In consequence of the general neglect of the Magyar language during the reigns of Maria Theresa and her successor Joseph II., the more important prose productions of the latter part of the 18th century, as for instance the historical works ofRegeneration of the literature (1772-1807).George Pray, Stephen Katona, John Engel and Ignatius Fessier, were written either in Latin or in German. The reaction in favour of the native literature manifested itself at first chiefly in the creation of various schools of poetry. Foremost among these stood the so-called “French” school, founded by George Bessenyei, the author of several dramatic pieces, and of an imitation of Pope’s “Essay on Man,” under the title ofAz embernek próbája(Vienna, 1772). Bessenyei introduced the use of rhymed alexandrines in place of the monotonous Zrinian measure. Other writers of the same school were Laurence Orczy and Abraham Barcsay, whose works have a striking resemblance to each other, and were published together by Révai (1789). The songs and elegies of the short-lived Paul Ányos, edited by Bacsányi in 1798, show great depth of feeling. Versifiers and adapters from the French appeared also in Counts Adam and Joseph Teleki, Alexander Báróczi and Joseph Péczeli, known also as the translator of Young’s “Night Thoughts.” The chief representatives of the strictly “classical” school, which adopted the ancient Greek and Latin authors as its models, were David Baróti Szabó, Nicholas Révai, Joseph Rájnis and Benedict Virág. Among the most noteworthy works of Baróti are theUj mértékre vett külömb versek(Kassa, 1777), comprising hexameter verses, Horatian odes, distichs, epistles and epigrams; theParaszti Majorság(Kassa, 1779-1780), an hexameter version of Vanière’sPraedium rusticum; and an abridged version of “Paradise Lost,” contained in theKölteményes munkaji(Komárom, 1802). Baróti, moreover, published (1810-1813) a translation of Virgil’sAeneidandEclogues. Of Baróti’s purely linguistic works the best known are hisOrtographia és Prosodia(Komárom, 1800); and theKisded Szótár(Kassa, 1784 and 1792) or “Small Lexicon” of rare Hungarian words. As a philologist Baróti was far surpassed by Nicholas Révai, but as a poet he may be considered superior to Rájnis, translator of Virgil’s Bucolics and Georgics, and author of theMagyar Helikonra vezetö kalauz(Guide to the Magyar Helicon, 1781). The “classical” school reached its highest state of culture under Virág, whose poetical works, consisting chiefly of Horatian odes and epistles, on account of the perfection of their style, obtained for him the name of the “Magyar Horace.” ThePoetai Munkai(Poetical Works) of Virág were published at Pest in 1799, and again in 1822. Of his prose works the most important is theMagyar Századokor “Pragmatic History of Hungary” (Buda, 1808 and 1816). Vályi-Nagy, the first Magyar translator of Homer, belongs rather to the “popular” than the “classical” school. His translation of theIliadappeared at Sárospatak in 1821. The establishment of the “national” or “popular” school is attributable chiefly to Andrew Dugonics, though his earliest works,Troja veszedelme(1774) andUlysses(1780), indicate a classical bias. His national romances, however, and especiallyEtelka(Pozsony, 1787) andAz arany pereczek(Pest and Pozsony, 1790), attracted public attention, and were soon adapted for the stage. The most valuable of his productions is his collection of “Hungarian Proverbs and Famous Sayings,” which appeared in 1820 at Szeged, under the title ofMagyar példabeszédek és jeles mondások. The most noteworthy follower of Dugonics was Adam Horváth, author of the epic poemsHunniász(Györ, 1787) andRudolphiász(Vienna, 1817), Joseph Gvadányi’s tripartite workFalusi notárius(Village Notary), published between 1790 and 1796, as also hisRontó Pál és gr. Benyowsky történeteik(Adventures of Paul Rontó and Count Benyowski), are humorous and readable, but careless in style. As writers of didactic poetry may be mentioned John Endrödy, Caspar Göböl, Joseph Takács and Barbara Molnár, the earliest distinguished Magyar poetess.Of a more general character, and combining the merits of the above schools, are the works of the authors who constituted the so-called “Debreczen Class,” which boasts the names of the naturalist and philologist John Földi, compiler of a considerable part of theDebreczeni magyar grammatica; Michael Fazekas, author ofLudas Matyi(Vienna, 1817), an epic poem, in 4 cantos; and Joseph Kovács. Other precursors of the modern school were the poet and philologist Francis Verseghy, whose works extend to nearly forty volumes; the gifted didactic prose writer, Joseph Kármán; the metrical rhymster, Gideon Ráday; the lyric poets, Ssentjóbi Szabó, Janos Bacsányi (q.v.), and the short-lived Gabriel Dayka, whose posthumous “Verses” were published in 1813 by Kazinczy. Still more celebrated were Mihaly Csokonai (q.v.) and Alexander Kisfaludy (q.v.). The first volume of Alexander Kisfaludy’sHimfy, a series of short lyrics of a descriptive and reflective nature, appeared at Buda in 1801, under the title ofKesergö szerelem(Unhappy Love), and was received with great enthusiasm; nor was the success of the second volumeBoldog szerelem(Happy Love), which appeared in 1807, inferior. TheRegék, or “Tales of the Past,” were published at Buda from 1807 to 1808, and still further increased Kisfaludy’s fame; but in his dramatic works he was not equally successful. Journalistic literature in the native language begins with theMagyar Hírmondó(Harbinger) started by Matthias Ráth at Pozsony in 1780. Among the magazines the most important was theMagyar Muzeum, established at Kassa (Kaschau) in 1788 by Baróti, Kazinczy and Bacsányi. TheOrpheus(1790) was the special work of Kazinczy, and theUrania(1794) of Kármán and of Pajor.Closely connected with the preceding period is that of the “Revival of the Language” (1807-1830), with which the name of Francis Kazinczy (q.v.) is especially associated. To him it was left to perfect that work of restoration begun by BarótiRevival of the language (1807-1830).and amplified by Révai. Poetry and belles lettres still continued to occupy the chief place in the native literature, but under Kazinczy and his immediate followers Berzsenyi, Kölcsey, Fáy and others, a correctness of style and excellence of taste hitherto unknown soon became apparent. Kazinczy, in his efforts to accommodate the national language to the demands of an improved civilization, availed himself of the treasures of European literature, but thereby incurred the opposition of those who were prejudiced by a too biased feeling of nationality. The opinions of his enemies were ventilated in a lampoon styledMondolat. Daniel Berzsenyi, whose odes are among the finest in the Hungarian language, was the correspondent of Kazinczy, and like him a victim of the attacks of theMondolat. But the fervent patriotism, elevated style, and glowing diction of Berzsenyi soon caused him to be recognized as a truly national bard. A too frequent allusion to Greek mythological names is a defect sometimes observable in his writings. His collective works were published at Buda by Döbrentei in 1842. Those of John Kis, the friend of Berzsenyi, cover a wide range of subjects, and comprise, besides original poetry, many translations from the Greek, Latin, French, German and English, among which last may be mentioned renderings from Blair, Pope and Thomson, and notably his translation, published at Vienna in 1791, of Lowth’s “Choice of Hercules.” The style of Kis is unaffected and easy. As a sonnet writer none stands higher than Paul Szemere, known also for his rendering of Körner’s dramaZrinyi(1818), and his contributions to theElet és Literatura(Life and Literature). The articles of Francis Kölcsey in the same periodical are among the finest specimens of Hungarian aesthetical criticism. The lyric poems of Kölcsey can hardly be surpassed, whilst his orations, and markedly theEmlék beszéd Kazinczy felett(Commemorative Speech on Kazinczy), exhibit not only his own powers, but the singular excellence of the Magyar language as an oratorical medium. Andrew Fáy, sometimes styled the “Hungarian Aesop,” is chiefly remembered for hisEredeti Mesék(Original Fables). The dramatic works of Charles Kisfaludy, brother of Alexander, won him enthusiastic recognition as a regenerator of the drama. His plays bear a distinctive national character, the subjects of most of them referring to the golden era of the country. His genuine simplicity as a lyrical writer is shown by the fact that several of his shorter pieces havepassed into popular song. As the earliest Magyarizer of Servian folk-song, Michael Vitkovics did valuable service. Not without interest to Englishmen is the name of Gabriel Döbrentei (q.v.), the translator of Shakespeare’s Macbeth, represented at Pozsony in 1825. An historical poem of a somewhat philosophical nature was produced in 1814 by Andreas Horváth under the title ofZircz emlékezete(Reminiscence of Zircz); but hisÁrpád, in 12 books, finished in 1830, and published at Pest in the following year, is a great national epic. Among other poets of this period were Alois Szentmiklóssy, George Gaal, Emil Buczy, Joseph Szász, Ladislaus Tóth and Joseph Katona, author of the much-extolled historical dramaBánk Bán.76Izidore Guzmics, the translator of Theocritus into Magyar hexameters, is chiefly noted for his prose writings on ecclesiastical and philosophical subjects. As authors of special works on philosophy, we find Samuel Köteles, John Imre, Joseph Ruszék, Daniel Ercsei and Paul Sárvári; as a theologian and Hebraist John Somossy; as an historian and philologist Stephen Horváth, who endeavoured to trace the Magyar descent from the earliest historic times; as writers on jurisprudence Alexander Kövy and Paul Szlemenics. For an account of the historian George Fejér, the laborious compiler of theCodex Diplomaticus, seeFejér.The establishment of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences77(17th November 1830) marks the commencement of a new period, in the first eighteen years of which gigantic exertions were made as regards the literary and intellectual life of theAcademy period, 1830-1880.nation. The language, nursed by the academy, developed rapidly, and showed its capacity for giving expression to almost every form of scientific knowledge.78By offering rewards for the best original dramatic productions, the academy provided that the national theatre should not suffer from a lack of classical dramas. During the earlier part of its existence the Hungarian academy devoted itself mainly to the scientific development of the language and philological research. Since its reorganization in 1869 the academy has, however, paid equal attention to the various departments of history, archaeology, national economy and the physical sciences. The encouragement of polite literature was more especially the object of the Kisfaludy Society, founded in 1836.79Polite literature had received a great impulse in the preceding period (1807-1830), but after the formation of the academy and the Kisfaludy society it advanced with accelerated speed towards the point attained by other nations. Foremost among epic poets, though not equally successful as a dramatist, was Mihaly Vörösmarty (q.v.), who, belonging also to the close of the last period, combines great power of imagination with elegance of language. Generally less varied and romantic, though easier in style, are the heroic poemsAugsburgi ütközet(Battle of Augsburg) andAradi gyülés(Diet of Arad) of Gregory Czuczor, who was, moreover, very felicitous as an epigrammatist. Martin Debreczeni was chiefly famed for hisKióvi csata(Battle of Kieff), published at Pest in 1854 after his death by Count Emeríc Mikó. The laborious John Garay in hisSzent Lászlóshows considerable ability as an epic poet, but his greatest merit was rather as a romancist and ballad writer, as shown by the “Pen Sketches” orTollrajzok(1845), and his legendary seriesÁrpádok(1847). Joseph Bajza was a lyricist of a somewhat melancholy cast, but hisBorének(Wine Song),Sohajtás(Sigh),Ébresztö(Awakening) andApotheosisare much admired. He is known further as the translator of F. C. Dahlmann’sGeschichte der englischen Revolution. As generally able writers of lyrical poetry during the earlier part of this period may be mentioned among others Francis Császár, Joseph Székács and Andrew Kunoss—also Lewis Szakál and Alexander Vachott, whose songs and romances are of an artless and simple character, and the sacred lyricist Béla Tárkányi. As an original but rather heavy lyric and didactic poet we may mention Peter Vajda, who was, moreover, the translator of Bulwer’s “Night and Morning.” Of a more distinctly national tendency are the lyrics of John Kriza80and John Erdélyi, but the reputation of the latter was