Chapter 18

(S.)

The regular practice of hymnody in English musical history dates from the beginning of the 16th century. Luther’s verses were adapted sometimes to ancient church melodies, sometimes to tunes of secular songs, and sometimes had music composed for them by himself and others. Many rhyming Latin hymns are of earlier date whose tunes are identified with them, some of which tunes, with the subject of their Latin text, are among the Reformer’s appropriations; but it was he who put the words of praise and prayer into the popular mouth, associated with rhythmical music which aided to imprint the words upon the memory and to enforce their enunciation. In conjunction with his friend Johann Walther, Luther issued a collection of poems for choral singing in 1524, which was followed by many others in North Germany. The English versions of the Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins and their predecessors, and the French version by Clement Marot and Theodore Beza, were written with the same purpose of fitting sacred minstrelsy to the voice of the multitude. Goudimel in 1566 and Claudin le Jeune in 1607 printed harmonizations of tunes that had then become standard for the Psalms, and in England several such publications appeared, culminating in Thomas Ravenscroft’s famous collection,The Whole Book of Psalms(1621); in all of these the arrangements of the tunes were by various masters. The English practice of hymn-singing was much strengthened on the return of the exiled reformers from Frankfort and Geneva, when it became so general that, according to Bishop Jewell, thousands of the populace who assembled at Paul’s Cross to hear the preaching would join in the singing of psalms before and after the sermon.The placing of the choral song of the church within the lips of the people had great religious and moral influence; it has had also its great effect upon art, shown in the productions of the North German musicians ever since the first days of the Reformation, which abound in exercises of scholarship and imagination wrought upon the tunes of established acceptance. Some of these are accompaniments to the tunes with interludes between the several strains, and some are compositions for the organ or for orchestral instruments that consist of such elaboration of the themes as is displayed in accompaniments to voices, but of far more complicated and extended character. A special art-form that was developed to a very high degree, but has passed into comparative disuse, was the structure of all varieties of counterpoint extemporaneously upon the known hymn-tunes (chorals), and several masters acquired great fame by success in its practice, of whom J. A. Reinken (1623-1722), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Georg Boehm and the great J. S. Bach are specially memorable. The hymnody of North Germany has for artistic treatment a strong advantage which is unpossessed by that of England, in that for the most part the same verses are associated with the same tunes, so that, whenever the text or the music is heard, either prompts recollection of the other, whereas in England tunes were always and are now often composed to metres and not to poems; any tune in a given metre is available for every poem in the same, and hence there are various tunes to one poem, and various poems to one tune.4In England a tune is named generally after some place—as “York,” “Windsor,” “Dundee,”—or by some other unsignifying word; in North Germany a tune is mostly named by the initial words of the verses to which it is allied, and consequently, whenever it is heard, whether with words or without, it necessarily suggests to the hearer the whole subject of that hymn of which it is the musical moiety undivorceable from the literary half. Manifold as they are, knowledge of the choral tunes is included in the earliest schooling of every Lutheran and every Calvinist in Germany, which thus enables all to take part in performance of the tunes, and hence expressly the definition of “choral.” Compositions grounded on the standard tune are then not merely school exercises, but works of art which link the sympathies of the writer and the listener, and aim at expressing the feeling prompted by the hymn under treatment.Bibliography: I. Ancient.