfected through them.” The youth then washes his hands, which on touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed.

The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy Spirit is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense in water, just as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and carried away by it. So Tertullian writes: “The water which carried the Spirit of God (probably regarded as a shadow or reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that which was carried upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb and take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate and settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance.”

“Water,” he continues, “was generically hallowed by the Spirit of God brooding over it at creation, and therefore all special waters are holy, and at once obtain the sacrament of sanctification when God is invoked (over them.) For the Spirit from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon the waters, hallowing them out of itself, and being so hallowed they drink up a power of hallowing.”

What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated in the unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice and fraud are not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt. “The waters are medicated in a manner through the intervention of the angel, and the Spirit is corporeally washed in the water and the flesh is spiritually purified in the same.”

Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God was invoked, like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As regards rival Isiac and Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their waters are destitute of divine power; nay, are rather tenanted by the devil who in this matter sets himself to rival God. “Without any religious rite at all,” he urges, “unclean spirits brood upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial gestation of the divine Spirit.” And he instances the “darkling springs and lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful spirit.” In the sequel he defines the rôle of the angel of baptism who does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first; but merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures their being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the rite of confirmation which immediately follows. “The devil who till now ruled over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the water.”

From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us—akin to the folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and water-worship in general—was to Tertullian and to the generations of believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions and beliefs of the church, nothing less than grim reality and unquestionable fact.

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