more especially due to his collections of folk-lore made on behalf of the Kisfaludy society. More popular than any of the preceding, and well known in England through Sir John Bowring’s translation, are the charming lyrics of Alexander Petöfi (q.v.), the “Burns” of Hungary. His poems, which embody the national genius, have passed into the very life of the people; particularly is he happy in the pieces descriptive of rural life. Among lyricists were: Coloman Tóth, who is also the author of several epic and dramatic pieces; John Vajda, whoseKisebb Költemények(Minor Poems), published by the Kisfaludy society in 1872, are partly written in the mode of Heine, and are of a pleasing but melancholy character; Joseph Lévay, known also as the translator of Shakespeare’sTitus Andronicus,Taming of the ShrewandHenry IV.; and Paul Gyulai, who, not only as a faultless lyric and epic poet, but as an impartial critical writer, is highly esteemed, and whoseRomhányiis justly prized as one of the best Magyar poems that has appeared in modern times. To these may be added the names of Charles Berecz, Joseph Zalár, Samuel Nyilas, Joseph Vida, Lewis Tolnai, the sentimental Ladislaus Szelestey, and the talented painter Zoltán Balogh, whose romantic poemAlpáriwas published in 1871 by the Kisfaludy society. The lyrics of Anthony Várady (1875, 1877) are somewhat dull and unequal in tone; both he and Baron Ivor Kaas, author ofAz itélet napja(Day of Judgment, 1876), have shown skill rather in the art of dramatic verse. The poems of Count Géza Zichy and Victor Dalmady, those of the latter published at Budapest in 1876, are mostly written on subjects of a domestic nature, but are conceived in a patriotic spirit. Emil Ábrányi adopts a rather romantic style, but hisNagypéntek(Good Friday) is an excellent descriptive sketch. Alexander Endrödy, author ofTücsök dalok(Cricket Songs, 1876), is a glowing writer, with great power of conception, but his metaphors, following rapidly one upon the other, become often confused. Joseph Kiss in 1876 brought out a few lyric and epic poems of considerable merit. TheMesékof Augustus Greguss (1878), a collection of verse “Fables,” belonging to the school of Gay, partake more of a didactic than lyrical nature. This feature is noticeable also in theKöltemények(1873) of Ladislaus Torkos and theModern Mesék(1874) of Ladislaus Névy. TheSalamon(1878) of Charles Szász (b. 1829) was rewarded with the prize of the academy. The subject, taken from the age of Hungarian chivalry, is artistically worked out from medieval legends, and gives an excellent description of the times of St Ladislaus of Hungary. Charles Szász is generally better known as a metrical translator than as an original poet. He is the Magyarizer of Shakespeare’sAnthony and Cleopatra,Othello,Macbeth,Henry VIII.,Winter’s Tale,Romeo and JulietandTempest, as also of some of the best pieces of Burns, Moore, Byron, Shelley, Milton, Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Goethe and others. A translator from Byron and Pope appeared also in Maurice Lukács.81Meanwhile dramatic literature found many champions, of whom the most energetic was Edward Szigligeti,proprieJoseph Szathmáry, who enriched the Hungarian stage with more than a hundred pieces. Of these the most popular are comedies and serio-comic national dramas. A less prolific but more classical writer appeared in Charles Obernyik, whoseGeorge Brankovicsis, next to Katona’sBánk Bán, one of the best historical tragedies in the language. Several of the already mentioned lyric and epic poets were occasional writers also for the drama. To these we may add the gifted but unfortunate Sigismund Czakó, Lewis Dobsa, Joseph Szigeti, Ignatius Nagy, Joseph Szenvey (a translator from Schiller), Joseph Gaal, Charles Hugo, Lawrence Tóth (the Magyarizer of theSchool for Scandal), Emeric Vahot, Alois Degré (equally famous as a novelist), Stephen Toldy and Lewis Dóczi, author of the popular prize dramaCsók(The Kiss).Az ember tragoediája(The Tragedy of Man), by Emeric Madách (1861), is a dramatic poem of a philosophical and contemplative character, and is not intended for the stage. Among successful dramatic pieces may be mentioned theFalu rossza(Village Scamp) of Edward Tóth (1875), which represents the life of the Hungarian peasantry, and shows both poetic sentiment and dramatic skill;A szerelem harcza(Combat of Love), by Count Géza Zichy;Iskáriot(1876) and the prize tragedyTamora(1879), by Anthony Várady;Jánus(1877), by Gregory Csiky; and the dramatized romanceSzép Mikhal(Handsome Michal), by Maurus Jókai (1877). The principal merit of this author’s dramaMilton(1876) consists in its brilliance of language. TheSzerelem iskolája(School of Love), by Eugene Rákosy, although in some parts exquisitely worded, did not meet with the applause accorded to hisRipacsos Pista Dolmánya(1874). TheGróf Dormándi Kálmán(Count Coloman Dormándi) of Béla Bercsényi (1877) is a social tragedy of the French school. Among the most recent writers of comedy we single out Árpád Berczik for his Aházasitók(The Matchmakers); Ignatius Súlyovsky for hisNöi diplomatia(Female Diplomacy); and the above-mentioned Gregory Csiky for hisEllenállhatatlan(The Irresistible), produced on the stage in 1878. As popular plays theSárga csikó(Bay Foal) andA piros bugyelláris(The Red Purse), by Francis Csepreghy, have their own special merit, and were often represented in 1878 and 1879 at Budapest and elsewhere.Original romance writing, which may be said to have commenced with Dugonics and Kármán at the close of the 18th, and to have found a representative in Francis Verseghy at the beginning of the 19th century, was afterwards revived by Fáy in hisBélteky ház(1832), and by the contributors to certain literary magazines, especially theAurora, an almanack conducted by Charles Kisfaludy, 1821-1830, and continued by Joseph Bajza to 1837. Almost simultaneously with the rise of the Kisfaludy society, works of fiction assumed a more vigorous tone, and began to present just claims for literary recognition. Far from adopting the levity of style too often observable in French romances, the Magyar novels, although enlivened by touches of humour, have generally rather a serious historical or political bearing. Especially is this the case with Nicholas Jósika’sAbafi(1835),A csehek Magyarországon(The Bohemians in Hungary), andAz utolsó Bátori(The Last of the Báthoris), published in 1847. In these, as in many other of the romances of Jósika, a high moral standard is aimed at. The same may be said of Baron Joseph Eötvös’sKarthausi(1839) andFalu Jegyzöje(Village Notary), published in 1845, and translated into English (1850) by O. Wenckstern (see Eötvös). TheÁrvizönyvor “Inundation Book,” edited by Eötvös (1839-1841), is a collection of narratives and poems by the most celebrated authors of the time. Of the novels produced by Baron Sigismund Kemény theGyulai Pál(1847), in 5 vols., is, from its historical character, the most important. HisFérj és nö(Husband and Wife) appeared in 1853 (latest ed., 1878), theRajongók(Fanatics), in 4 vols., in 1858-1859. The graphic descriptions of Hungarian life in the middle and lower classes by Lewis Kuthy won for him temporary renown; but his style, though flowery, is careless. Another popular writer of great originality was Joseph RadákovicsaliasVas-Gereben. The romances of Baron Frederick Podmaniczky are simpler, and rather of a narrative than colloquial character. The fertile writer Paul Kovács excels more particularly in humorous narration. Fay’s singular powers in this direction were well shown by hisJávor orvos és Bakator Ambrus szolgája(Doctor Jávor and his servant Ambrose Bakator), brought out at Pest in 1855. TheBeszélyek(Tales) of Ladislaus Beöthy were produced in the same year, hisPuszták fia(Son of the Pusztas) in 1857. Pleasing humorous sketches are contained also in Ignatius Nagy’sBeszélyek(1843) and “Caricatures” orTorzképek(1844); in Caspar Bernát’sFresko képek(1847-1850); in Gustavus Lauka’sVidék, and hisA jó régi világ(The Good Old World), published respectively in 1857 and 1863; and in Alexander Balázs’sBeszélyei(1855) andTükördarabok(1865). Among authors of other historical or humorous romances and tales which have appeared from time to time are Francis MártonaliasLewis Abonyi, Joseph Gaal, Paul Gyulai, William Györi, Lazarus Horváth, the short-lived Joseph Irinyi, translator ofUncle Tom’s Cabin, Francis Ney, Albert Pálffy, Alexander Vachott and his brother Emeric (Vahot), Charles Szathmáry, Desider Margittay, Victor Vajda, Joseph Bodon, Atala Kisfaludy and John Krátky. But by far the most prolific and talented novelist that Hungary can boast of is Maurus Jókai (q.v.), whose power of imagination and brilliancy of style, no less than his true representations of Hungarian life and character, have earned for him a European reputation. Of the novels produced by other authors between 1870 and 1880, we may mentionA hol az ember kezdödik(Where the Man Begins), by Edward Kavassy (1871), in which he severely lashes the idling Magyar nobility;Az én ismeröseim(My Acquaintances), by Lewis Tolnai (1871); andAnatol, by Stephen Toldy (1872); the versified romancesDéli bábok höse(Hero of the Fata Morgana), generally ascribed to Ladislaus Arany, but anonymously published,A szerelem höse(Hero of Love), by John Vajda (1873), andTalálkozások(Rencounters) by the same (1877), andA Tündéröv(The Fairy Zone), by John Sulla (1876), all four interesting as specimens of narrative poetry;Kálozdy Béla(1875), a tale of Hungarian provincial life, by Zoltán Beöthy, a pleasing writer who possesses a fund of humour, and appears to follow the best English models;Edith története(History of Edith), by Joseph Prém (1876);Nyomorúság iskolája(School of Misery), by the prolific author Arnold Vértesi (1878);Titkolt szerelem(Secret Love), by Cornelius Ábrányi (1879), a social-political romance of some merit; andUj idök, avult emberek(Modern Times, Men of the Past), by L. Véka (1879). In theItthon(At Home), by Alois Degré (1877), the tale is made the medium for a satirical attack upon official corruption and Hungarian national vanity; and in theÁlmok álmódoja(Dreamer of Dreams), by John Ásbóth (1878), other national defects are aimed at.A rosz szomszéd(The Bad Neighbour), by Charles Vadnay (1878), is a felicitous representation of the power of love. TheAz utolsó Bebek(The Last of the Bebeks), by the late Charles Pétery, is a work rich in poetic invention, but meagre in historical matter. The reverse is the case with theLajos pap(Priest Lewis), by Charles Vajkay (1879), the scene of which is placed at Pest, in the beginning of the 14th century. In this romance the interest of the narrative is weakened by a superabundance of historical and archaeological detail.As regards works of a scientific character, the Magyars until recently were confessedly behindhand as compared with many other European nations. Indeed, before the foundation of the Hungarian academy in 1830, but few such works claiming general recognition had been published in the native language. Even in 1847 astronomy, physics, logic and other subjects of the kind had to be taught in several of the lyceums through the medium of Latin. The violent political commotions of the next few years allowed but little opportunity for the prosecution of serious studies; the subsequent quieter state of the country, and gradual re-establishment of the language as a means of education, were, however, more favourable to the development of scientific knowledge.In the department of philosophy, besides several writers of dissertations bearing an imitative, didactic or polemical character, Hungary could boast a few authors of independent and original thought. Of these one of the most notable is Cyril Horváth, whose treatises published in the organs of the academy display a rare freedom and comprehensiveness of imagination. John Hetényi and Gustavus Szontagh must be rather regarded as adopters and developers of the ethical teaching of Samuel Köteles in the previous period. Hyacinth Rónay in hisMutatvány(Representation) andJellemisme(Characteristics) endeavoured to popularize psychological studies. The philosophical labours of the already mentioned John Erdélyi and of Augustus Greguss won for them well-deserved recognition, the latter especially being famous for his aesthetical productions, in which he appears to follow out the principles of Vischer. TheTanulmányok(Studies) of Greguss were brought out at Pest in 1872. The reputation of John Szilasy, John Varga, Fidelius Beély and Francis Ney arose rather from their works bearing on the subject of education than from their contributions to philosophy.The labours of Stephen Horváth in the preceding period had prepared the way for future workers in the field of historical literature. Specially meritorious among these are Michael Horváth, Ladislaus Szalay, Paul Jászay and Count Joseph Teleki. TheMagyarok története(History of the Magyars), in 4 vols., first published at Pápa (1842-1846), and afterwards in 6 vols. at Pest (1860-1863), and in 8 vols. (1871-1873), is the most famous of Michael Horváth’s numerous historical productions. Ladislaus Szalay’sMagyarország története(History of Hungary), vols. i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1852-1854), vols. v.