—George Cassander,Hymni ecclesiastici(Cologne, 1556); Georgius Fabricius,Poëtarum veterum ecclesiasticorum(Frankfort, 1578); Cardinal J. M. Thomasius,Hymnarium in Opera, ii. 351 seq. (Rome, 1747); A. J. Rambach,Anthologie christlicher Gesänge(Altona, 1817); H. A. Daniel,Thesaurus hymnologicus(Leipzig, 5 vols., 1841-1856); J. M. Neale,Hymni ecclesiae et sequentiae(London, 1851-1852); andHymns of the Eastern Church(1863). The dissertation prefixed to the second volume of theActa sanctorumof the Bollandists; Cardinal J. B. Pitra,Hymnographie de l’église grecque(1867),Analecta sacra(1876); W. Christ and M. Paranikas,Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum(Leipzig, 1871); F. A. March,Latin Hymns with English Notes(New York, 1875); R. C. Trench,Sacred Latin Poetry(London, 4th ed., 1874); J. Pauly,Hymni breviarii Romani(Aix-la-Chapelle, 3 vols., 1868-1870); Pimont,Les Hymnes du bréviaire romain(vols. 1-3, 1874-1884, unfinished); A. W. F. Fischer,Kirchenlieder-Lexicon(Gotha, 1878-1879); J. Kayser,Beiträge zur Geschichte der ältesten Kirchenhymnen(1881); M. Manitius,Geschichte der christlichen lateinischen Poesie(Stuttgart, 1891); John Julian,Dictionary of Hymnology(1892, new ed. 1907). For criticisms of metre, see also Huemer,Untersuchungen über die ältesten christlichen Rhythmen(1879); E. Bouvy,Poètes et mélodes(Nîmes, 1886); C. Krumbacher,Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur(Munich, 1897, p. 700 seq.); J. M. Neale, Latin dissertation prefixed to Daniel’sThesaurus, vol. 5; and D. J. Donahoe,Early Christian Hymns(London, 1909).II. Medieval.—Walafrid Strabo’s treatise, ch. 25,De hymnis, &c.; Radulph of Tongres,De psaltario observando(14th century); Clichtavaens,Elucidatorium ecclesiasticum(Paris, 1556); Faustinus Arevalus,Hymnodia Hispanica(Rome, 1786); E. du Méril,Poésies populaires latines antérieures au XIIIesiècle(Paris, 1843); J. Stevenson,Latin Hymns of the Anglo-Saxon Church(Surtees Society, Durham, 1851); Norman,Hymnarium Sarisburiense(London, 1851); J. D. Chambers,Psalter, &c., according to the Sarum use (1852); F. J. Mone,Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters(Freiburg, 3 vols., 1853-1855); Ph. Wackernagel,Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1864); E. Dümmler,Poëtae latini aevi Carolini(1881-1890); theHymnologische Beiträge: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der lateinischen Hymnendichtung, edited by C. Blume and G. M. Dreves (Leipzig, 1897); G. C. F. Mohnike,Hymnologische Forschungen; Klemming,Hymni et sequentiae in regno Sueciae(Stockholm, 4 vols., 1885-1887);Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied(vol. i. by K. Severin Meister, 1862, vol. ii. by W. Baumker, 1883); the “Hymnodia Hiberica,”Spanische Hymnen des Mittelalters, vol. xvi. (1894); the “Hymnodia Gotica,”Mozarabische Hymnen des altspanischen Ritus, vol. xxvii. (1897); J. Dankó,Vetus hymnarium ecclesiasticae Hungariae(Budapest, 1893); J. H. Bernard and R. Atkinson,The Irish Liber Hymnorum(2 vols., London, 1898); C. A. J. Chevalier,Poésie liturgique du moyen âge(Paris, 1893).III. Modern.—J. C. Jacobi,Psalmodia Germanica(1722-1725 and 1732, with supplement added by J. Haberkorn, 1765); F. A. Cunz,Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes(Leipzig, 1855); Baron von Bunsen,Versuch eines allgemeinen Gesang- und Gebetbuches(1833) andAllgemeines evangelisches Gesang- und Gebetbuch(1846); Catherine Winkworth,Christian Singers of Germany(1869) andLyra Germanica(1855); Catherine H. Dunn,Hymns from the German(1857); Frances E. Cox,Sacred Hymns from the German(London, 1841); Massie,Lyra domestica(1860);Appendix on Scottish Psalmodyin D. Laing’s edition of Baillie’sLetters and Journals(1841-1842); J. and C. Wesley,Collection of Psalms and Hymns(1741); Josiah Miller,Our Hymns, their Authors and Origin(1866); John Gadsby,Memoirs of the Principal Hymn-writers(3rd ed., 1861); L. C. Biggs, Annotations toHymns Ancient and Modern(1867); Daniel Sedgwick,Comprehensive Index of Names of Original Authors of Hymns(2nd ed., 1863); R. E. Prothero,The Psalms in Human Life(1907); C. J. Brandt and L. Helweg,Den danske Psalmedigtning(Copenhagen, 1846-1847); J. N. Skaar,Norsk Salmehistorie(Bergen, 1879-1880); H. Schück,Svensk Literaturhistoria(Stockholm, 1890); Rudolf Wolkan,Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in Böhmen, 246-256, andDas deutsche Kirchenlied der böhm. Brüder(Prague, 1891); Zahn,Die geistlichen Lieder der Brüder in Böhmen, Mähren u. Polen(Nuremberg, 1875); and J. Müller, “Bohemian Brethren’s Hymnody,” in J. Julian’sDictionary of Hymnology.For account of hymn-tunes, &c., see W. Cowan and James Love,Music of the Church Hymnody and the Psalter in Metre(London, 1901); and Dickinson,Music in the History of the Western Church(New York, 1902); S. Kümmerle,Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik(4 vols., 1888-1895); Chr. Palmer,Evangelische Hymnologie(Stuttgart, 1865); and P. Urto Kornmüller,Lexikon der kirchlichen Tonkunst(1891).

