(3)For pipes of circular section, and diameter d,m = Ω/χ =1⁄4πd2/πd =1⁄4d.Thenζv2/2g =1⁄4dh/L =1⁄4di;(4)orh = ζ (4L/d) (v2/2g);(4a)which shows that the head lost in friction is proportional to the head due to the velocity, and is found by multiplying that head by the coefficient 4ζL/d. It is assumed above that the atmospheric pressure at C and D is the same, and this is usually nearly the case. But if C and D are at greatly different levels the excess of barometric pressure at C, in feet of water, must be added to p2/G.§ 73.Hydraulic Gradient or Line of Virtual Slope.—Join CD. Since the head lost in friction is proportional to L, any intermediate pressure column between A and B will have its free surface on the line CD, and the vertical distance between CD and the pipe at any point measures the pressure, exclusive of atmospheric pressure, in the pipe at that point. If the pipe were laid along the line CD instead of AB, the water would flow at the same velocity by gravity without any change of pressure from section to section. Hence CD is termed the virtual slope or hydraulic gradient of the pipe. It is the line of free surface level for each point of the pipe.If an ordinary pipe, connecting reservoirs open to the air, rises at any joint above the line of virtual slope, the pressure at that point is less than the atmospheric pressure transmitted through the pipe. At such a point there is a liability that air may be disengaged from the water, and the flow stopped or impeded by the accumulation of air. If the pipe rises more than 34 ft. above the line of virtual slope, the pressure is negative. But as this is impossible, the continuity of the flow will be broken.If the pipe is not straight, the line of virtual slope becomes a curved line, but since in actual pipes the vertical alterations of level are generally small, compared with the length of the pipe, distances measured along the pipe are sensibly proportional to distances measured along the horizontal projection of the pipe. Hence the line of hydraulic gradient may be taken to be a straight line without error of practical importance.Fig. 82.§ 74.Case of a Uniform Pipe connecting two Reservoirs, when all the Resistances are taken into account.—Let h (fig. 82) be the difference of level of the reservoirs, and v the velocity, in a pipe of length L and diameter d. The whole work done per second is virtually the removal of Q cub. ft. of water from the surface of the upper reservoir to the surface of the lower reservoir, that is GQh foot-pounds. This is expended in three ways. (1) The head v2/2g, corresponding to an expenditure of GQv2/2g foot-pounds of work, is employed in giving energy of motion to the water. This is ultimately wasted in eddying motions in the lower reservoir. (2) A portion of head, which experience shows may be expressed in the form ζ0v2/2g, corresponding to an expenditure of GQζ0v2/2g foot-pounds of work, is employed in overcoming the resistance at the entrance to the pipe. (3) As already shown the head expended in overcoming the surface friction of the pipe is ζ(4L/d) (v2/2g) corresponding to GQζ (4L/d) (v2/2g) foot-pounds of work. HenceGQh = GQv2/2g + GQζ0v2/2g + GQζ·4L·v2/d·2g;h = (1 + ζ0+ ζ·4L/d) v2/2g.v = 8.025 √ [hd / {(1 + ζ0)d + 4ζL} ].(5)If the pipe is bell-mouthed, ζ0is about = .08. If the entrance to the pipe is cylindrical, ζ0= 0.505. Hence 1 + ζ0= 1.08 to 1.505. In general this is so small compared with ζ4L/d that, for practical calculations, it may be neglected; that is, the losses of head other than the loss in surface friction are left out of the reckoning. It is only in short pipes and at high velocities that it is necessary to take account of the first two terms in the bracket, as well as the third. For instance, in pipes for the supply of turbines, v is usually limited to 2 ft. per second, and the pipe is bellmouthed. Then 1.08v2/2g = 0.067 ft. In pipes for towns’ supply v may range from 2 to 41⁄2ft. per second, and then 1.5v2/2g = 0.1 to 0.5 ft. In either case this amount of head is small compared with the whole virtual fall in the cases which most commonly occur.When d and v or d and h are given, the equations above are solved quite simply. When v and h are given and d is required, it is better to proceed by approximation. Find an approximate value of d by assuming a probable value for ζ as mentioned below. Then from that value of d find a corrected value for ζ and repeat the calculation.The equation above may be put in the formh = (4ζ/d) [{ (1 + ζ0) d/4ζ} + L] v2/2g;(6)from which it is clear that the head expended at the mouthpiece is equivalent to that of a length(1 + ζ0) d/4ζof the pipe. Putting 1 + ζ0= 1.505 and ζ = 0.01, the length of pipe equivalent to the mouthpiece is 37.6d nearly. This may be added to the actual length of the pipe to allow for mouthpiece resistance in approximate calculations.§ 75.Coefficient of Friction for Pipes discharging Water.—From the average of a large number of experiments, the value of ζ for ordinary iron pipes isζ = 0.007567.(7)But practical experience shows that no single value can be taken applicable to very different cases. The earlier hydraulicians occupied themselves chiefly with the dependence of ζ on the velocity. Having regard to the difference of the law of resistance at very low and at ordinary velocities, they assumed that ζ might be expressed in the formζ = a + β/v.The following are the best numerical values obtained for ζ so expressed:—αβR. de Prony (from 51 experiments)0.0068360.001116J. F. d’Aubuisson de Voisins0.006730.001211J. A. Eytelwein0.0054930.00143Weisbach proposed the formula4ζ = α + β/√v = 0.003598 + 0.004289/√v.(8)§ 76.Darcy’s Experiments on Friction in Pipes.