-vi. (Pest, 1856-1861), 2nd ed., i.-v. (1861-1866), is a most comprehensive work, showing more particularly the progress of Hungarian legislative development in past times. His style is elevated and concise, but somewhat difficult. Magyar history is indebted to Paul Jászay for his careful working out of certain special periods, as, for instance, in hisA Magyar nemzet napjai a legrégibb idötöl az arany bulláig(Days of the Hungarian nation from the earliest times to the date of the Golden Bull). Count Joseph Teleki is famed chiefly for hisHunyadiak kora Magyarországon(The Times of the Hunyadys in Hungary), vols. i.-vi. (Pest, 1852-1863), x.-xii. (1853-1857), the result of thirty years’ labour and research. In particular departments of historical literature we find George Bartal, author ofCommentariorum ... libri XV., tom. i.-iii. (Pozsony, 1847), John Czech, Gustavus Wenczel, Frederick Pesty and Paul Szlemenics as writers on legal history; Joseph Bajza, who in 1845 commenced aHistory of the World; Alexander Szilágyi, some of whose works, like those of Ladislaus Köváry, bear on the past of Transylvania, others on the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849; Charles Lányi and John Pauer, authors of treatises on Roman Catholicecclesiastical history; John Szombathi, Emeric Révész and Balogh, writers on Protestant church history; William Fraknói, biographer of Cardinal Pázmán, and historian of the Hungarian diets; and Anthony Gévay, Aaron Sziládi, Joseph Podhradczky, Charles Szabó, John Jerney and Francis Salamon, who have investigated and elucidated many special historical subjects. For the medieval history of Hungary theMátyáskori diplomatikai emlékek(Diplomatic Memorials of the Time of Matthias Corvinus), issued by the academy under the joint editorship of Ivan Nagy and Baron Albert Nyáry, affords interesting material. As a masterly production based on extensive investigation, we note theWesselényi Ferencz ... összeesküvése(The Secret Plot of Francis Wesselényi, 1664-1671), by Julius Pauler (1876). Among the many historians of Magyar literature Francis Toldy alias Schedel holds the foremost place. As compilers of useful manuals may be mentioned also Joseph Szvorényi, Zoltán Beöthy, Alexander Imre, Paul Jámbor, Ladislaus Névy, John Környei and Joseph Szinnyei, junior. For philological and ethnographical research into the origin and growth of the language none excels Paul Hunfalvy. He is, moreover, the warm advocate of the theory of its Ugrio-Finnic origin, as established by the Uralian traveller Anthony Reguly, the result of whose labours Hunfalvy published in 1864, under the titleA Vogul föld és nép(The Vogul Land and People). Between 1862 and 1866 valuable philological studies bearing on the same subject were published by Joseph Budenz in theNyelvtudományi közlemények(Philological Transactions). This periodical, issued by the academy, has during the last decade (1870-1880) contained also comparative studies, by Arminius Vámbéry and Gabriel Bálint, of the Magyar, Turkish-Tatar and Mongolian dialects.As compilers and authors of works in various scientific branches allied to history, may be particularly mentioned—in statistics and geography, Alexius Fényes, Emeric Palugyay, Alexander Konek, John Hunfalvy, Charles Galgóczy, Charles Keleti, Leo Beöthy, Joseph Körösi, Charles Ballagi and Paul Király, and, as regards Transylvania, Ladislaus Köváry; in travel, Arminius Vámbéry, Ignatius Goldziher, Ladislaus Magyar, John Xantus, John Jerney, Count Andrássy, Ladislaus Podmaniczky, Paul Hunfalvy; in astronomy, Nicholas Konkoly; in archaeology, Bishop Arnold Ipolyi, Florian Rómer, Emeric Henszlmann, John Érdy, Baron Albert Nyáry, Francis Pulszky and Francis Kiss; in Hungarian mythology, Bishop Ipolyi, Anthony Csengery,82and Árpád Kerékgyártó; in numismatics, John Érdy and Jacob Rupp; and in jurisprudence, Augustus Karvassy, Theodore Pauler, Gustavus Wenczel, Emeric Csacskó, John Fogarasi and Ignatius Frank. After 1867 great activity was displayed in history and its allied branches, owing to the direct encouragement given by the Hungarian Historical Society, and by the historical, archaeological, and statistical committees of the academy.Notwithstanding the exertions of Paul Bugát to arouse an interest in the natural sciences by the establishment in 1841 of the “Hungarian Royal Natural Science Association,” no general activity was manifested in this department of knowledge, so far as the native literature was concerned, until 1860, when the academy organized a special committee for the advancement of mathematical and natural science.83The principal contributors to the “Transactions” of this section of the academy were—for anatomy and physiology, Coloman Balogh, Eugene Jendrassik, Joseph Lenhossék and Lewis Thanhoffer; for zoology, John Frivaldszky, John Kriesch and Theodore Margó; for botany, Frederick Hazslinszky, Lewis Jurányi and Julius Klein; for mineralogy and geology, Joseph Szabó, Max Hantken, Joseph Krenner, Anthony Koch and Charles Hoffman; for physics, Baron Lorando Eötvös, Coloman Szily and Joseph Sztoczek; for chemistry, Charles Than and Vincent Wartha; for meteorology, Guido Schenzl. As good text-books, for which the so-called “Ladies’ Prize” was awarded by the academy, we may mention theTermészettan(Physics) andTermészettani földrajz(Physical Geography) of Julius Greguss.Almost simultaneously with the formation of the above-mentioned committee of the academy, the “Natural Science Association” showed signs of renewed animation, and soon advanced with rapid strides in the same direction, but with a more popular aim than the academy. Between 1868 and 1878 the number of its members increased from some 600 to about 5000. After 1872, in addition to its regular organs, it issued Hungarian translations of several popular scientific English works, as, for instance, Darwin’sOrigin of Species; Huxley’sLessons in Physiology; Lubbock’sPrehistoric Times; Proctor’sOther Worlds than Ours; Tyndall’sHeat as a Mode of Motion, &c. Versions were also made of Cotta’sGeologie der Gegenwartand Helmholtz’sPopuläre Vorlesungen. As important original monographs we note—Az árapály a Fiumei öbölben(Ebb and Flow in the Gulf of Fiume), by Emil Stahlberger (1874);Magyarország pókfaunája(The Arachnida of Hungary), by Otto Hermann (1876-1878);Magyarország vaskövei és vasterményei(The Iron Ores and Iron Products of Hungary), by Anthony Kerpely (1877);Magyarország nevezetesebb dohányfajainak chemiai ... megvizsgálása(Chemical Examination of the most famous Tobaccos of Hungary), by Dr Thomas Kosutány (1877).
In consequence of the general neglect of the Magyar language during the reigns of Maria Theresa and her successor Joseph II., the more important prose productions of the latter part of the 18th century, as for instance the historical works ofRegeneration of the literature (1772-1807).George Pray, Stephen Katona, John Engel and Ignatius Fessier, were written either in Latin or in German. The reaction in favour of the native literature manifested itself at first chiefly in the creation of various schools of poetry. Foremost among these stood the so-called “French” school, founded by George Bessenyei, the author of several dramatic pieces, and of an imitation of Pope’s “Essay on Man,” under the title ofAz embernek próbája(Vienna, 1772). Bessenyei introduced the use of rhymed alexandrines in place of the monotonous Zrinian measure. Other writers of the same school were Laurence Orczy and Abraham Barcsay, whose works have a striking resemblance to each other, and were published together by Révai (1789). The songs and elegies of the short-lived Paul Ányos, edited by Bacsányi in 1798, show great depth of feeling. Versifiers and adapters from the French appeared also in Counts Adam and Joseph Teleki, Alexander Báróczi and Joseph Péczeli, known also as the translator of Young’s “Night Thoughts.” The chief representatives of the strictly “classical” school, which adopted the ancient Greek and Latin authors as its models, were David Baróti Szabó, Nicholas Révai, Joseph Rájnis and Benedict Virág. Among the most noteworthy works of Baróti are theUj mértékre vett külömb versek(Kassa, 1777), comprising hexameter verses, Horatian odes, distichs, epistles and epigrams; theParaszti Majorság(Kassa, 1779-1780), an hexameter version of Vanière’sPraedium rusticum; and an abridged version of “Paradise Lost,” contained in theKölteményes munkaji(Komárom, 1802). Baróti, moreover, published (1810-1813) a translation of Virgil’sAeneidandEclogues. Of Baróti’s purely linguistic works the best known are hisOrtographia és Prosodia(Komárom, 1800); and theKisded Szótár(Kassa, 1784 and 1792) or “Small Lexicon” of rare Hungarian words. As a philologist Baróti was far surpassed by Nicholas Révai, but as a poet he may be considered superior to Rájnis, translator of Virgil’s Bucolics and Georgics, and author of theMagyar Helikonra vezetö kalauz(Guide to the Magyar Helicon, 1781). The “classical” school reached its highest state of culture under Virág, whose poetical works, consisting chiefly of Horatian odes and epistles, on account of the perfection of their style, obtained for him the name of the “Magyar Horace.” ThePoetai Munkai(Poetical Works) of Virág were published at Pest in 1799, and again in 1822. Of his prose works the most important is theMagyar Századokor “Pragmatic History of Hungary” (Buda, 1808 and 1816). Vályi-Nagy, the first Magyar translator of Homer, belongs rather to the “popular” than the “classical” school. His translation of theIliadappeared at Sárospatak in 1821. The establishment of the “national” or “popular” school is attributable chiefly to Andrew Dugonics, though his earliest works,Troja veszedelme(1774) andUlysses(1780), indicate a classical bias. His national romances, however, and especiallyEtelka(Pozsony, 1787) andAz arany pereczek(Pest and Pozsony, 1790), attracted public attention, and were soon adapted for the stage. The most valuable of his productions is his collection of “Hungarian Proverbs and Famous Sayings,” which appeared in 1820 at Szeged, under the title ofMagyar példabeszédek és jeles mondások. The most noteworthy follower of Dugonics was Adam Horváth, author of the epic poemsHunniász(Györ, 1787) andRudolphiász(Vienna, 1817), Joseph Gvadányi’s tripartite workFalusi notárius(Village Notary), published between 1790 and 1796, as also hisRontó Pál és gr. Benyowsky történeteik(Adventures of Paul Rontó and Count Benyowski), are humorous and readable, but careless in style. As writers of didactic poetry may be mentioned John Endrödy, Caspar Göböl, Joseph Takács and Barbara Molnár, the earliest distinguished Magyar poetess.
Of a more general character, and combining the merits of the above schools, are the works of the authors who constituted the so-called “Debreczen Class,” which boasts the names of the naturalist and philologist John Földi, compiler of a considerable part of theDebreczeni magyar grammatica; Michael Fazekas, author ofLudas Matyi(Vienna, 1817), an epic poem, in 4 cantos; and Joseph Kovács. Other precursors of the modern school were the poet and philologist Francis Verseghy, whose works extend to nearly forty volumes; the gifted didactic prose writer, Joseph Kármán; the metrical rhymster, Gideon Ráday; the lyric poets, Ssentjóbi Szabó, Janos Bacsányi (q.v.), and the short-lived Gabriel Dayka, whose posthumous “Verses” were published in 1813 by Kazinczy. Still more celebrated were Mihaly Csokonai (q.v.) and Alexander Kisfaludy (q.v.). The first volume of Alexander Kisfaludy’sHimfy, a series of short lyrics of a descriptive and reflective nature, appeared at Buda in 1801, under the title ofKesergö szerelem(Unhappy Love), and was received with great enthusiasm; nor was the success of the second volumeBoldog szerelem(Happy Love), which appeared in 1807, inferior. TheRegék, or “Tales of the Past,” were published at Buda from 1807 to 1808, and still further increased Kisfaludy’s fame; but in his dramatic works he was not equally successful. Journalistic literature in the native language begins with theMagyar Hírmondó(Harbinger) started by Matthias Ráth at Pozsony in 1780. Among the magazines the most important was theMagyar Muzeum, established at Kassa (Kaschau) in 1788 by Baróti, Kazinczy and Bacsányi. TheOrpheus(1790) was the special work of Kazinczy, and theUrania(1794) of Kármán and of Pajor.