The placing of the choral song of the church within the lips of the people had great religious and moral influence; it has had also its great effect upon art, shown in the productions of the North German musicians ever since the first days of the Reformation, which abound in exercises of scholarship and imagination wrought upon the tunes of established acceptance. Some of these are accompaniments to the tunes with interludes between the several strains, and some are compositions for the organ or for orchestral instruments that consist of such elaboration of the themes as is displayed in accompaniments to voices, but of far more complicated and extended character. A special art-form that was developed to a very high degree, but has passed into comparative disuse, was the structure of all varieties of counterpoint extemporaneously upon the known hymn-tunes (chorals), and several masters acquired great fame by success in its practice, of whom J. A. Reinken (1623-1722), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Georg Boehm and the great J. S. Bach are specially memorable. The hymnody of North Germany has for artistic treatment a strong advantage which is unpossessed by that of England, in that for the most part the same verses are associated with the same tunes, so that, whenever the text or the music is heard, either prompts recollection of the other, whereas in England tunes were always and are now often composed to metres and not to poems; any tune in a given metre is available for every poem in the same, and hence there are various tunes to one poem, and various poems to one tune.4In England a tune is named generally after some place—as “York,” “Windsor,” “Dundee,”—or by some other unsignifying word; in North Germany a tune is mostly named by the initial words of the verses to which it is allied, and consequently, whenever it is heard, whether with words or without, it necessarily suggests to the hearer the whole subject of that hymn of which it is the musical moiety undivorceable from the literary half. Manifold as they are, knowledge of the choral tunes is included in the earliest schooling of every Lutheran and every Calvinist in Germany, which thus enables all to take part in performance of the tunes, and hence expressly the definition of “choral.” Compositions grounded on the standard tune are then not merely school exercises, but works of art which link the sympathies of the writer and the listener, and aim at expressing the feeling prompted by the hymn under treatment.

Bibliography: I. Ancient.—George Cassander,Hymni ecclesiastici(Cologne, 1556); Georgius Fabricius,Poëtarum veterum ecclesiasticorum(Frankfort, 1578); Cardinal J. M. Thomasius,Hymnarium in Opera, ii. 351 seq. (Rome, 1747); A. J. Rambach,Anthologie christlicher Gesänge(Altona, 1817); H. A. Daniel,Thesaurus hymnologicus(Leipzig, 5 vols., 1841-1856); J. M. Neale,Hymni ecclesiae et sequentiae(London, 1851-1852); andHymns of the Eastern Church(1863). The dissertation prefixed to the second volume of theActa sanctorumof the Bollandists; Cardinal J. B. Pitra,Hymnographie de l’église grecque(1867),Analecta sacra(1876); W. Christ and M. Paranikas,Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum(Leipzig, 1871); F. A. March,Latin Hymns with English Notes(New York, 1875); R. C. Trench,Sacred Latin Poetry(London, 4th ed., 1874); J. Pauly,Hymni breviarii Romani(Aix-la-Chapelle, 3 vols., 1868-1870); Pimont,Les Hymnes du bréviaire romain(vols. 1-3, 1874-1884, unfinished); A. W. F. Fischer,Kirchenlieder-Lexicon(Gotha, 1878-1879); J. Kayser,Beiträge zur Geschichte der ältesten Kirchenhymnen(1881); M. Manitius,Geschichte der christlichen lateinischen Poesie(Stuttgart, 1891); John Julian,Dictionary of Hymnology(1892, new ed. 1907). For criticisms of metre, see also Huemer,Untersuchungen über die ältesten christlichen Rhythmen(1879); E. Bouvy,Poètes et mélodes(Nîmes, 1886); C. Krumbacher,Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur(Munich, 1897, p. 700 seq.); J. M. Neale, Latin dissertation prefixed to Daniel’sThesaurus, vol. 5; and D. J. Donahoe,Early Christian Hymns(London, 1909).