—All previous experiments on the resistance of pipes were superseded by the remarkable researches carried out by H. P. G. Darcy (1803-1858), the Inspector-General of the Paris water works. His experiments were carried out on a scale, under a variation of conditions, and with a degree of accuracy which leaves little to be desired, and the results obtained are of very great practical importance. These results may be stated thus:—1. For new and clean pipes the friction varies considerably with the nature and polish of the surface of the pipe. For clean cast iron it is about 11⁄2times as great as for cast iron covered with pitch.2. The nature of the surface has less influence when the pipes are old and incrusted with deposits, due to the action of the water. Thus old and incrusted pipes give twice as great a frictional resistance as new and clean pipes. Darcy’s coefficients were chiefly determined from experiments on new pipes. He doubles these coefficients for old and incrusted pipes, in accordance with the results of a very limited number of experiments on pipes containing incrustations and deposits.3. The coefficient of friction may be expressed in the form ζ = α + β/v; but in pipes which have been some time in use it is sufficiently accurate to take ζ = α1simply, where α1depends on the diameter of the pipe alone, but α and β on the other hand depend both on the diameter of the pipe and the nature of its surface. The following are the values of the constants.For pipes which have been some time in use, neglecting the term depending on the velocity;ζ = α (1 + β/d).(9)αβFor drawn wrought-iron or smooth cast-iron pipes.004973.084For pipes altered by light incrustations.00996.084These coefficients may be put in the following very simple form, without sensibly altering their value:—For clean pipesζ = .005 (1 + 1/12d)For slightly incrusted pipesζ = .01 (1 + 1/12d)(9a)Darcy’s Value of the Coefficient of Friction ζ for Velocities not less than 4 in. per second.Diameterof Pipein Inches.ζDiameterof Pipein Inches.ζNewPipes.IncrustedPipes.NewPipes.IncrustedPipes.20.007500.0150018.00528.010563.00667.0133321.00524.010484.00625.0125024.00521.010425.00600.0120027.00519.010376.00583.0116730.00517.010337.00571.0114336.00514.010288.00563.0112542.00512.010249.00556.0111154.00509.0101915.00533.01067These values of ζ are, however, not exact for widely differing velocities. To embrace all cases Darcy proposed the expressionζ = (α + α1/d) + (β + β1/d2) / v;(10)which is a modification of Coulomb’s, including terms expressing the influence of the diameter and of the velocity. For clean pipes Darcy found these valuesα = .004346α1= .0003992β = .0010182β1= .000005205.It has become not uncommon to calculate the discharge of pipes by the formula of E. Ganguillet and W. R. Kutter, which will be discussed under the head of channels. For the value of c in the relation v = c √(mi), Ganguillet and Kutter takec =41.6 + 1.811/n + .00281/i1 + [ (41.6 + .00281/i) (n/√m) ]where n is a coefficient depending only on the roughness of the pipe. For pipes uncoated as ordinarily laid n = 0.013. The formula is very cumbrous, its form is not rationally justifiable and it is not at all clear that it gives more accurate values of the discharge than simpler formulae.§ 77.Later Investigations on Flow in Pipes.—The foregoing statement gives the theory of flow in pipes so far as it can be put in a simple rational form. But the conditions of flow are really more complicated than can be expressed in any rational form. Taking even selected experiments the values of the empirical coefficient ζ range from 0.16 to 0.0028 in different cases. Hence means of discriminating the probable value of ζ are necessary in using the equations for practical purposes. To a certain extent the knowledge that ζ decreases with the size of the pipe and increases very much with the roughness of its surface is a guide, and Darcy’s method of dealing with these causes of variation is very helpful. But a further difficulty arises from the discordance of the results of different experiments. For instance F. P. Stearns and J. M. Gale both experimented on clean asphalted cast-iron pipes, 4 ft. in diameter. According to one set of gaugings ζ = .0051, and according to the other ζ = .0031. It is impossible in such cases not to suspect some error in the observations or some difference in the condition of the pipes not noticed by the observers.It is not likely that any formula can be found which will give exactly the discharge of any given pipe. For one of the chief factors in any such formula must express the exact roughness of the pipe surface, and there is no scientific measure of roughness. The most that can be done is to limit the choice of the coefficient for a pipe within certain comparatively narrow limits. The experiments on fluid friction show that the power of the velocity to which the resistance is proportional is not exactly the square. Also in determining the form of his equation for ζ Darcy used only eight out of his seventeen series of experiments, and there is reason to think that some of these were exceptional. Barré de Saint-Venant was the first to propose a formula with two constants,dh/4l = mVn,where m and n are experimental constants. If this is written in the formlog m + n log v = log (dh/4l),we have, as Saint-Venant pointed out, the equation to a straight line, of which m is the ordinate at the origin and n the ratio of the slope. If a series of experimental values are plotted logarithmically the determination of the constants is reduced to finding the straight line which most nearly passes through the plotted points. Saint-Venant found for n the value of 1.71. In a memoir on the influence of temperature on the movement of water in pipes (Berlin, 1854) by G. H. L. Hagen (1797-1884) another modification of the Saint-Venant formula was given. This is h/l = mvn/dx, which involves three experimental coefficients. Hagen found n = 1.75; x = 1.25; and m was then nearly independent of variations of v and d. But the range of cases examined was small. In a remarkable paper in theTrans. Roy. Soc., 1883, Professor Osborne Reynolds made much clearer the change from regular stream line motion at low velocities to the eddying motion, which occurs in almost all the cases with which the engineer has to deal. Partly by reasoning, partly by induction from the form of logarithmically plotted curves of experimental results, he arrived at the general equation h/l = c (vn/d3−n) P2−n, where