Closely connected with the preceding period is that of the “Revival of the Language” (1807-1830), with which the name of Francis Kazinczy (q.v.) is especially associated. To him it was left to perfect that work of restoration begun by BarótiRevival of the language (1807-1830).and amplified by Révai. Poetry and belles lettres still continued to occupy the chief place in the native literature, but under Kazinczy and his immediate followers Berzsenyi, Kölcsey, Fáy and others, a correctness of style and excellence of taste hitherto unknown soon became apparent. Kazinczy, in his efforts to accommodate the national language to the demands of an improved civilization, availed himself of the treasures of European literature, but thereby incurred the opposition of those who were prejudiced by a too biased feeling of nationality. The opinions of his enemies were ventilated in a lampoon styledMondolat. Daniel Berzsenyi, whose odes are among the finest in the Hungarian language, was the correspondent of Kazinczy, and like him a victim of the attacks of theMondolat. But the fervent patriotism, elevated style, and glowing diction of Berzsenyi soon caused him to be recognized as a truly national bard. A too frequent allusion to Greek mythological names is a defect sometimes observable in his writings. His collective works were published at Buda by Döbrentei in 1842. Those of John Kis, the friend of Berzsenyi, cover a wide range of subjects, and comprise, besides original poetry, many translations from the Greek, Latin, French, German and English, among which last may be mentioned renderings from Blair, Pope and Thomson, and notably his translation, published at Vienna in 1791, of Lowth’s “Choice of Hercules.” The style of Kis is unaffected and easy. As a sonnet writer none stands higher than Paul Szemere, known also for his rendering of Körner’s dramaZrinyi(1818), and his contributions to theElet és Literatura(Life and Literature). The articles of Francis Kölcsey in the same periodical are among the finest specimens of Hungarian aesthetical criticism. The lyric poems of Kölcsey can hardly be surpassed, whilst his orations, and markedly theEmlék beszéd Kazinczy felett(Commemorative Speech on Kazinczy), exhibit not only his own powers, but the singular excellence of the Magyar language as an oratorical medium. Andrew Fáy, sometimes styled the “Hungarian Aesop,” is chiefly remembered for hisEredeti Mesék(Original Fables). The dramatic works of Charles Kisfaludy, brother of Alexander, won him enthusiastic recognition as a regenerator of the drama. His plays bear a distinctive national character, the subjects of most of them referring to the golden era of the country. His genuine simplicity as a lyrical writer is shown by the fact that several of his shorter pieces havepassed into popular song. As the earliest Magyarizer of Servian folk-song, Michael Vitkovics did valuable service. Not without interest to Englishmen is the name of Gabriel Döbrentei (q.v.), the translator of Shakespeare’s Macbeth, represented at Pozsony in 1825. An historical poem of a somewhat philosophical nature was produced in 1814 by Andreas Horváth under the title ofZircz emlékezete(Reminiscence of Zircz); but hisÁrpád, in 12 books, finished in 1830, and published at Pest in the following year, is a great national epic. Among other poets of this period were Alois Szentmiklóssy, George Gaal, Emil Buczy, Joseph Szász, Ladislaus Tóth and Joseph Katona, author of the much-extolled historical dramaBánk Bán.76Izidore Guzmics, the translator of Theocritus into Magyar hexameters, is chiefly noted for his prose writings on ecclesiastical and philosophical subjects. As authors of special works on philosophy, we find Samuel Köteles, John Imre, Joseph Ruszék, Daniel Ercsei and Paul Sárvári; as a theologian and Hebraist John Somossy; as an historian and philologist Stephen Horváth, who endeavoured to trace the Magyar descent from the earliest historic times; as writers on jurisprudence Alexander Kövy and Paul Szlemenics. For an account of the historian George Fejér, the laborious compiler of theCodex Diplomaticus, seeFejér.
The establishment of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences77(17th November 1830) marks the commencement of a new period, in the first eighteen years of which gigantic exertions were made as regards the literary and intellectual life of theAcademy period, 1830-1880.nation. The language, nursed by the academy, developed rapidly, and showed its capacity for giving expression to almost every form of scientific knowledge.78By offering rewards for the best original dramatic productions, the academy provided that the national theatre should not suffer from a lack of classical dramas. During the earlier part of its existence the Hungarian academy devoted itself mainly to the scientific development of the language and philological research. Since its reorganization in 1869 the academy has, however, paid equal attention to the various departments of history, archaeology, national economy and the physical sciences. The encouragement of polite literature was more especially the object of the Kisfaludy Society, founded in 1836.79
Polite literature had received a great impulse in the preceding period (1807-1830), but after the formation of the academy and the Kisfaludy society it advanced with accelerated speed towards the point attained by other nations. Foremost among epic poets, though not equally successful as a dramatist, was Mihaly Vörösmarty (q.v.), who, belonging also to the close of the last period, combines great power of imagination with elegance of language. Generally less varied and romantic, though easier in style, are the heroic poemsAugsburgi ütközet(Battle of Augsburg) andAradi gyülés(Diet of Arad) of Gregory Czuczor, who was, moreover, very felicitous as an epigrammatist. Martin Debreczeni was chiefly famed for hisKióvi csata(Battle of Kieff), published at Pest in 1854 after his death by Count Emeríc Mikó. The laborious John Garay in hisSzent Lászlóshows considerable ability as an epic poet, but his greatest merit was rather as a romancist and ballad writer, as shown by the “Pen Sketches” orTollrajzok(1845), and his legendary seriesÁrpádok(1847). Joseph Bajza was a lyricist of a somewhat melancholy cast, but hisBorének(Wine Song),Sohajtás(Sigh),Ébresztö(Awakening) andApotheosisare much admired. He is known further as the translator of F. C. Dahlmann’sGeschichte der englischen Revolution. As generally able writers of lyrical poetry during the earlier part of this period may be mentioned among others Francis Császár, Joseph Székács and Andrew Kunoss—also Lewis Szakál and Alexander Vachott, whose songs and romances are of an artless and simple character, and the sacred lyricist Béla Tárkányi. As an original but rather heavy lyric and didactic poet we may mention Peter Vajda, who was, moreover, the translator of Bulwer’s “Night and Morning.” Of a more distinctly national tendency are the lyrics of John Kriza80and John Erdélyi, but the reputation of the latter was more especially due to his collections of folk-lore made on behalf of the Kisfaludy society. More popular than any of the preceding, and well known in England through Sir John Bowring’s translation, are the charming lyrics of Alexander Petöfi (q.v.), the “Burns” of Hungary. His poems, which embody the national genius, have passed into the very life of the people; particularly is he happy in the pieces descriptive of rural life. Among lyricists were: Coloman Tóth, who is also the author of several epic and dramatic pieces; John Vajda, whoseKisebb Költemények(Minor Poems), published by the Kisfaludy society in 1872, are partly written in the mode of Heine, and are of a pleasing but melancholy character; Joseph Lévay, known also as the translator of Shakespeare’sTitus Andronicus,Taming of the ShrewandHenry IV.; and Paul Gyulai, who, not only as a faultless lyric and epic poet, but as an impartial critical writer, is highly esteemed, and whoseRomhányiis justly prized as one of the best Magyar poems that has appeared in modern times. To these may be added the names of Charles Berecz, Joseph Zalár, Samuel Nyilas, Joseph Vida, Lewis Tolnai, the sentimental Ladislaus Szelestey, and the talented painter Zoltán Balogh, whose romantic poemAlpáriwas published in 1871 by the Kisfaludy society. The lyrics of Anthony Várady (1875, 1877) are somewhat dull and unequal in tone; both he and Baron Ivor Kaas, author ofAz itélet napja(Day of Judgment, 1876), have shown skill rather in the art of dramatic verse. The poems of Count Géza Zichy and Victor Dalmady, those of the latter published at Budapest in 1876, are mostly written on subjects of a domestic nature, but are conceived in a patriotic spirit. Emil Ábrányi adopts a rather romantic style, but hisNagypéntek(Good Friday) is an excellent descriptive sketch. Alexander Endrödy, author ofTücsök dalok(Cricket Songs, 1876), is a glowing writer, with great power of conception, but his metaphors, following rapidly one upon the other, become often confused. Joseph Kiss in 1876 brought out a few lyric and epic poems of considerable merit. TheMesékof Augustus Greguss (1878), a collection of verse “Fables,” belonging to the school of Gay, partake more of a didactic than lyrical nature. This feature is noticeable also in theKöltemények(1873) of Ladislaus Torkos and theModern Mesék(1874) of Ladislaus Névy. TheSalamon(1878) of Charles Szász (b. 1829) was rewarded with the prize of the academy. The subject, taken from the age of Hungarian chivalry, is artistically worked out from medieval legends, and gives an excellent description of the times of St Ladislaus of Hungary. Charles Szász is generally better known as a metrical translator than as an original poet. He is the Magyarizer of Shakespeare’sAnthony and Cleopatra,Othello,Macbeth,Henry VIII.,Winter’s Tale,Romeo and JulietandTempest, as also of some of the best pieces of Burns, Moore, Byron, Shelley, Milton, Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Goethe and others. A translator from Byron and Pope appeared also in Maurice Lukács.81
Meanwhile dramatic literature found many champions, of whom the most energetic was Edward Szigligeti,proprieJoseph Szathmáry, who enriched the Hungarian stage with more than a hundred pieces. Of these the most popular are comedies and serio-comic national dramas. A less prolific but more classical writer appeared in Charles Obernyik, whoseGeorge Brankovicsis, next to Katona’sBánk Bán, one of the best historical tragedies in the language. Several of the already mentioned lyric and epic poets were occasional writers also for the drama. To these we may add the gifted but unfortunate Sigismund Czakó, Lewis Dobsa, Joseph Szigeti, Ignatius Nagy, Joseph Szenvey (a translator from Schiller), Joseph Gaal, Charles Hugo, Lawrence Tóth (the Magyarizer of theSchool for Scandal), Emeric Vahot, Alois Degré (equally famous as a novelist), Stephen Toldy and Lewis Dóczi, author of the popular prize dramaCsók(The Kiss).Az ember tragoediája(The Tragedy of Man), by Emeric Madách (1861), is a dramatic poem of a philosophical and contemplative character, and is not intended for the stage. Among successful dramatic pieces may be mentioned theFalu rossza(Village Scamp) of Edward Tóth (1875), which represents the life of the Hungarian peasantry, and shows both poetic sentiment and dramatic skill;A szerelem harcza(Combat of Love), by Count Géza Zichy;Iskáriot(1876) and the prize tragedyTamora(1879), by Anthony Várady;Jánus(1877), by Gregory Csiky; and the dramatized romanceSzép Mikhal(Handsome Michal), by Maurus Jókai (1877). The principal merit of this author’s dramaMilton(1876) consists in its brilliance of language. TheSzerelem iskolája(School of Love), by Eugene Rákosy, although in some parts exquisitely worded, did not meet with the applause accorded to hisRipacsos Pista Dolmánya(1874). TheGróf Dormándi Kálmán(Count Coloman Dormándi) of Béla Bercsényi (1877) is a social tragedy of the French school. Among the most recent writers of comedy we single out Árpád Berczik for his Aházasitók(The Matchmakers); Ignatius Súlyovsky for hisNöi diplomatia(Female Diplomacy); and the above-mentioned Gregory Csiky for hisEllenállhatatlan(The Irresistible), produced on the stage in 1878. As popular plays theSárga csikó(Bay Foal) andA piros bugyelláris(The Red Purse), by Francis Csepreghy, have their own special merit, and were often represented in 1878 and 1879 at Budapest and elsewhere.