II. Medieval.—Walafrid Strabo’s treatise, ch. 25,De hymnis, &c.; Radulph of Tongres,De psaltario observando(14th century); Clichtavaens,Elucidatorium ecclesiasticum(Paris, 1556); Faustinus Arevalus,Hymnodia Hispanica(Rome, 1786); E. du Méril,Poésies populaires latines antérieures au XIIIesiècle(Paris, 1843); J. Stevenson,Latin Hymns of the Anglo-Saxon Church(Surtees Society, Durham, 1851); Norman,Hymnarium Sarisburiense(London, 1851); J. D. Chambers,Psalter, &c., according to the Sarum use (1852); F. J. Mone,Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters(Freiburg, 3 vols., 1853-1855); Ph. Wackernagel,Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1864); E. Dümmler,Poëtae latini aevi Carolini(1881-1890); theHymnologische Beiträge: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der lateinischen Hymnendichtung, edited by C. Blume and G. M. Dreves (Leipzig, 1897); G. C. F. Mohnike,Hymnologische Forschungen; Klemming,Hymni et sequentiae in regno Sueciae(Stockholm, 4 vols., 1885-1887);Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied(vol. i. by K. Severin Meister, 1862, vol. ii. by W. Baumker, 1883); the “Hymnodia Hiberica,”Spanische Hymnen des Mittelalters, vol. xvi. (1894); the “Hymnodia Gotica,”Mozarabische Hymnen des altspanischen Ritus, vol. xxvii. (1897); J. Dankó,Vetus hymnarium ecclesiasticae Hungariae(Budapest, 1893); J. H. Bernard and R. Atkinson,The Irish Liber Hymnorum(2 vols., London, 1898); C. A. J. Chevalier,Poésie liturgique du moyen âge(Paris, 1893).

III. Modern.—J. C. Jacobi,Psalmodia Germanica(1722-1725 and 1732, with supplement added by J. Haberkorn, 1765); F. A. Cunz,Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes(Leipzig, 1855); Baron von Bunsen,Versuch eines allgemeinen Gesang- und Gebetbuches(1833) andAllgemeines evangelisches Gesang- und Gebetbuch(1846); Catherine Winkworth,Christian Singers of Germany(1869) andLyra Germanica(1855); Catherine H. Dunn,Hymns from the German(1857); Frances E. Cox,Sacred Hymns from the German(London, 1841); Massie,Lyra domestica(1860);Appendix on Scottish Psalmodyin D. Laing’s edition of Baillie’sLetters and Journals(1841-1842); J. and C. Wesley,Collection of Psalms and Hymns(1741); Josiah Miller,Our Hymns, their Authors and Origin(1866); John Gadsby,Memoirs of the Principal Hymn-writers(3rd ed., 1861); L. C. Biggs, Annotations toHymns Ancient and Modern(1867); Daniel Sedgwick,Comprehensive Index of Names of Original Authors of Hymns(2nd ed., 1863); R. E. Prothero,The Psalms in Human Life(1907); C. J. Brandt and L. Helweg,Den danske Psalmedigtning(Copenhagen, 1846-1847); J. N. Skaar,Norsk Salmehistorie(Bergen, 1879-1880); H. Schück,Svensk Literaturhistoria(Stockholm, 1890); Rudolf Wolkan,Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in Böhmen, 246-256, andDas deutsche Kirchenlied der böhm. Brüder(Prague, 1891); Zahn,Die geistlichen Lieder der Brüder in Böhmen, Mähren u. Polen(Nuremberg, 1875); and J. Müller, “Bohemian Brethren’s Hymnody,” in J. Julian’sDictionary of Hymnology.