n = l for low velocities and n = 1.7 to 2 for ordinary velocities. P is a function of the temperature. Neglecting variations of temperature Reynold’s formula is identical with Hagen’s if x = 3 − n. For practical purposes Hagen’s form is the more convenient.Values of Index of Velocity.Surface of Pipe.Authority.Diameterof Pipein Metres.Values of n.Tin plateBossut.0361.6971.72.0541.730Wrought iron (gas pipe)Hamilton Smith.01591.7561.75.02671.770LeadDarcy.0141.8661.77.0271.755.0411.760Clean brassMair.0361.7951.795AsphaltedHamilton Smith.02661.7601.85Lampe..41851.850W. W. Bonn.3061.582Stearns1.2191.880Riveted wrought ironHamilton Smith.27761.8041.87.32191.892.37491.852Wrought iron (gas pipe)Darcy.01221.9001.87.02661.899.03951.838New cast ironDarcy.08191.9501.95.1371.923.1881.957.501.950Cleaned cast ironDarcy.03641.8352.00.08012.000.24472.000.3972.07Incrusted cast ironDarcy.03591.9802.00.07951.990.24321.990Fig. 83.In 1886, Professor W. C. Unwin plotted logarithmically all the most trustworthy experiments on flow in pipes then available.5Fig. 83 gives one such plotting. The results of measuring the slopes of the lines drawn through the plotted points are given in the table.It will be seen that the values of the indexnrange from 1.72 for the smoothest and cleanest surface, to 2.00 for the roughest. The numbers after the brackets are rounded off numbers.The value ofnhaving been thus determined, values of m/dxwere next found and averaged for each pipe. These were again plotted logarithmically in order to find a value forx. The lines were not very regular, but in all cases the slope was greater than 1 to 1, so that the value ofxmust be greater than unity. The following table gives the results and a comparison of the value of x and Reynolds’s value 3 − n.Kind of Pipe.n3 − nxTin plate1.721.281.100Wrought iron (Smith)1.751.251.210Asphalted pipes1.851.151.127Wrought iron (Darcy)1.871.131.680Riveted wrought iron1.871.131.390New cast iron1.951.051.168Cleaned cast iron2.001.001.168Incrusted cast iron2.001.001.160With the exception of the anomalous values for Darcy’s wrought-iron pipes, there is no great discrepancy between the values of x and 3 − n, but there is no appearance of relation in the two quantities. For the present it appears preferable to assume that x is independent of n.It is now possible to obtain values of the third constantm, using the values found for n and x. The following table gives the results, the values of m being for metric measures.Here, considering the great range of diameters and velocities in the experiments, the constancy ofmis very satisfactorily close. The asphalted pipes give rather variable values. But, as some of these were new and some old, the variation is, perhaps, not surprising. The incrusted pipes give a value ofmquite double that for new pipes but that is perfectly consistent with what is known of fluid friction in other cases.Kind of Pipe.DiameterinMetres.Value ofm.MeanValueof m.Authority.Tin plate0.036.01697.01686Bossut0.054.01676Wrought iron0.016.01302.01310Hamilton Smith0.027.01319Asphalted pipes0.027.01749.01831Hamilton Smith0.306.02058W. W. Bonn0.306.02107W. W. Bonn0.419.01650Lampe1.219.01317Stearns1.219.02107GaleRiveted wrought iron0.278.01370.01403Hamilton Smith0.322.014400.375.013900.432.013680.657.01448New cast iron0.082.01725.01658Darcy0.137.014270.188.017340.500.01745Cleaned cast iron0.080.01979.01994Darcy0.245.020910.297.01913Incrusted cast iron0.036.03693.03643Darcy0.080.035300.243.03706General Mean Values of Constants.The general formula (Hagen’s)—h/l = mvn/dx·2g—can therefore be taken to fit the results with convenient closeness, if the following mean values of the coefficients are taken, the unit being a metre:—Kind of Pipe.mxnTin plate.01691.101.72Wrought iron.01311.211.75Asphalted iron.01831.1271.85Riveted wrought iron.01401.3901.87New cast iron.01661.1681.95Cleaned cast iron.01991.1682.0Incrusted cast iron.03641.1602.0The variation of each of these coefficients is within a comparatively narrow range, and the selection of the proper coefficient for any given case presents no difficulty, if the character of the surface of the pipe is known.It only remains to give the values of these coefficients when the quantities are expressed in English feet. For English measures the following are the values of the coefficients:—Kind of Pipe.mxnTin plate.02651.101.72Wrought iron.02261.211.75Asphalted iron.02541.1271.85Riveted wrought iron.02601.3901.87New cast iron.02151.1681.95Cleaned cast iron.02431.1682.0Incrusted cast iron.04401.1602.0§ 78.Distribution of Velocity in the Cross Section of a Pipe.—Darcy made experiments with a Pitot tube in 1850 on the velocity at different points in the cross section of a pipe. He deduced the relationV − v = 11.3 (r3/2/R) √i,where V is the velocity at the centre and v the velocity at radius r in a pipe of radius R with a hydraulic gradient i. Later Bazin repeated the experiments and extended them (Mém. de l’Académie des Sciences, xxxii. No. 6). The most important result was the ratio of mean to central velocity. Let b = Ri/U2, where U is the mean velocity in the pipe; then V/U = 1 + 9.03 √b. A very useful result for practical purposes is that at 0.74 of the radius of the pipe the velocity is equal to the mean velocity. Fig. 84 gives the velocities at different radii as determined by Bazin.Fig. 84.§ 79.Influence of Temperature on the Flow through Pipes.—Very careful experiments on the flow through a pipe 0.1236 ft. in diameter and 25 ft. long, with water at different temperatures, have been made by J. G. Mair (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.lxxxiv.). The loss of head was measured from a point 1 ft. from the inlet, so that the loss at entry was eliminated. The 11⁄2in. pipe was made smooth inside and to gauge, by drawing a mandril through it. Plotting the results logarithmically, it was found that the resistance for all temperatures varied very exactly as v1.795, the index being less than 2 as in other experiments with very smooth surfaces. Taking the ordinary equation of flow h = ζ (4L/D) (v2/2g), then for heads varying from 1 ft. to nearly 4 ft., and velocities in the pipe varying from 4 ft. to 9 ft. per second, the values of ζ were as follows:—Temp. F.