Original romance writing, which may be said to have commenced with Dugonics and Kármán at the close of the 18th, and to have found a representative in Francis Verseghy at the beginning of the 19th century, was afterwards revived by Fáy in hisBélteky ház(1832), and by the contributors to certain literary magazines, especially theAurora, an almanack conducted by Charles Kisfaludy, 1821-1830, and continued by Joseph Bajza to 1837. Almost simultaneously with the rise of the Kisfaludy society, works of fiction assumed a more vigorous tone, and began to present just claims for literary recognition. Far from adopting the levity of style too often observable in French romances, the Magyar novels, although enlivened by touches of humour, have generally rather a serious historical or political bearing. Especially is this the case with Nicholas Jósika’sAbafi(1835),A csehek Magyarországon(The Bohemians in Hungary), andAz utolsó Bátori(The Last of the Báthoris), published in 1847. In these, as in many other of the romances of Jósika, a high moral standard is aimed at. The same may be said of Baron Joseph Eötvös’sKarthausi(1839) andFalu Jegyzöje(Village Notary), published in 1845, and translated into English (1850) by O. Wenckstern (see Eötvös). TheÁrvizönyvor “Inundation Book,” edited by Eötvös (1839-1841), is a collection of narratives and poems by the most celebrated authors of the time. Of the novels produced by Baron Sigismund Kemény theGyulai Pál(1847), in 5 vols., is, from its historical character, the most important. HisFérj és nö(Husband and Wife) appeared in 1853 (latest ed., 1878), theRajongók(Fanatics), in 4 vols., in 1858-1859. The graphic descriptions of Hungarian life in the middle and lower classes by Lewis Kuthy won for him temporary renown; but his style, though flowery, is careless. Another popular writer of great originality was Joseph RadákovicsaliasVas-Gereben. The romances of Baron Frederick Podmaniczky are simpler, and rather of a narrative than colloquial character. The fertile writer Paul Kovács excels more particularly in humorous narration. Fay’s singular powers in this direction were well shown by hisJávor orvos és Bakator Ambrus szolgája(Doctor Jávor and his servant Ambrose Bakator), brought out at Pest in 1855. TheBeszélyek(Tales) of Ladislaus Beöthy were produced in the same year, hisPuszták fia(Son of the Pusztas) in 1857. Pleasing humorous sketches are contained also in Ignatius Nagy’sBeszélyek(1843) and “Caricatures” orTorzképek(1844); in Caspar Bernát’sFresko képek(1847-1850); in Gustavus Lauka’sVidék, and hisA jó régi világ(The Good Old World), published respectively in 1857 and 1863; and in Alexander Balázs’sBeszélyei(1855) andTükördarabok(1865). Among authors of other historical or humorous romances and tales which have appeared from time to time are Francis MártonaliasLewis Abonyi, Joseph Gaal, Paul Gyulai, William Györi, Lazarus Horváth, the short-lived Joseph Irinyi, translator ofUncle Tom’s Cabin, Francis Ney, Albert Pálffy, Alexander Vachott and his brother Emeric (Vahot), Charles Szathmáry, Desider Margittay, Victor Vajda, Joseph Bodon, Atala Kisfaludy and John Krátky. But by far the most prolific and talented novelist that Hungary can boast of is Maurus Jókai (q.v.), whose power of imagination and brilliancy of style, no less than his true representations of Hungarian life and character, have earned for him a European reputation. Of the novels produced by other authors between 1870 and 1880, we may mentionA hol az ember kezdödik(Where the Man Begins), by Edward Kavassy (1871), in which he severely lashes the idling Magyar nobility;Az én ismeröseim(My Acquaintances), by Lewis Tolnai (1871); andAnatol, by Stephen Toldy (1872); the versified romancesDéli bábok höse(Hero of the Fata Morgana), generally ascribed to Ladislaus Arany, but anonymously published,A szerelem höse(Hero of Love), by John Vajda (1873), andTalálkozások(Rencounters) by the same (1877), andA Tündéröv(The Fairy Zone), by John Sulla (1876), all four interesting as specimens of narrative poetry;Kálozdy Béla(1875), a tale of Hungarian provincial life, by Zoltán Beöthy, a pleasing writer who possesses a fund of humour, and appears to follow the best English models;Edith története(History of Edith), by Joseph Prém (1876);Nyomorúság iskolája(School of Misery), by the prolific author Arnold Vértesi (1878);Titkolt szerelem(Secret Love), by Cornelius Ábrányi (1879), a social-political romance of some merit; andUj idök, avult emberek(Modern Times, Men of the Past), by L. Véka (1879). In theItthon(At Home), by Alois Degré (1877), the tale is made the medium for a satirical attack upon official corruption and Hungarian national vanity; and in theÁlmok álmódoja(Dreamer of Dreams), by John Ásbóth (1878), other national defects are aimed at.A rosz szomszéd(The Bad Neighbour), by Charles Vadnay (1878), is a felicitous representation of the power of love. TheAz utolsó Bebek(The Last of the Bebeks), by the late Charles Pétery, is a work rich in poetic invention, but meagre in historical matter. The reverse is the case with theLajos pap(Priest Lewis), by Charles Vajkay (1879), the scene of which is placed at Pest, in the beginning of the 14th century. In this romance the interest of the narrative is weakened by a superabundance of historical and archaeological detail.
As regards works of a scientific character, the Magyars until recently were confessedly behindhand as compared with many other European nations. Indeed, before the foundation of the Hungarian academy in 1830, but few such works claiming general recognition had been published in the native language. Even in 1847 astronomy, physics, logic and other subjects of the kind had to be taught in several of the lyceums through the medium of Latin. The violent political commotions of the next few years allowed but little opportunity for the prosecution of serious studies; the subsequent quieter state of the country, and gradual re-establishment of the language as a means of education, were, however, more favourable to the development of scientific knowledge.
In the department of philosophy, besides several writers of dissertations bearing an imitative, didactic or polemical character, Hungary could boast a few authors of independent and original thought. Of these one of the most notable is Cyril Horváth, whose treatises published in the organs of the academy display a rare freedom and comprehensiveness of imagination. John Hetényi and Gustavus Szontagh must be rather regarded as adopters and developers of the ethical teaching of Samuel Köteles in the previous period. Hyacinth Rónay in hisMutatvány(Representation) andJellemisme(Characteristics) endeavoured to popularize psychological studies. The philosophical labours of the already mentioned John Erdélyi and of Augustus Greguss won for them well-deserved recognition, the latter especially being famous for his aesthetical productions, in which he appears to follow out the principles of Vischer. TheTanulmányok(Studies) of Greguss were brought out at Pest in 1872. The reputation of John Szilasy, John Varga, Fidelius Beély and Francis Ney arose rather from their works bearing on the subject of education than from their contributions to philosophy.
The labours of Stephen Horváth in the preceding period had prepared the way for future workers in the field of historical literature. Specially meritorious among these are Michael Horváth, Ladislaus Szalay, Paul Jászay and Count Joseph Teleki. TheMagyarok története(History of the Magyars), in 4 vols., first published at Pápa (1842-1846), and afterwards in 6 vols. at Pest (1860-1863), and in 8 vols. (1871-1873), is the most famous of Michael Horváth’s numerous historical productions. Ladislaus Szalay’sMagyarország története(History of Hungary), vols. i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1852-1854), vols. v.-vi. (Pest, 1856-1861), 2nd ed., i.-v. (1861-1866), is a most comprehensive work, showing more particularly the progress of Hungarian legislative development in past times. His style is elevated and concise, but somewhat difficult. Magyar history is indebted to Paul Jászay for his careful working out of certain special periods, as, for instance, in hisA Magyar nemzet napjai a legrégibb idötöl az arany bulláig(Days of the Hungarian nation from the earliest times to the date of the Golden Bull). Count Joseph Teleki is famed chiefly for hisHunyadiak kora Magyarországon(The Times of the Hunyadys in Hungary), vols. i.-vi. (Pest, 1852-1863), x.-xii. (1853-1857), the result of thirty years’ labour and research. In particular departments of historical literature we find George Bartal, author ofCommentariorum ... libri XV., tom. i.-iii. (Pozsony, 1847), John Czech, Gustavus Wenczel, Frederick Pesty and Paul Szlemenics as writers on legal history; Joseph Bajza, who in 1845 commenced aHistory of the World; Alexander Szilágyi, some of whose works, like those of Ladislaus Köváry, bear on the past of Transylvania, others on the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849; Charles Lányi and John Pauer, authors of treatises on Roman Catholicecclesiastical history; John Szombathi, Emeric Révész and Balogh, writers on Protestant church history; William Fraknói, biographer of Cardinal Pázmán, and historian of the Hungarian diets; and Anthony Gévay, Aaron Sziládi, Joseph Podhradczky, Charles Szabó, John Jerney and Francis Salamon, who have investigated and elucidated many special historical subjects. For the medieval history of Hungary theMátyáskori diplomatikai emlékek(Diplomatic Memorials of the Time of Matthias Corvinus), issued by the academy under the joint editorship of Ivan Nagy and Baron Albert Nyáry, affords interesting material. As a masterly production based on extensive investigation, we note theWesselényi Ferencz ... összeesküvése(The Secret Plot of Francis Wesselényi, 1664-1671), by Julius Pauler (1876). Among the many historians of Magyar literature Francis Toldy alias Schedel holds the foremost place. As compilers of useful manuals may be mentioned also Joseph Szvorényi, Zoltán Beöthy, Alexander Imre, Paul Jámbor, Ladislaus Névy, John Környei and Joseph Szinnyei, junior. For philological and ethnographical research into the origin and growth of the language none excels Paul Hunfalvy. He is, moreover, the warm advocate of the theory of its Ugrio-Finnic origin, as established by the Uralian traveller Anthony Reguly, the result of whose labours Hunfalvy published in 1864, under the titleA Vogul föld és nép(The Vogul Land and People). Between 1862 and 1866 valuable philological studies bearing on the same subject were published by Joseph Budenz in theNyelvtudományi közlemények(Philological Transactions). This periodical, issued by the academy, has during the last decade (1870-1880) contained also comparative studies, by Arminius Vámbéry and Gabriel Bálint, of the Magyar, Turkish-Tatar and Mongolian dialects.
As compilers and authors of works in various scientific branches allied to history, may be particularly mentioned—in statistics and geography, Alexius Fényes, Emeric Palugyay, Alexander Konek, John Hunfalvy, Charles Galgóczy, Charles Keleti, Leo Beöthy, Joseph Körösi, Charles Ballagi and Paul Király, and, as regards Transylvania, Ladislaus Köváry; in travel, Arminius Vámbéry, Ignatius Goldziher, Ladislaus Magyar, John Xantus, John Jerney, Count Andrássy, Ladislaus Podmaniczky, Paul Hunfalvy; in astronomy, Nicholas Konkoly; in archaeology, Bishop Arnold Ipolyi, Florian Rómer, Emeric Henszlmann, John Érdy, Baron Albert Nyáry, Francis Pulszky and Francis Kiss; in Hungarian mythology, Bishop Ipolyi, Anthony Csengery,82and Árpád Kerékgyártó; in numismatics, John Érdy and Jacob Rupp; and in jurisprudence, Augustus Karvassy, Theodore Pauler, Gustavus Wenczel, Emeric Csacskó, John Fogarasi and Ignatius Frank. After 1867 great activity was displayed in history and its allied branches, owing to the direct encouragement given by the Hungarian Historical Society, and by the historical, archaeological, and statistical committees of the academy.
Notwithstanding the exertions of Paul Bugát to arouse an interest in the natural sciences by the establishment in 1841 of the “Hungarian Royal Natural Science Association,” no general activity was manifested in this department of knowledge, so far as the native literature was concerned, until 1860, when the academy organized a special committee for the advancement of mathematical and natural science.83The principal contributors to the “Transactions” of this section of the academy were—for anatomy and physiology, Coloman Balogh, Eugene Jendrassik, Joseph Lenhossék and Lewis Thanhoffer; for zoology, John Frivaldszky, John Kriesch and Theodore Margó; for botany, Frederick Hazslinszky, Lewis Jurányi and Julius Klein; for mineralogy and geology, Joseph Szabó, Max Hantken, Joseph Krenner, Anthony Koch and Charles Hoffman; for physics, Baron Lorando Eötvös, Coloman Szily and Joseph Sztoczek; for chemistry, Charles Than and Vincent Wartha; for meteorology, Guido Schenzl. As good text-books, for which the so-called “Ladies’ Prize” was awarded by the academy, we may mention theTermészettan(Physics) andTermészettani földrajz(Physical Geography) of Julius Greguss.