For account of hymn-tunes, &c., see W. Cowan and James Love,Music of the Church Hymnody and the Psalter in Metre(London, 1901); and Dickinson,Music in the History of the Western Church(New York, 1902); S. Kümmerle,Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik(4 vols., 1888-1895); Chr. Palmer,Evangelische Hymnologie(Stuttgart, 1865); and P. Urto Kornmüller,Lexikon der kirchlichen Tonkunst(1891).

1The history of the “hymn” naturally begins with Greece, but it may be found in some form much earlier; Assyria and Egypt have left specimens, while India has the Vedic hymns, and Confucius collected “praise songs” in China.2SeeGreek Literature.3The authorship of this and of one other, “When all thy mercies, O my God,” has been made a subject of controversy,—being claimed for Andrew Marvell (who died in 1678), in the preface to Captain E. Thompson’s edition (1776) of Marvell’sWorks. But this claim does not appear to be substantiated. The editor did not give his readers the means of judging as to the real age, character or value of a manuscript to which he referred; he did not say that these portions of it were in Marvell’s handwriting; he did not even himself include them among Marvell’s poems, as published in the body of his edition; and he advanced a like claim on like grounds to two other poems, in very different styles, which had been published as their own by Tickell and Mallet. It is certain that all the five hymns were first made public in 1712, in papers contributed by Addison to theSpectator(Nos. 441, 453, 465, 489, 513), in which they were introduced in a way which might have been expected if they were by the hand which wrote those papers, but which would have been improbable, and unworthy of Addison, if they were unpublished works of a writer of so much genius, and such note in his day, as Marvell. They are all printed as Addison’s in Dr Johnson’sBritish Poets.4The old tune for the 100th Psalm and Croft’s tune for the 104th are almost the only exceptions, unless “God save the King” may be classed under “hymnody.” In Scotland also the tune for the 124th Psalm is associated with its proper text.

2SeeGreek Literature.

3The authorship of this and of one other, “When all thy mercies, O my God,” has been made a subject of controversy,—being claimed for Andrew Marvell (who died in 1678), in the preface to Captain E. Thompson’s edition (1776) of Marvell’sWorks. But this claim does not appear to be substantiated. The editor did not give his readers the means of judging as to the real age, character or value of a manuscript to which he referred; he did not say that these portions of it were in Marvell’s handwriting; he did not even himself include them among Marvell’s poems, as published in the body of his edition; and he advanced a like claim on like grounds to two other poems, in very different styles, which had been published as their own by Tickell and Mallet. It is certain that all the five hymns were first made public in 1712, in papers contributed by Addison to theSpectator(Nos. 441, 453, 465, 489, 513), in which they were introduced in a way which might have been expected if they were by the hand which wrote those papers, but which would have been improbable, and unworthy of Addison, if they were unpublished works of a writer of so much genius, and such note in his day, as Marvell. They are all printed as Addison’s in Dr Johnson’sBritish Poets.

4The old tune for the 100th Psalm and Croft’s tune for the 104th are almost the only exceptions, unless “God save the King” may be classed under “hymnody.” In Scotland also the tune for the 124th Psalm is associated with its proper text.