ζTemp. F.ζ57.0044 to .0052100.0039 to .004270.0042 to .0045110.0037 to .004180.0041 to .0045120.0037 to .004190.0040 to .0045130.0035 to .0039160.0035 to .0038This shows a marked decrease of resistance as the temperature rises. If Professor Osborne Reynolds’s equation is assumed h = mLVn/d3−n, and n is taken 1.795, then values of m at each temperature are practically constant—Temp. F.m.Temp. F.m.570.0002761000.000244700.0002631100.000235800.0002571200.000229900.0002501300.0002251600.000206where again a regular decrease of the coefficient occurs as the temperature rises. In experiments on the friction of disks at different temperatures Professor W. C. Unwin found that the resistance was proportional to constant × (1 − 0.0021t) and the values of m given above are expressed almost exactly by the relationm = 0.000311 (1 − 0.00215 t).In tank experiments on ship models for small ordinary variations of temperature, it is usual to allow a decrease of 3% of resistance for 10° F. increase of temperature.§ 80.Influence of Deposits in Pipes on the Discharge. Scraping Water Mains.—The influence of the condition of the surface of a pipe on the friction is shown by various facts known to the engineers of waterworks. In pipes which convey certain kinds of water, oxidation proceeds rapidly and the discharge is considerably diminished. A main laid at Torquay in 1858, 14 m. in length, consists of 10-in., 9-in. and 8-in. pipes. It was not protected from corrosion by any coating. But it was found to the surprise of the engineer that in eight years the discharge had diminished to 51% of the original discharge. J. G. Appold suggested an apparatus for scraping the interior of the pipe, and this was constructed and used under the direction of William Froude (see “Incrustation of Iron Pipes,” by W. Ingham,Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1899). It was found that by scraping the interior of the pipe the discharge was increased 56%. The scraping requires to be repeated at intervals. After each scraping the discharge diminishes rather rapidly to 10% and afterwards more slowly, the diminution in a year being about 25%.Fig. 85 shows a scraper for water mains, similar to Appold’s but modified in details, as constructed by the Glenfield Company, at Kilmarnock. A is a longitudinal section of the pipe, showing the scraper in place; B is an end view of the plungers, and C, D sections of the boxes placed at intervals on the main for introducing or withdrawing the scraper. The apparatus consists of two plungers, packed with leather so as to fit the main pretty closely. On the spindle of these plungers are fixed eight steel scraping blades, with curved scraping edges fitting the surface of the main. The apparatus is placed in the main by removing the cover from one of the boxes shown at C, D. The cover is then replaced, water pressure is admitted behind the plungers, and the apparatus driven through the main. At Lancaster after twice scraping the discharge was increased 561⁄2%, at Oswestry 541⁄2%. The increased discharge is due to the diminution of the friction of the pipe by removing the roughnesses due to oxidation. The scraper can be easily followed when the mains are about 3 ft. deep by the noise it makes. The average speed of the scraper at Torquay is 21⁄3m. per hour. At Torquay 49% of the deposit is iron rust, the rest being silica, lime and organic matter.Fig. 85.Scale1⁄25.In the opinion of some engineers it is inadvisable to use the scraper. The incrustation is only temporarily removed, and if the use of the scraper is continued the life of the pipe is reduced. The only treatment effective in preventing or retarding the incrustation due to corrosion is to coat the pipes when hot with a smooth and perfect layer of pitch. With certain waters such as those derived from the chalk the incrustation is of a different character, consisting of nearly pure calcium carbonate. A deposit of another character which has led to trouble in some mains is a black slime containing a good deal of iron not derived from the pipes. It appears to be anorganic growth. Filtration of the water appears to prevent the growth of the slime, and its temporary removal may be effected by a kind of brush scraper devised by G. F. Deacon (see “Deposits in Pipes,” by Professor J. C. Campbell Brown,Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1903-1904).§ 81.Flow of Water through Fire Hose.—The hose pipes used for fire purposes are of very varied character, and the roughness of the surface varies. Very careful experiments have been made by J. R. Freeman (Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.xxi., 1889). It was noted that under pressure the diameter of the hose increased sufficiently to have a marked influence on the discharge. In reducing the results the true diameter has been taken. Let v = mean velocity in ft. per sec.; r = hydraulic mean radius or one-fourth the diameter in feet; i = hydraulic gradient. Then v = n √(ri).DiameterinInches.Gallons(UnitedStates)per min.ivnSolid rubber hose2.65215.186312.50123.3”344.471420.00124.0Woven cotton, rubber lined2.47200.246413.40119.1”299.526920.00121.5Woven cotton, rubber lined2.49200.242713.20117.7”319.570821.00122.1Knit cotton, rubber lined2.68132.08097.50111.6”299.393117.00114.8Knit cotton, rubber lined2.69204.235711.50100.1”319.516518.00105.8Woven cotton, rubber lined2.12154.344814.00113.4”240.767321.81118.4Woven cotton, rubber lined2.5354.8.02613.5094.3”298.826419.0091.0Unlined linen hose2.6057.9.04143.5073.9”3311.162420.0079.6§ 82.Reduction of a Long Pipe of Varying Diameter to an Equivalent Pipe of Uniform Diameter. Dupuit’s Equation.