Almost simultaneously with the formation of the above-mentioned committee of the academy, the “Natural Science Association” showed signs of renewed animation, and soon advanced with rapid strides in the same direction, but with a more popular aim than the academy. Between 1868 and 1878 the number of its members increased from some 600 to about 5000. After 1872, in addition to its regular organs, it issued Hungarian translations of several popular scientific English works, as, for instance, Darwin’sOrigin of Species; Huxley’sLessons in Physiology; Lubbock’sPrehistoric Times; Proctor’sOther Worlds than Ours; Tyndall’sHeat as a Mode of Motion, &c. Versions were also made of Cotta’sGeologie der Gegenwartand Helmholtz’sPopuläre Vorlesungen. As important original monographs we note—Az árapály a Fiumei öbölben(Ebb and Flow in the Gulf of Fiume), by Emil Stahlberger (1874);Magyarország pókfaunája(The Arachnida of Hungary), by Otto Hermann (1876-1878);Magyarország vaskövei és vasterményei(The Iron Ores and Iron Products of Hungary), by Anthony Kerpely (1877);Magyarország nevezetesebb dohányfajainak chemiai ... megvizsgálása(Chemical Examination of the most famous Tobaccos of Hungary), by Dr Thomas Kosutány (1877).
(E. D. Bu.)
The number of Magyar writers has since 1880 increased to an extent hardly expected by the reading public in Hungary itself. In 1830 there were only 10 Magyar periodical publications; in 1880 we find 368; in 1885 theirLiterature since 1880.number rose to 494; in 1890 to 636; and at the beginning of 1895 no fewer than 806 periodical publications, written in the Hungarian language, appeared in Hungary. Since that time (1895) the number of periodical as well as of non-periodical literary works has been constantly rising, although, as in all countries with a literature of rather recent origin, the periodical publications are, in proportion to the whole of the output, far more numerous than the non-periodical.84This remarkable increase in the quantity of literary work was, on the whole, accompanied by a fair advance in literary quality.
In lyrical poetry, among the poets who first came to the fore in the ’sixties several were active after 1880, such as Joseph Komócsy (d. 1894), whoseSzerelem Könyve(“Book of Love”) has become a popular classic; Victor Dalmady, who published in the ’nineties hisHazafias Költemények(Patriotic Poems); and Ladislas Arany, son of the great John. Among the prominent lyrists whose works, although partly published before 1880, belong largely to the later period, the following deserve special mention: The poetry of Emil Ábrányi (born 1850) is filled with the ideas and ideals of Victor Hugo. Ábrányi excels also as a translator, more particularly of Byron. Julius Reviczky (1855-1899) also inclined to the Occidental rather than to the specifically Magyar type of poets; his lyrics are highly finished, aristocratic and pessimistic (Pán halála, “The Death of Pan”). Count Géza Zichy (b. 1849) published his lyrical poems in 1892. Joseph Kiss (b. 1843) is especially felicitous in ballads taken from village and Jewish life, and in love-songs; Alexander Endrödi (b. 1850), one of the most gifted modern lyrical poets of Hungary, has the charm of tenderness and delicacy together with that of a peculiar and original style, hisKurucz nótákbeing so far his most successful attempt at romantic lyrics. Louis Bartók (b. 1851) is a remarkable satirist and epigrammatist (Kárpáti emlékek). Ödön Jakab (b. 1850) leans towards the poetic manner of Tompa, with perhaps a greater power of expression than the author of theVirágregék(“Flower-fables”); Jakab wroteHangok az ifjuságból(“Sounds of Youth”),Nyár(“Summer”), both collections of lyrical poems. Louis Pósa (b. 1850) has made a sphere of his own in his charming poems for and about children,Édes anyám(“My dear Mother”). In Andor Kozma (b. 1860), author ofA tegnap és a ma(“Yesterday and To-day,” 1889),Versek(Poems, 1893), &c., there is undoubted power of genuine satire and deep humour. Michael Szabolcska (b. 1864), author ofHangulatok(“Moods,” 1894), showed great promise; Julius Vargha (b. 1853) cultivates thenépiesor folk-poetry as represented by Hungary’s two greatest poets, Petőfi and Arany; Vargha has also published excellent translations of Schiller and Goethe. Perhaps scarcely less remarkable are the modern Magyar lyrists, such as, of the older set, John Bulla (b. 1843), J. D. Temérdek, Gustavus Csengey (b. 1842), Paul Koroda (b. 1854), E. Julius Kovács (b. 1839,Poems, 1892), Ladislas Inczédi, Julius Nógrádi Pap, Julius Szávay (b. 1860), John Dengi (b. 1853); among the juniors, Anton Radó (also an excellent translator), Louis Palágyi (Magányos úton, “On Lonely Way,” &c.), Géza Gárdonyi (b. 1863,Aprilis, 1894), Zoltán Pap, Eugen Heltai (Ignotus), Julius Rudnyánszky (b. 1860,Szerelem, “Love”;Nyár, “Summer”), Árpád Zemplényi, Julius Szentessy, Emil Makai (b. 1870), Cornelius Gáspár, Julius Varsányi (b. 1863,Mulandóság, “The Unstableness of Things”), Alexander Luby (Vergödés, “Striving”), Eugen V. Szászvárosi, Endre Szabó (b. 1849), political satirist. In the most recent lyrics of Hungary there is a growing tendency to socialistic poetry, to the “poetry of misery” (A nyomor költészete). In epic poetry Josef Kiss’sJehovais the most popular work. Amongst rhymed novels—novels in verse form—the best is theDélibábok hőse(“The Hero of Mirages”), in which Ladislas Arany tells, in brilliantly humorous and captivating fashion, the story of a young Magyar nobleman who, at first full of great ideals and aspirations, finally ends as a commonplace country squire.Among Hungarian novels we may distinguish four dominantgenresor tendencies. The first is represented almost exclusively by Maurus Jókai (q.v.). To the school so perfectly represented byJókai belong Árpád Kupa (A napszámosok, “The Labourers”;Képselt királyok, “Imaginary Kings”); Robert Tábori (Nagy játék, “Great Game”;A negyvenéves férfiu, “The Man at Forty”); and Julius Werner (Kendi Imre házassága, “The Wedding of Emericus Kendi”;Olga; Megvirrad még valaha, “Dawn will come in the End”). The second class of Hungarian modern novelists is led by the well-known Koloman Mikszáth, a poet endowed with originality, a charmingnaïveté, and a freshness of observation from life. A close observer of the multifarious low life of Hungary, Mikszáth has, in his short stories, given a delightful yet instructive picture of all the minor varied phases of the peasant life of the Slavs, thePalócok, the Saxons, the town artisan. Amongst his numerous works may be mentionedA jó palóczok(“The Good Palóczok,” Slav peasants);Egy választás Magyarországon(“An Election in Hungary”);Pipacsok a búzában(“Wild Poppies in the Wheatfield”);A tekintetes vármegye(“The Worshipful County”);Ne okoskodj Pista(“Don’t reason, Pista”);Szent Peter esernyője(“St Peter’s Umbrella,” translated from the original into English by Miss B. W. Worswick), &c. Mikszáth has had considerable influence upon other writers. Such are Victor Rákosi (Sipulus tárcái, “The Essays of Sipulus”;Rejtett fészkek, “Hidden Nests”); Stephen Móra (Atyánkfiai, “Our Compatriots”); Alexius Benedek, the author of numerous distinctly sympathetic and truly Magyar tales, fables and novels, one of the most gifted and deserving literary workers of modern Hungary (Huszár Anna, “Anna Huszar”;Egy szalmaözvegy levelei, “Letters of a grass widow”;A sziv könyve, “The Book of the Heart”;Katalin, “Catherine”;Csendes órák, “Quiet Hours”;Testamentum és hat levél, “Last Will and Six Letters,” translated into German by Dr W. Schönwald, &c.); Géza Gárdonyi (several novels containing the adventures, observations, &c., of Mr Gabriel Gőre;A kékszemü Davidkáné, “Blue-eyed Mrs Dávidka”;A Kátsa, scenes from gipsy life); Charles Murai (Vig történetek, “Jolly Stories”;Bandi, a collection of short tales); Stephen Bársony (Csend, “Silence”;A Kaméleon-leány, “The Chamaeleon Girl, and other Stories”;Erdőn-mezőn, “In Wood and Field”). The third class of Magyar novelists comprises those cosmopolitan writers who take their method of work, their inspiration and even many of their subjects from foreign authors, chiefly French, German, Russian and also Norwegian. A people with an intense national sentiment, such as the Hungarians, do not as a rule incline towards permanent admiration of foreign-born or imported literary styles; and accordingly the work of this class of novelists has frequently met with very severe criticism on the part of various Magyar critics. Yet it can scarcely be denied that several of the “foreign” novelists have contributed a wholesome, if not quite Magyar, element of form or thought to literary narrative style in Hungary. Probably the foremost among them is Sigismund Justh, who died prematurely in the midst of his painful attempt at reconciling French “realistic” modes of thought with what he conceived to be Magyar simplicity (A puszta könyve, “The Book of thePuszta,” prairie of Hungary;A Pénz legendája, “The Legend of Money”;Gányo Julcsa, “Juliet Gányó”;Fuimus). Other novelists belonging to this school are: Desiderius Malonyai (Az utolsó, “The Last”;Judith könyve, “The Book of Judith”;Tanulmányfejek, “Typical Heads”); Julius Pekár (Dodo főhadnagy problémái, “Lieutenant Dodo’s Problems”;Az aranykesztyűs kisasszony, “The Maid with the Golden Gloves”;A szoborszép asszony, “The Lady as Beautiful as a Statue”;Az esztendo legendája, “The Legend of the Year”); Thomas Kobor (Aszfalt, “Asphalt”;O akarta, “He Wanted It”;A csillagok felé, “Towards the Stars”); Stephen Szomaházy (Huszonnégy óra, “Twenty-four Hours”;A Clairette Keringő, “The Clairette Valse”;Páratlan szerdák, “Incomparable Wednesdays”;Nyári felhők, “Clouds of Summer”); Zoltán Thury (Ullrich főhadnagy és egyéb történetek, “Lieutenant Ullrich and other Tales”;Urak és parasztok, “Gentlemen and Peasants”); also Desiderius Szomory, Ödon Gerő, Árpád Abonyi, Koloman Szántó, Edward Sas, Julius Vértesi, Tibor Dénes, Ákos Pintér, the Misses Janka and Stéphanie Wohl, Mrs Sigismund Gyarmathy and others. In the fourth class may be grouped such of the latest Hungarian novelists as have tried, and on the whole succeeded, in clothing their ideas and characters in a style peculiar to themselves. Besides Stephen Petelei (Jetti, a name—“Henrietta”—Felhők, “Clouds”) and Zoltán Ambrus (Pókháló Kisasszony, “Miss Cobweb”;Gyanu, “Suspicion”) must be mentioned especially Francis Herczeg, who has published a number of very interesting studies of Hungarian social life (Simon Zsuzsa, “Susanna Simon”;Fenn és lenn, “Above and Below”;Egy leány története, “The History of a Girl”;Idegenek között, “Amongst Strangers”); Alexander Bródy, who brings a delicate yet resolute analysis to unfold the mysterious and fascinating inner life of persons suffering from overwrought nerves or overstrung mind (A kétlelkü asszony, “The Double-Souled Lady”;Don Quixote kisasszony, “Miss Don Quixote”;Faust orvos, “Faust the Physician”;Tündér Ilona, Rejtelmek, “Mysteries”;Az ezüst kecske, “The Silver Goat”); and Edward Kabos, whose sombre and powerful genius has already produced works, not popular by any means, but full of great promise. In him we