HYPAETHROS(Gr.ὕπαιθρος, beneath the sky, in the open air,ὑπό, beneath, andαἰθήρ, air), the Greek term quoted by Vitruvius (iii. 2) for the opening in the middle of the roof of decastyle temples, of which “there was no example in Rome, but one in Athens in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which is octastyle.” But at the time he wrote (c.25B.C.) the cella of this temple was unroofed, because the columns which had been provided to carry, at all events, part of the ceiling and roof had been taken away by Sulla in 80B.C.The decastyle temple of Apollo Didymaeus near Miletus was, according to Strabo (c.50B.C.), unroofed, on account of the vastness of its cella, in which precious groves of laurel bushes were planted. Apart from these two examples, the references in various writers to an opening of some kind in the roofs of temples dedicated to particular deities, and the statement of Vitruvius, which was doubtless based on the writings of Greek authors, that in decastyle or large temples the centre was open to the sky and without a roof (medium autem sub divo est sine tecto), render the existence of the hypaethros probable in some cases; and therefore C. R. Cockerell’s discovery in the temple at Aegina of two fragments of a coping-stone, in which there were sinkings on one side to receive the tiles and covering tiles, has been of great importance in the discussion of this subject. In the conjectural restoration of the opaion or opening in the roof shown in Cockerell’s drawing, it has been made needlessly large, having an area of about one quarter of the superficial area of the cella between the columns, and since in the Pantheon at Rome the relative proportions of the central opening in the dome and the area of the Rotunda are 1: 22, and the light there is ample, in the clearer atmosphere of Greece it might have been less. The larger the opening the more conspicuous would be the notch in the roof which is so greatly objected to; in this respect T. J. Hittorff would seem to be nearer the truth when, in his conjectural restoration of Temple R. at Selinus, he shows an opaion about half the relative size shown in Cockerell’s of that at Aegina, the coping on the side elevation being much less noticeable. The problem was apparently solved in another way at Bassae, where, in the excavations of the temple of Apollo by Cockerell and Baron Haller von Hallerstein, three marble tiles were found with pierced openings in them about 18 in. by 10 in.; five of these pierced tiles on either side would have amply lighted the interior of the cella, and the amount of rain passing through (a serious element to be considered in a country where torrential rains occasionally fall) would not be very great or more than could be retained to dry up in the cella sunk pavement. In favour of both these methods of lighting the interior of the cella, the sarcophagus tomb at Cyrene, about 20 ft. long, carved in imitation of a temple, has been adduced, because, on the top of the roof and in its centre, there is a raised coping, and a similar feature is found on a tomb found near Delos; an example from Crete now in the British Museum shows a pierced tile on each side of the roof, and a large number of pierced tiles have been found in Pompeii, some of them surrounded with a rim identical with that of the marble tiles at Bassae. On the other hand, there are many authorities, among them Dr W. Dörpfeld, who have adhered to their original opinion that it was only through the open doorway that light was ever admitted into the cella, and with the clear atmosphere of Greece and the reflections from the marble pavement such lighting would be quite sufficient. There remains still another source of light to be considered, that passing through the Parian marble tiles of the roof; the superior translucency of Parian to any other marble may have suggested its employment for the roofs of temples, and if, in the framed ceilings carried over the cella, openings were left, some light from the Parian tile roof might have been obtained. It is possibly to this that Plutarch refers when describing the ceiling and roof of the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where the columns in the interior of the temple carried a ceiling, probably constructed of timbers crossing one another at right angles, and one or more of the spaces was left open, which Xenocles surmounted by a roof formed of tiles.

James Fergusson put forward many years ago a conjectural restoration in which he adopted a clerestory above the superimposed columns inside the cella; in order to provide the light for these windows he indicated two trenches in the roof, one on each side, and pointed out that the great Hall of Columns at Karnak was lighted in this way with clerestory windows; but in the first place the light in the latter was obtained over the flat roofs covering lower portions of the hall, and in the second place, as it rarely rains in Thebes, there could be no difficulty about the drainage, while in Greece, with the torrential rains and snow, these trenches would be deluged with water, and with all the appliances of the present day it would be impossible to keep these clerestory windows watertight. There is, however, still another objection to Fergusson’s theory; the water collecting in these trenches on the roof would have to be discharged, for which Fergusson’s suggestions are quite inadequate, and the gargoyles shown in the cella wall would make the peristyle insupportable just at the time when it was required for shelter. No drainage otherwise of any kind has ever been found in any Greek temple, which is fatal to Fergusson’s view. Nor is it in accordance with the definition “open to the sky.” English cathedrals and churches are all lighted by clerestory windows, but no one has described them as open to the sky, and although Vitruvius’s statements are sometimes confusing, his description is far too clear to leave any misunderstanding as to the lighting of temples (where it was necessary on account of great length) through an opening in the roof.There is one other theory which has been put forward, but which can only apply to non-peristylar temples,—that light and air was admitted through the metopes, the apertures between the beams crossing the cella,—and it has been assumed that because Orestes was advised in one of the Greek plays to climb up and look through the metopes of the temple, these were left open; but if Orestes could look in, so could the birds, and the statue of the god would be defiled. The metopes were probably filled in with shutters of some kind which Orestes knew how to open.