—Water mains for the supply of towns often consist of a series of lengths, the diameter being the same for each length, but differing from length to length. In approximate calculations of the head lost in such mains, it is generally accurate enough to neglect the smaller losses of head and to have regard to the pipe friction only, and then the calculations may be facilitated by reducing the main to a main of uniform diameter, in which there would be the same loss of head. Such a uniform main will be termed an equivalent main.Fig. 86.In fig. 86 let A be the main of variable diameter, and B the equivalent uniform main. In the given main of variable diameter A, letl1, l2be the lengths,d1, d2the diameters,v1, v2the velocities,i1, i2the slopes,for the successive portions, and let l, d, v and i be corresponding quantities for the equivalent uniform main B. The total loss of head in A due to friction ish = i1l1+ i2l2+ ...= ζ (v12· 4l1/2gd1) + ζ (v22· 4l2/2gd2) + ...and in the uniform mainil = ζ (v2· 4l/2gd).If the mains are equivalent, as defined above,ζ (v2· 4l/2gd) = ζ (v12· 4l1/2gd1) + ζ (v22· 4l2/2gd2) + ...But, since the discharge is the same for all portions,1⁄4πd2v =1⁄4πd12v1=1⁄4πd22v2= ...v1= vd2/d12; v2= vd2/d22...Also suppose that ζ may be treated as constant for all the pipes. Thenl/d = (d4/d14) (l1/d1) + (d4/d24) (l2/d2) + ...l = (d5/d15) l1+ (d5/d25) l2+ ...which gives the length of the equivalent uniform main which would have the same total loss of head for any given discharge.Fig. 87.§ 83.Other Losses of Head in Pipes.—Most of the losses of head in pipes, other than that due to surface friction against the pipe, are due to abrupt changes in the velocity of the stream producing eddies. The kinetic energy of these is deducted from the general energy of translation, and practically wasted.Sudden Enlargement of Section.—Suppose a pipe enlarges in section from an area ω0to an area ω1(fig. 87); thenv1/v0= ω0/ω1;or, if the section is circular,v1/v0= (d0/d1)2.The head lost at the abrupt change of velocity has already been shown to be the head due to the relative velocity of the two parts of the stream. Hence head lostɧe= (v0− v1)2/2g = (ω1/ω0− 1)2v12/2g = {(d1/d0)2− 1}2v12/2gorɧe= ζev12/2g,
(3)
For pipes of circular section, and diameter d,
m = Ω/χ =1⁄4πd2/πd =1⁄4d.
Then
ζv2/2g =1⁄4dh/L =1⁄4di;
(4)
or
h = ζ (4L/d) (v2/2g);
(4a)
which shows that the head lost in friction is proportional to the head due to the velocity, and is found by multiplying that head by the coefficient 4ζL/d. It is assumed above that the atmospheric pressure at C and D is the same, and this is usually nearly the case. But if C and D are at greatly different levels the excess of barometric pressure at C, in feet of water, must be added to p2/G.
§ 73.Hydraulic Gradient or Line of Virtual Slope.—Join CD. Since the head lost in friction is proportional to L, any intermediate pressure column between A and B will have its free surface on the line CD, and the vertical distance between CD and the pipe at any point measures the pressure, exclusive of atmospheric pressure, in the pipe at that point. If the pipe were laid along the line CD instead of AB, the water would flow at the same velocity by gravity without any change of pressure from section to section. Hence CD is termed the virtual slope or hydraulic gradient of the pipe. It is the line of free surface level for each point of the pipe.
If an ordinary pipe, connecting reservoirs open to the air, rises at any joint above the line of virtual slope, the pressure at that point is less than the atmospheric pressure transmitted through the pipe. At such a point there is a liability that air may be disengaged from the water, and the flow stopped or impeded by the accumulation of air. If the pipe rises more than 34 ft. above the line of virtual slope, the pressure is negative. But as this is impossible, the continuity of the flow will be broken.
If the pipe is not straight, the line of virtual slope becomes a curved line, but since in actual pipes the vertical alterations of level are generally small, compared with the length of the pipe, distances measured along the pipe are sensibly proportional to distances measured along the horizontal projection of the pipe. Hence the line of hydraulic gradient may be taken to be a straight line without error of practical importance.
§ 74.Case of a Uniform Pipe connecting two Reservoirs, when all the Resistances are taken into account.—Let h (fig. 82) be the difference of level of the reservoirs, and v the velocity, in a pipe of length L and diameter d. The whole work done per second is virtually the removal of Q cub. ft. of water from the surface of the upper reservoir to the surface of the lower reservoir, that is GQh foot-pounds. This is expended in three ways. (1) The head v2/2g, corresponding to an expenditure of GQv2/2g foot-pounds of work, is employed in giving energy of motion to the water. This is ultimately wasted in eddying motions in the lower reservoir. (2) A portion of head, which experience shows may be expressed in the form ζ0v2/2g, corresponding to an expenditure of GQζ0v2/2g foot-pounds of work, is employed in overcoming the resistance at the entrance to the pipe. (3) As already shown the head expended in overcoming the surface friction of the pipe is ζ(4L/d) (v2/2g) corresponding to GQζ (4L/d) (v2/2g) foot-pounds of work. Hence
GQh = GQv2/2g + GQζ0v2/2g + GQζ·4L·v2/d·2g;
h = (1 + ζ0+ ζ·4L/d) v2/2g.v = 8.025 √ [hd / {(1 + ζ0)d + 4ζL} ].
h = (1 + ζ0+ ζ·4L/d) v2/2g.
v = 8.025 √ [hd / {(1 + ζ0)d + 4ζL} ].
(5)
If the pipe is bell-mouthed, ζ0is about = .08. If the entrance to the pipe is cylindrical, ζ0= 0.505. Hence 1 + ζ0= 1.08 to 1.505. In general this is so small compared with ζ4L/d that, for practical calculations, it may be neglected; that is, the losses of head other than the loss in surface friction are left out of the reckoning. It is only in short pipes and at high velocities that it is necessary to take account of the first two terms in the bracket, as well as the third. For instance, in pipes for the supply of turbines, v is usually limited to 2 ft. per second, and the pipe is bellmouthed. Then 1.08v2/2g = 0.067 ft. In pipes for towns’ supply v may range from 2 to 41⁄2ft. per second, and then 1.5v2/2g = 0.1 to 0.5 ft. In either case this amount of head is small compared with the whole virtual fall in the cases which most commonly occur.