may trace the influence of Nietzsche’s philosophy (Koldusok, “Beggars”;Vándorok, “Wanderers”). To this list we must add the short but incomparablefeuilletons(tárczalevelek) of Dr Adolf Ágai (writing under thenom de plumeof Porzó), whose influence on the formation of modern Hungarian literary prose is hardly less important than the uniqueespritand charm of his writings.Dramatic literature, liberally supported by the king and the government, and aided by magnificent theatres in the capital and also in the provinces (the finest provincial theatre is in Kolozsvár, in Transylvania), has developed remarkably. The Hungarians have the genuine dramatic gift in abundance; they have, moreover, actors and actresses of the first rank. In the modern drama three great and clearly differentiated groups may be distinguished. First the neo-romantic group, whose chief representatives are Eugen Rákosi, Louis Dóczi (b. 1845), who, in addition toCsók(“The Kiss”), has writtenUtolsó szerelem(“Last Love”),Széchy Mária(“Maria Széchy”),Vegyes Párok(“Mixed Couples”). In these and other dramatic writings, more remarkable perhaps for poetic than for stage effects, Dóczi still maintains his brilliancy of diction and the delicacy of his poetic touch. To the same school belong Louis Bartók, Anton Váradi and Alexander Somló. The next group of Hungarian dramatists is dominated by the master spirit of Gregor Csiky (q.v.). Among Csiky’s most promising disciples is Francis Herczeg (already mentioned as a novelist), author of the successful society comedy,A Gyurkovics leányok(“The Misses Gyurkovics”),Három testőr(“Three Guardsmen”),Honty háza(“The House of Honty”). Árpád Berczik’sNézd meg az anyját(“Look at her Mother”),A protekczió(“Patronizing”), also followed on the lines of Csiky. The third group of dramatic writers take their subjects, surroundings and diction from the folk-life of the villages (népszínmü, “folk-drama”). The greatest of these dramatists has so far been Edward Tóth (Toloncz, “The Ousted Pauper”). Amongst his numerous followers, who have, however, sometimes vulgarized their figures and plots, may be mentioned Tihamér Almási (Milimári, A Miniszterelnök bálja, “The Ball of the Premier”) and Alexander Somló.In philosophy there has been a remarkable increase of activity, partly assimilative or eclectic and partly original. Peter Bihari and Maurice Kármán have in various writings spread the ideas of Herbart. After the school of Comte, yet to a large extent original, is theAz ember és világa(“Man and his World”) of Charles Böhm, who in 1881 started a philosophical review (Magyar Filozofiaí Szemle), subsequently edited by Joseph Bokor, a vigorous thinker. Realism, more particularly of the Wundt type, is represented by Emericus Pauer,Az ethikai determinismus(“Ethical Determinism”), and Eugen Posch (Az időről, “On Time”). On a Thomistic basis John Kiss edits a philosophical review (Bölcseleti Folyóirat); on similar lines have been working Ákos Mihályfi, Répássy, Augustin Lubrich and others. Neo-Hegelianism is cultivated by Eugen Schmitt, efficiently assisted by Joseph Alexander Simon (Az egységes és reális természet filozofia alapvonalai, “Outlines of a Uniform and Realistic Philosophy of Nature”). F. Medveczky (formerly a German author under the name of Fr. von Bärenbach) espouses Neo-Kantism (Társadalmi elméletek és eszmények, 1887, “Social Theories and Ideals”). The Hungarian scholar Samuel Brassai published, in 1896,Az igazi pozitiv filozofia(“The True Positive Philosophy”). Amongst the ablest and most zealous students of the history of philosophy are Bernhard Alexander, under whose editorship, aided by Joseph Bánoczi, a series of the works of the world’s great thinkers has appeared; Andrew Domanovszky, author of an elaborate History of Philosophy; Julius Gyomlai, translator of Plato; Eugen Péterfy, likewise translator of philosophical works, &c.Juristic literature has been stimulated by the activity in positive legislation. On 1st January 1900 a new criminal code, thoroughly modern in spirit, was put in force; and in 1901 a Civil Code Bill, to replace the old Hungarian customary system, was introduced. Among the newer writers on common and commercial law may be mentioned Wenczal, Zlinsky, Zögöd, Gustave Schwarz, Alexander Plósz, Francis Nagy and Neumann; on constitutional law, Korbuly, Boncz, Stephen Kiss, Ernest Nagy, Kmety, Arthur Balogh, Ferdinandy, Béla Grünwald, Julius Andrássy and Emeric Hajnik; on administration, George Fésüs, Kmety and Csiky; on finance, Mariska, Exner and László. Among the later writers on statistics, moreover, have been Konek, Keleti, Láng, Földes, Jekelfalussy, Vorgha, Körösy, Ráth and Vízaknai.On subjects of politics, amongst the more important works are the various monographs of Gustavus Beksics on the Dualism of Austria-Hungary, on the “New Foundations of Magyar Politics” (A magyar politika uj alapjai, 1899), on the Rumanian question, &c.; the writings of Emericus Bálint, Ákos Beöthy, Victor Concha (systematic politics), L. Ecsery, Géza Ferdinandy (historical and systematic politics), Árpád Zigány, Béla Földes (political economy), Julius Mandello (political economy), Alexander Matlekovics (Hungary’s administrative service;Államháztartás, 3 vols.), J. Pólya (agrarian politics), M. Somogyi (sociology), and the late Augustus Pulszky.In history there has been great activity. The millennial festivities in 1896 gave rise to the publication of what was then the most extensive history of the Hungarian nation (A magyar nemzet története, 1895-1901), ten large and splendidly illustrated volumes, edited by Alexander Szilágyi, with the collaboration of the best specialists of modern Hungary, Robert Fröhlich, B. Kuzsinszky, Géza Nagy, H. Marczali, Anton Pór, Schönherr, V. Fraknói, Árpád Károlyi, David Angyal, Coloman Thaly, Géza Ballagi.Literary criticism is actively pursued. Among the more authoritative writers Paul Gyulai and Zsolt Beöthy represent theconservative school; younger critics, like Béla Lázár, Alexander Hevesi, H. Lenkei, Zoltán Ferenczy, Aladár Ballagi, Ladislas Négyessy, have shown themselves somewhat too ready to follow the latest Norwegian or Parisian sensation.Authorities.—The best authorities on Magyar literature are: F. Toldy,A Magyar nemzeti irodalom története a legrégibb idöktöl a jelenkorig(Pest, 1864-1865; 3rd ed., 1872); S. Imre,A Magyar irodalom és nyelv rövid története(Debreczen, 1865; 4th ed., 1878); J. Szvorényi,Magyar irodalmi szemelvények(Pest, 1867), andA Magyar irodalmi tanulmányok kézikönyve(Pest, 1868); P. Jámbor,A Magyar irodalom története(Pest, 1864); J. Környei,A Magyar nemzeti irodalomtörténet vázlata(Pest, 1861; 3rd ed., 1874); A. Lonkay,A Magyar irodalom ismertetése(Budán, 1855; 3rd ed., Pest, 1864); J. Ferencz,Magyar irodalom és tudományosság története(Pest, 1854); J. Ferencz és J. Danielik,Magyar Irók. Életrajz-Gyütemény(2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858); and the literary histories of L. Névy, Z. Beöthy and B. Erödi. One of the most useful monographs on “Magyar Literary History Writing” is that of J. Szinnyei, junior,A Magyar Irodalomtörténet-Irás ismertetése(Budapest, 1878). For information as to the most recent literature see A. Dux,Aus. Ungarn.(Leipzig, 1880); Zsolt Beöthy,A Magy. nemz. irod. tört.; S. Bodnár,A magy. irod. tört.; Béla Lázár,A tegnap, a ma, és a holnap(Budapest, 1896-1900); Joseph Szinnyel,Magy. irók élete és munkái(an extensive biographical dictionary of Hungarian authors);Irodalom történeti Közlemények(a periodical edited by Aron Szilády, for the history of literature); Emil Reich,Hungarian Literature(London, 1898).
In lyrical poetry, among the poets who first came to the fore in the ’sixties several were active after 1880, such as Joseph Komócsy (d. 1894), whoseSzerelem Könyve(“Book of Love”) has become a popular classic; Victor Dalmady, who published in the ’nineties hisHazafias Költemények(Patriotic Poems); and Ladislas Arany, son of the great John. Among the prominent lyrists whose works, although partly published before 1880, belong largely to the later period, the following deserve special mention: The poetry of Emil Ábrányi (born 1850) is filled with the ideas and ideals of Victor Hugo. Ábrányi excels also as a translator, more particularly of Byron. Julius Reviczky (1855-1899) also inclined to the Occidental rather than to the specifically Magyar type of poets; his lyrics are highly finished, aristocratic and pessimistic (Pán halála, “The Death of Pan”). Count Géza Zichy (b. 1849) published his lyrical poems in 1892. Joseph Kiss (b. 1843) is especially felicitous in ballads taken from village and Jewish life, and in love-songs; Alexander Endrödi (b. 1850), one of the most gifted modern lyrical poets of Hungary, has the charm of tenderness and delicacy together with that of a peculiar and original style, hisKurucz nótákbeing so far his most successful attempt at romantic lyrics. Louis Bartók (b. 1851) is a remarkable satirist and epigrammatist (Kárpáti emlékek). Ödön Jakab (b. 1850) leans towards the poetic manner of Tompa, with perhaps a greater power of expression than the author of theVirágregék(“Flower-fables”); Jakab wroteHangok az ifjuságból(“Sounds of Youth”),Nyár(“Summer”), both collections of lyrical poems. Louis Pósa (b. 1850) has made a sphere of his own in his charming poems for and about children,Édes anyám(“My dear Mother”). In Andor Kozma (b. 1860), author ofA tegnap és a ma(“Yesterday and To-day,” 1889),Versek(Poems, 1893), &c., there is undoubted power of genuine satire and deep humour. Michael Szabolcska (b. 1864), author ofHangulatok(“Moods,” 1894), showed great promise; Julius Vargha (b. 1853) cultivates thenépiesor folk-poetry as represented by Hungary’s two greatest poets, Petőfi and Arany; Vargha has also published excellent translations of Schiller and Goethe. Perhaps scarcely less remarkable are the modern Magyar lyrists, such as, of the older set, John Bulla (b. 1843), J. D. Temérdek, Gustavus Csengey (b. 1842), Paul Koroda (b. 1854), E. Julius Kovács (b. 1839,Poems, 1892), Ladislas Inczédi, Julius Nógrádi Pap, Julius Szávay (b. 1860), John Dengi (b. 1853); among the juniors, Anton Radó (also an excellent translator), Louis Palágyi (Magányos úton, “On Lonely Way,” &c.), Géza Gárdonyi (b. 1863,Aprilis, 1894), Zoltán Pap, Eugen Heltai (Ignotus), Julius Rudnyánszky (b. 1860,Szerelem, “Love”;Nyár, “Summer”), Árpád Zemplényi, Julius Szentessy, Emil Makai (b. 1870), Cornelius Gáspár, Julius Varsányi (b. 1863,Mulandóság, “The Unstableness of Things”), Alexander Luby (Vergödés, “Striving”), Eugen V. Szászvárosi, Endre Szabó (b. 1849), political satirist. In the most recent lyrics of Hungary there is a growing tendency to socialistic poetry, to the “poetry of misery” (A nyomor költészete). In epic poetry Josef Kiss’sJehovais the most popular work. Amongst rhymed novels—novels in verse form—the best is theDélibábok hőse(“The Hero of Mirages”), in which Ladislas Arany tells, in brilliantly humorous and captivating fashion, the story of a young Magyar nobleman who, at first full of great ideals and aspirations, finally ends as a commonplace country squire.
Among Hungarian novels we may distinguish four dominantgenresor tendencies. The first is represented almost exclusively by Maurus Jókai (q.v.). To the school so perfectly represented byJókai belong Árpád Kupa (A napszámosok, “The Labourers”;Képselt királyok, “Imaginary Kings”); Robert Tábori (Nagy játék, “Great Game”;A negyvenéves férfiu, “The Man at Forty”); and Julius Werner (Kendi Imre házassága, “The Wedding of Emericus Kendi”;Olga; Megvirrad még valaha, “Dawn will come in the End”). The second class of Hungarian modern novelists is led by the well-known Koloman Mikszáth, a poet endowed with originality, a charmingnaïveté, and a freshness of observation from life. A close observer of the multifarious low life of Hungary, Mikszáth has, in his short stories, given a delightful yet instructive picture of all the minor varied phases of the peasant life of the Slavs, thePalócok, the Saxons, the town artisan. Amongst his numerous works may be mentionedA jó palóczok(“The Good Palóczok,” Slav peasants);Egy választás Magyarországon(“An Election in Hungary”);Pipacsok a búzában(“Wild Poppies in the Wheatfield”);A tekintetes vármegye(“The Worshipful County”);Ne okoskodj Pista(“Don’t reason, Pista”);Szent Peter esernyője(“St Peter’s Umbrella,” translated from the original into English by Miss B. W. Worswick), &c. Mikszáth has had considerable influence upon other writers. Such are Victor Rákosi (Sipulus tárcái, “The Essays of Sipulus”;Rejtett fészkek, “Hidden Nests”); Stephen Móra (Atyánkfiai, “Our Compatriots”); Alexius Benedek, the author of numerous distinctly sympathetic and truly Magyar tales, fables and novels, one of the most gifted and deserving literary workers of modern Hungary (Huszár Anna, “Anna Huszar”;Egy szalmaözvegy levelei, “Letters of a grass widow”;A sziv könyve, “The Book of the Heart”;Katalin, “Catherine”;Csendes órák, “Quiet Hours”;Testamentum és hat levél, “Last Will and Six Letters,” translated into German by Dr W. Schönwald, &c.); Géza Gárdonyi (several novels containing the adventures, observations, &c., of Mr Gabriel Gőre;A kékszemü Davidkáné, “Blue-eyed Mrs Dávidka”;A Kátsa, scenes from gipsy life); Charles Murai (Vig történetek, “Jolly Stories”;Bandi, a collection of short tales); Stephen Bársony (Csend, “Silence”;A Kaméleon-leány, “The Chamaeleon Girl, and other Stories”;Erdőn-mezőn, “In Wood and Field”). The third class of Magyar novelists comprises those cosmopolitan writers who take their method of work, their inspiration and even many of their subjects from foreign authors, chiefly French, German, Russian and also Norwegian. A people with an intense national sentiment, such as the Hungarians, do not as a rule incline towards permanent admiration of foreign-born or imported literary styles; and accordingly the work of this class of novelists has frequently met with very severe criticism on the part of various Magyar critics. Yet it can scarcely be denied that several of the “foreign” novelists have contributed a wholesome, if not quite Magyar, element of form or thought to literary narrative style in Hungary. Probably the foremost among them is Sigismund Justh, who died prematurely in the midst of his painful attempt at reconciling French “realistic” modes of thought with what he conceived to be Magyar simplicity (A puszta könyve, “The Book of thePuszta,” prairie of Hungary;A Pénz legendája, “The Legend of Money”;Gányo Julcsa, “Juliet Gányó”;Fuimus). Other novelists belonging to this school are: Desiderius Malonyai (Az utolsó, “The Last”;Judith könyve, “The Book of Judith”;Tanulmányfejek, “Typical Heads”); Julius Pekár (Dodo főhadnagy problémái, “Lieutenant Dodo’s Problems”;Az aranykesztyűs kisasszony, “The Maid with the Golden Gloves”;A szoborszép asszony, “The Lady as Beautiful as a Statue”;Az esztendo legendája, “The Legend of the Year”); Thomas Kobor (Aszfalt, “Asphalt”;O akarta, “He Wanted It”;A csillagok felé, “Towards the Stars”); Stephen Szomaházy (Huszonnégy óra, “Twenty-four Hours”;A Clairette Keringő, “The Clairette Valse”;Páratlan szerdák, “Incomparable Wednesdays”;Nyári felhők, “Clouds of Summer”); Zoltán Thury (Ullrich főhadnagy és egyéb történetek, “Lieutenant Ullrich and other Tales”;Urak és parasztok, “Gentlemen and Peasants”); also Desiderius Szomory, Ödon Gerő, Árpád Abonyi, Koloman Szántó, Edward Sas, Julius Vértesi, Tibor Dénes, Ákos Pintér, the Misses Janka and Stéphanie Wohl, Mrs Sigismund Gyarmathy and others. In the fourth class may be grouped such of the latest Hungarian novelists as have tried, and on the whole succeeded, in clothing their ideas and characters in a style peculiar to themselves. Besides Stephen Petelei (Jetti, a name—“Henrietta”—Felhők, “Clouds”) and Zoltán Ambrus (Pókháló Kisasszony, “Miss Cobweb”;Gyanu, “Suspicion”) must be mentioned especially Francis Herczeg, who has published a number of very interesting studies of Hungarian social life (Simon Zsuzsa, “Susanna Simon”;Fenn és lenn, “Above and Below”;Egy leány története, “The History of a Girl”;Idegenek között, “Amongst Strangers”); Alexander Bródy, who brings a delicate yet resolute analysis to unfold the mysterious and fascinating inner life of persons suffering from overwrought nerves or overstrung mind (A kétlelkü asszony, “The Double-Souled Lady”;Don Quixote kisasszony, “Miss Don Quixote”;Faust orvos, “Faust the Physician”;Tündér Ilona, Rejtelmek, “Mysteries”;Az ezüst kecske, “The Silver Goat”); and Edward Kabos, whose sombre and powerful genius has already produced works, not popular by any means, but full of great promise. In him we may trace the influence of Nietzsche’s philosophy (Koldusok, “Beggars”;Vándorok, “Wanderers”). To this list we must add the short but incomparablefeuilletons(tárczalevelek) of Dr Adolf Ágai (writing under thenom de plumeof Porzó), whose influence on the formation of modern Hungarian literary prose is hardly less important than the uniqueespritand charm of his writings.
Dramatic literature, liberally supported by the king and the government, and aided by magnificent theatres in the capital and also in the provinces (the finest provincial theatre is in Kolozsvár, in Transylvania), has developed remarkably. The Hungarians have the genuine dramatic gift in abundance; they have, moreover, actors and actresses of the first rank. In the modern drama three great and clearly differentiated groups may be distinguished. First the neo-romantic group, whose chief representatives are Eugen Rákosi, Louis Dóczi (b. 1845), who, in addition toCsók(“The Kiss”), has writtenUtolsó szerelem(“Last Love”),Széchy Mária(“Maria Széchy”),Vegyes Párok(“Mixed Couples”). In these and other dramatic writings, more remarkable perhaps for poetic than for stage effects, Dóczi still maintains his brilliancy of diction and the delicacy of his poetic touch. To the same school belong Louis Bartók, Anton Váradi and Alexander Somló. The next group of Hungarian dramatists is dominated by the master spirit of Gregor Csiky (q.v.). Among Csiky’s most promising disciples is Francis Herczeg (already mentioned as a novelist), author of the successful society comedy,A Gyurkovics leányok(“The Misses Gyurkovics”),Három testőr(“Three Guardsmen”),Honty háza(“The House of Honty”). Árpád Berczik’sNézd meg az anyját(“Look at her Mother”),A protekczió(“Patronizing”), also followed on the lines of Csiky. The third group of dramatic writers take their subjects, surroundings and diction from the folk-life of the villages (népszínmü, “folk-drama”). The greatest of these dramatists has so far been Edward Tóth (Toloncz, “The Ousted Pauper”). Amongst his numerous followers, who have, however, sometimes vulgarized their figures and plots, may be mentioned Tihamér Almási (Milimári, A Miniszterelnök bálja, “The Ball of the Premier”) and Alexander Somló.
In philosophy there has been a remarkable increase of activity, partly assimilative or eclectic and partly original. Peter Bihari and Maurice Kármán have in various writings spread the ideas of Herbart. After the school of Comte, yet to a large extent original, is theAz ember és világa(“Man and his World”) of Charles Böhm, who in 1881 started a philosophical review (Magyar Filozofiaí Szemle), subsequently edited by Joseph Bokor, a vigorous thinker. Realism, more particularly of the Wundt type, is represented by Emericus Pauer,Az ethikai determinismus(“Ethical Determinism”), and Eugen Posch (Az időről, “On Time”). On a Thomistic basis John Kiss edits a philosophical review (Bölcseleti Folyóirat); on similar lines have been working Ákos Mihályfi, Répássy, Augustin Lubrich and others. Neo-Hegelianism is cultivated by Eugen Schmitt, efficiently assisted by Joseph Alexander Simon (Az egységes és reális természet filozofia alapvonalai, “Outlines of a Uniform and Realistic Philosophy of Nature”). F. Medveczky (formerly a German author under the name of Fr. von Bärenbach) espouses Neo-Kantism (Társadalmi elméletek és eszmények, 1887, “Social Theories and Ideals”). The Hungarian scholar Samuel Brassai published, in 1896,Az igazi pozitiv filozofia(“The True Positive Philosophy”). Amongst the ablest and most zealous students of the history of philosophy are Bernhard Alexander, under whose editorship, aided by Joseph Bánoczi, a series of the works of the world’s great thinkers has appeared; Andrew Domanovszky, author of an elaborate History of Philosophy; Julius Gyomlai, translator of Plato; Eugen Péterfy, likewise translator of philosophical works, &c.
Juristic literature has been stimulated by the activity in positive legislation. On 1st January 1900 a new criminal code, thoroughly modern in spirit, was put in force; and in 1901 a Civil Code Bill, to replace the old Hungarian customary system, was introduced. Among the newer writers on common and commercial law may be mentioned Wenczal, Zlinsky, Zögöd, Gustave Schwarz, Alexander Plósz, Francis Nagy and Neumann; on constitutional law, Korbuly, Boncz, Stephen Kiss, Ernest Nagy, Kmety, Arthur Balogh, Ferdinandy, Béla Grünwald, Julius Andrássy and Emeric Hajnik; on administration, George Fésüs, Kmety and Csiky; on finance, Mariska, Exner and László. Among the later writers on statistics, moreover, have been Konek, Keleti, Láng, Földes, Jekelfalussy, Vorgha, Körösy, Ráth and Vízaknai.
On subjects of politics, amongst the more important works are the various monographs of Gustavus Beksics on the Dualism of Austria-Hungary, on the “New Foundations of Magyar Politics” (A magyar politika uj alapjai, 1899), on the Rumanian question, &c.; the writings of Emericus Bálint, Ákos Beöthy, Victor Concha (systematic politics), L. Ecsery, Géza Ferdinandy (historical and systematic politics), Árpád Zigány, Béla Földes (political economy), Julius Mandello (political economy), Alexander Matlekovics (Hungary’s administrative service;Államháztartás, 3 vols.), J. Pólya (agrarian politics), M. Somogyi (sociology), and the late Augustus Pulszky.
In history there has been great activity. The millennial festivities in 1896 gave rise to the publication of what was then the most extensive history of the Hungarian nation (A magyar nemzet története, 1895-1901), ten large and splendidly illustrated volumes, edited by Alexander Szilágyi, with the collaboration of the best specialists of modern Hungary, Robert Fröhlich, B. Kuzsinszky, Géza Nagy, H. Marczali, Anton Pór, Schönherr, V. Fraknói, Árpád Károlyi, David Angyal, Coloman Thaly, Géza Ballagi.
Literary criticism is actively pursued. Among the more authoritative writers Paul Gyulai and Zsolt Beöthy represent theconservative school; younger critics, like Béla Lázár, Alexander Hevesi, H. Lenkei, Zoltán Ferenczy, Aladár Ballagi, Ladislas Négyessy, have shown themselves somewhat too ready to follow the latest Norwegian or Parisian sensation.
Authorities.—The best authorities on Magyar literature are: F. Toldy,A Magyar nemzeti irodalom története a legrégibb idöktöl a jelenkorig(Pest, 1864-1865; 3rd ed., 1872); S. Imre,A Magyar irodalom és nyelv rövid története(Debreczen, 1865; 4th ed., 1878); J. Szvorényi,Magyar irodalmi szemelvények(Pest, 1867), andA Magyar irodalmi tanulmányok kézikönyve(Pest, 1868); P. Jámbor,A Magyar irodalom története(Pest, 1864); J. Környei,A Magyar nemzeti irodalomtörténet vázlata(Pest, 1861; 3rd ed., 1874); A. Lonkay,A Magyar irodalom ismertetése(Budán, 1855; 3rd ed., Pest, 1864); J. Ferencz,Magyar irodalom és tudományosság története(Pest, 1854); J. Ferencz és J. Danielik,Magyar Irók. Életrajz-Gyütemény(2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858); and the literary histories of L. Névy, Z. Beöthy and B. Erödi. One of the most useful monographs on “Magyar Literary History Writing” is that of J. Szinnyei, junior,A Magyar Irodalomtörténet-Irás ismertetése(Budapest, 1878). For information as to the most recent literature see A. Dux,Aus. Ungarn.(Leipzig, 1880); Zsolt Beöthy,A Magy. nemz. irod. tört.; S. Bodnár,A magy. irod. tört.; Béla Lázár,A tegnap, a ma, és a holnap(Budapest, 1896-1900); Joseph Szinnyel,Magy. irók élete és munkái(an extensive biographical dictionary of Hungarian authors);Irodalom történeti Közlemények(a periodical edited by Aron Szilády, for the history of literature); Emil Reich,Hungarian Literature(London, 1898).