When d and v or d and h are given, the equations above are solved quite simply. When v and h are given and d is required, it is better to proceed by approximation. Find an approximate value of d by assuming a probable value for ζ as mentioned below. Then from that value of d find a corrected value for ζ and repeat the calculation.
The equation above may be put in the form
h = (4ζ/d) [{ (1 + ζ0) d/4ζ} + L] v2/2g;
(6)
from which it is clear that the head expended at the mouthpiece is equivalent to that of a length
(1 + ζ0) d/4ζ
of the pipe. Putting 1 + ζ0= 1.505 and ζ = 0.01, the length of pipe equivalent to the mouthpiece is 37.6d nearly. This may be added to the actual length of the pipe to allow for mouthpiece resistance in approximate calculations.
§ 75.Coefficient of Friction for Pipes discharging Water.—From the average of a large number of experiments, the value of ζ for ordinary iron pipes is
ζ = 0.007567.
(7)
But practical experience shows that no single value can be taken applicable to very different cases. The earlier hydraulicians occupied themselves chiefly with the dependence of ζ on the velocity. Having regard to the difference of the law of resistance at very low and at ordinary velocities, they assumed that ζ might be expressed in the form
ζ = a + β/v.
The following are the best numerical values obtained for ζ so expressed:—
Weisbach proposed the formula
4ζ = α + β/√v = 0.003598 + 0.004289/√v.
(8)
§ 76.Darcy’s Experiments on Friction in Pipes.—All previous experiments on the resistance of pipes were superseded by the remarkable researches carried out by H. P. G. Darcy (1803-1858), the Inspector-General of the Paris water works. His experiments were carried out on a scale, under a variation of conditions, and with a degree of accuracy which leaves little to be desired, and the results obtained are of very great practical importance. These results may be stated thus:—
1. For new and clean pipes the friction varies considerably with the nature and polish of the surface of the pipe. For clean cast iron it is about 11⁄2times as great as for cast iron covered with pitch.
2. The nature of the surface has less influence when the pipes are old and incrusted with deposits, due to the action of the water. Thus old and incrusted pipes give twice as great a frictional resistance as new and clean pipes. Darcy’s coefficients were chiefly determined from experiments on new pipes. He doubles these coefficients for old and incrusted pipes, in accordance with the results of a very limited number of experiments on pipes containing incrustations and deposits.
3. The coefficient of friction may be expressed in the form ζ = α + β/v; but in pipes which have been some time in use it is sufficiently accurate to take ζ = α1simply, where α1depends on the diameter of the pipe alone, but α and β on the other hand depend both on the diameter of the pipe and the nature of its surface. The following are the values of the constants.
For pipes which have been some time in use, neglecting the term depending on the velocity;
ζ = α (1 + β/d).
(9)
These coefficients may be put in the following very simple form, without sensibly altering their value:—
(9a)
Darcy’s Value of the Coefficient of Friction ζ for Velocities not less than 4 in. per second.
These values of ζ are, however, not exact for widely differing velocities. To embrace all cases Darcy proposed the expression
ζ = (α + α1/d) + (β + β1/d2) / v;
(10)
which is a modification of Coulomb’s, including terms expressing the influence of the diameter and of the velocity. For clean pipes Darcy found these values
α = .004346α1= .0003992β = .0010182β1= .000005205.
α = .004346
α1= .0003992
β = .0010182
β1= .000005205.
It has become not uncommon to calculate the discharge of pipes by the formula of E. Ganguillet and W. R. Kutter, which will be discussed under the head of channels. For the value of c in the relation v = c √(mi), Ganguillet and Kutter take
where n is a coefficient depending only on the roughness of the pipe. For pipes uncoated as ordinarily laid n = 0.013. The formula is very cumbrous, its form is not rationally justifiable and it is not at all clear that it gives more accurate values of the discharge than simpler formulae.
§ 77.Later Investigations on Flow in Pipes.—The foregoing statement gives the theory of flow in pipes so far as it can be put in a simple rational form. But the conditions of flow are really more complicated than can be expressed in any rational form. Taking even selected experiments the values of the empirical coefficient ζ range from 0.16 to 0.0028 in different cases. Hence means of discriminating the probable value of ζ are necessary in using the equations for practical purposes. To a certain extent the knowledge that ζ decreases with the size of the pipe and increases very much with the roughness of its surface is a guide, and Darcy’s method of dealing with these causes of variation is very helpful. But a further difficulty arises from the discordance of the results of different experiments. For instance F. P. Stearns and J. M. Gale both experimented on clean asphalted cast-iron pipes, 4 ft. in diameter. According to one set of gaugings ζ = .0051, and according to the other ζ = .0031. It is impossible in such cases not to suspect some error in the observations or some difference in the condition of the pipes not noticed by the observers.
It is not likely that any formula can be found which will give exactly the discharge of any given pipe. For one of the chief factors in any such formula must express the exact roughness of the pipe surface, and there is no scientific measure of roughness. The most that can be done is to limit the choice of the coefficient for a pipe within certain comparatively narrow limits. The experiments on fluid friction show that the power of the velocity to which the resistance is proportional is not exactly the square. Also in determining the form of his equation for ζ Darcy used only eight out of his seventeen series of experiments, and there is reason to think that some of these were exceptional. Barré de Saint-Venant was the first to propose a formula with two constants,
dh/4l = mVn,
where m and n are experimental constants. If this is written in the form
log m + n log v = log (dh/4l),
we have, as Saint-Venant pointed out, the equation to a straight line, of which m is the ordinate at the origin and n the ratio of the slope. If a series of experimental values are plotted logarithmically the determination of the constants is reduced to finding the straight line which most nearly passes through the plotted points. Saint-Venant found for n the value of 1.71. In a memoir on the influence of temperature on the movement of water in pipes (Berlin, 1854) by G. H. L. Hagen (1797-1884) another modification of the Saint-Venant formula was given. This is h/l = mvn/dx, which involves three experimental coefficients. Hagen found n = 1.75; x = 1.25; and m was then nearly independent of variations of v and d. But the range of cases examined was small. In a remarkable paper in theTrans. Roy. Soc., 1883, Professor Osborne Reynolds made much clearer the change from regular stream line motion at low velocities to the eddying motion, which occurs in almost all the cases with which the engineer has to deal. Partly by reasoning, partly by induction from the form of logarithmically plotted curves of experimental results, he arrived at the general equation h/l = c (vn/d3−n) P2−n, where n = l for low velocities and n = 1.7 to 2 for ordinary velocities. P is a function of the temperature. Neglecting variations of temperature Reynold’s formula is identical with Hagen’s if x = 3 − n. For practical purposes Hagen’s form is the more convenient.
Values of Index of Velocity.
In 1886, Professor W. C. Unwin plotted logarithmically all the most trustworthy experiments on flow in pipes then available.5Fig. 83 gives one such plotting. The results of measuring the slopes of the lines drawn through the plotted points are given in the table.
It will be seen that the values of the indexnrange from 1.72 for the smoothest and cleanest surface, to 2.00 for the roughest. The numbers after the brackets are rounded off numbers.
The value ofnhaving been thus determined, values of m/dxwere next found and averaged for each pipe. These were again plotted logarithmically in order to find a value forx. The lines were not very regular, but in all cases the slope was greater than 1 to 1, so that the value ofxmust be greater than unity. The following table gives the results and a comparison of the value of x and Reynolds’s value 3 − n.
With the exception of the anomalous values for Darcy’s wrought-iron pipes, there is no great discrepancy between the values of x and 3 − n, but there is no appearance of relation in the two quantities. For the present it appears preferable to assume that x is independent of n.
It is now possible to obtain values of the third constantm, using the values found for n and x. The following table gives the results, the values of m being for metric measures.
Here, considering the great range of diameters and velocities in the experiments, the constancy ofmis very satisfactorily close. The asphalted pipes give rather variable values. But, as some of these were new and some old, the variation is, perhaps, not surprising. The incrusted pipes give a value ofmquite double that for new pipes but that is perfectly consistent with what is known of fluid friction in other cases.
General Mean Values of Constants.
The general formula (Hagen’s)—h/l = mvn/dx·2g—can therefore be taken to fit the results with convenient closeness, if the following mean values of the coefficients are taken, the unit being a metre:—
The variation of each of these coefficients is within a comparatively narrow range, and the selection of the proper coefficient for any given case presents no difficulty, if the character of the surface of the pipe is known.
It only remains to give the values of these coefficients when the quantities are expressed in English feet. For English measures the following are the values of the coefficients:—
§ 78.Distribution of Velocity in the Cross Section of a Pipe.—Darcy made experiments with a Pitot tube in 1850 on the velocity at different points in the cross section of a pipe. He deduced the relation
V − v = 11.3 (r3/2/R) √i,
where V is the velocity at the centre and v the velocity at radius r in a pipe of radius R with a hydraulic gradient i. Later Bazin repeated the experiments and extended them (Mém. de l’Académie des Sciences, xxxii. No. 6). The most important result was the ratio of mean to central velocity. Let b = Ri/U2, where U is the mean velocity in the pipe; then V/U = 1 + 9.03 √b. A very useful result for practical purposes is that at 0.74 of the radius of the pipe the velocity is equal to the mean velocity. Fig. 84 gives the velocities at different radii as determined by Bazin.
§ 79.Influence of Temperature on the Flow through Pipes.—Very careful experiments on the flow through a pipe 0.1236 ft. in diameter and 25 ft. long, with water at different temperatures, have been made by J. G. Mair (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.lxxxiv.). The loss of head was measured from a point 1 ft. from the inlet, so that the loss at entry was eliminated. The 11⁄2in. pipe was made smooth inside and to gauge, by drawing a mandril through it. Plotting the results logarithmically, it was found that the resistance for all temperatures varied very exactly as v1.795, the index being less than 2 as in other experiments with very smooth surfaces. Taking the ordinary equation of flow h = ζ (4L/D) (v2/2g), then for heads varying from 1 ft. to nearly 4 ft., and velocities in the pipe varying from 4 ft. to 9 ft. per second, the values of ζ were as follows:—
This shows a marked decrease of resistance as the temperature rises. If Professor Osborne Reynolds’s equation is assumed h = mLVn/d3−n, and n is taken 1.795, then values of m at each temperature are practically constant—
where again a regular decrease of the coefficient occurs as the temperature rises. In experiments on the friction of disks at different temperatures Professor W. C. Unwin found that the resistance was proportional to constant × (1 − 0.0021t) and the values of m given above are expressed almost exactly by the relation
m = 0.000311 (1 − 0.00215 t).
In tank experiments on ship models for small ordinary variations of temperature, it is usual to allow a decrease of 3% of resistance for 10° F. increase of temperature.
§ 80.Influence of Deposits in Pipes on the Discharge. Scraping Water Mains.—The influence of the condition of the surface of a pipe on the friction is shown by various facts known to the engineers of waterworks. In pipes which convey certain kinds of water, oxidation proceeds rapidly and the discharge is considerably diminished. A main laid at Torquay in 1858, 14 m. in length, consists of 10-in., 9-in. and 8-in. pipes. It was not protected from corrosion by any coating. But it was found to the surprise of the engineer that in eight years the discharge had diminished to 51% of the original discharge. J. G. Appold suggested an apparatus for scraping the interior of the pipe, and this was constructed and used under the direction of William Froude (see “Incrustation of Iron Pipes,” by W. Ingham,Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1899). It was found that by scraping the interior of the pipe the discharge was increased 56%. The scraping requires to be repeated at intervals. After each scraping the discharge diminishes rather rapidly to 10% and afterwards more slowly, the diminution in a year being about 25%.
Fig. 85 shows a scraper for water mains, similar to Appold’s but modified in details, as constructed by the Glenfield Company, at Kilmarnock. A is a longitudinal section of the pipe, showing the scraper in place; B is an end view of the plungers, and C, D sections of the boxes placed at intervals on the main for introducing or withdrawing the scraper. The apparatus consists of two plungers, packed with leather so as to fit the main pretty closely. On the spindle of these plungers are fixed eight steel scraping blades, with curved scraping edges fitting the surface of the main. The apparatus is placed in the main by removing the cover from one of the boxes shown at C, D. The cover is then replaced, water pressure is admitted behind the plungers, and the apparatus driven through the main. At Lancaster after twice scraping the discharge was increased 561⁄2%, at Oswestry 541⁄2%. The increased discharge is due to the diminution of the friction of the pipe by removing the roughnesses due to oxidation. The scraper can be easily followed when the mains are about 3 ft. deep by the noise it makes. The average speed of the scraper at Torquay is 21⁄3m. per hour. At Torquay 49% of the deposit is iron rust, the rest being silica, lime and organic matter.
In the opinion of some engineers it is inadvisable to use the scraper. The incrustation is only temporarily removed, and if the use of the scraper is continued the life of the pipe is reduced. The only treatment effective in preventing or retarding the incrustation due to corrosion is to coat the pipes when hot with a smooth and perfect layer of pitch. With certain waters such as those derived from the chalk the incrustation is of a different character, consisting of nearly pure calcium carbonate. A deposit of another character which has led to trouble in some mains is a black slime containing a good deal of iron not derived from the pipes. It appears to be anorganic growth. Filtration of the water appears to prevent the growth of the slime, and its temporary removal may be effected by a kind of brush scraper devised by G. F. Deacon (see “Deposits in Pipes,” by Professor J. C. Campbell Brown,Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1903-1904).
§ 81.Flow of Water through Fire Hose.—The hose pipes used for fire purposes are of very varied character, and the roughness of the surface varies. Very careful experiments have been made by J. R. Freeman (Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.xxi., 1889). It was noted that under pressure the diameter of the hose increased sufficiently to have a marked influence on the discharge. In reducing the results the true diameter has been taken. Let v = mean velocity in ft. per sec.; r = hydraulic mean radius or one-fourth the diameter in feet; i = hydraulic gradient. Then v = n √(ri).
§ 82.Reduction of a Long Pipe of Varying Diameter to an Equivalent Pipe of Uniform Diameter. Dupuit’s Equation.—Water mains for the supply of towns often consist of a series of lengths, the diameter being the same for each length, but differing from length to length. In approximate calculations of the head lost in such mains, it is generally accurate enough to neglect the smaller losses of head and to have regard to the pipe friction only, and then the calculations may be facilitated by reducing the main to a main of uniform diameter, in which there would be the same loss of head. Such a uniform main will be termed an equivalent main.
In fig. 86 let A be the main of variable diameter, and B the equivalent uniform main. In the given main of variable diameter A, let
for the successive portions, and let l, d, v and i be corresponding quantities for the equivalent uniform main B. The total loss of head in A due to friction is
h = i1l1+ i2l2+ ...= ζ (v12· 4l1/2gd1) + ζ (v22· 4l2/2gd2) + ...
h = i1l1+ i2l2+ ...
= ζ (v12· 4l1/2gd1) + ζ (v22· 4l2/2gd2) + ...
and in the uniform main
il = ζ (v2· 4l/2gd).
If the mains are equivalent, as defined above,
ζ (v2· 4l/2gd) = ζ (v12· 4l1/2gd1) + ζ (v22· 4l2/2gd2) + ...
But, since the discharge is the same for all portions,
1⁄4πd2v =1⁄4πd12v1=1⁄4πd22v2= ...v1= vd2/d12; v2= vd2/d22...
1⁄4πd2v =1⁄4πd12v1=1⁄4πd22v2= ...
v1= vd2/d12; v2= vd2/d22...
Also suppose that ζ may be treated as constant for all the pipes. Then
l/d = (d4/d14) (l1/d1) + (d4/d24) (l2/d2) + ...l = (d5/d15) l1+ (d5/d25) l2+ ...
l/d = (d4/d14) (l1/d1) + (d4/d24) (l2/d2) + ...
l = (d5/d15) l1+ (d5/d25) l2+ ...
which gives the length of the equivalent uniform main which would have the same total loss of head for any given discharge.
§ 83.Other Losses of Head in Pipes.—Most of the losses of head in pipes, other than that due to surface friction against the pipe, are due to abrupt changes in the velocity of the stream producing eddies. The kinetic energy of these is deducted from the general energy of translation, and practically wasted.
Sudden Enlargement of Section.—Suppose a pipe enlarges in section from an area ω0to an area ω1(fig. 87); then
v1/v0= ω0/ω1;
or, if the section is circular,
v1/v0= (d0/d1)2.
The head lost at the abrupt change of velocity has already been shown to be the head due to the relative velocity of the two parts of the stream. Hence head lost
ɧe= (v0− v1)2/2g = (ω1/ω0− 1)2v12/2g = {(d1/d0)2− 1}2v12/2g
or
ɧe= ζev12/2g,