There is one other theory which has been put forward, but which can only apply to non-peristylar temples,—that light and air was admitted through the metopes, the apertures between the beams crossing the cella,—and it has been assumed that because Orestes was advised in one of the Greek plays to climb up and look through the metopes of the temple, these were left open; but if Orestes could look in, so could the birds, and the statue of the god would be defiled. The metopes were probably filled in with shutters of some kind which Orestes knew how to open.

(R. P. S.)

HYPALLAGE(Gr.ὑπαλλαγή, interchange or exchange), a rhetorical figure, in which the proper relation between two words according to the rules of syntax are inverted. The stock instance is that in Virgil,Aen.iii. 61, wheredare classibus austros, to give winds to the fleet, is put fordare classes austris, to give the fleet to the winds. The term is also loosely applied to figures of speech properly known as “metonymy” and, generally, to any striking turn of expression.

HYPATIA(Ὑπατία) (c.A.D.370-415) mathematician and philosopher, born in Alexandria, was the daughter of Theon, also a mathematician and philosopher, author of scholia on Euclid and a commentary on theAlmagest, in which it is suggested that he was assisted by Hypatia (on the 3rd book). After lecturing in her native city, Hypatia ultimately became the recognized head of the Neoplatonic school there (c.400). Her great eloquence and rare modesty and beauty, combined with her remarkable intellectual gifts, attracted to her class-room a large number of pupils. Among these was Synesius, afterwards (c.410) bishop of Ptolemaïs, several of whose letters to her, full of chivalrous admiration and reverence, are still extant. Suidas, misled by an incomplete excerpt in Photius from the life of Isidorus (the Neoplatonist) by Damascius, states that Hypatiawas the wife of Isidorus; but this is chronologically impossible, since Isidorus could not have been born before 434 (see Hoche inPhilologus). Shortly after the accession of Cyril to the patriarchate of Alexandria in 412, owing to her intimacy with Orestes, the pagan prefect of the city, Hypatia was barbarously murdered by the Nitrian monks and the fanatical Christian mob (March 415). Socrates has related how she was torn from her chariot, dragged to the Caesareum (then a Christian church), stripped naked, done to death with oyster-shells (ὀστράκοις ἀνεῖλονperhaps “cut her throat”) and finally burnt piecemeal. Most prominent among the actual perpetrators of the crime was one Peter, a reader; but there seems little reason to doubt Cyril’s complicity (seeCyril of Alexandria).

Hypatia, according to Suidas, was the author of commentaries on theArithmeticaof Diophantus of Alexandria, on the Conics of Apollonius of Perga and on the astronomical canon (of Ptolemy). These works are lost; but their titles, combined with expressions in the letters of Synesius, who consulted her about the construction of an astrolabe and a hydroscope, indicate that she devoted herself specially to astronomy and mathematics. Little is known of her philosophical opinions, but she appears to have embraced the intellectual rather than the mystical side of Neoplatonism, and to have been a follower of Plotinus rather than of Porphyry and Iamblichus. Zeller, however, in hisOutlines of Greek Philosophy(1886, Eng. trans. p. 347), states that “she appears to have taught the Neoplatonic doctrine in the form in which Iamblichus had stated it.” A Latin letter to Cyril on behalf of Nestorius, printed in theCollectio nova conciliorum, i. (1623), by Stephanus Baluzius (Étienne Baluze,q.v.), and sometimes attributed to her, is undoubtedly spurious. The story of Hypatia appears in a considerably disguised yet still recognizable form in the legend of St Catherine as recorded in the RomanBreviary(November 25), and still more fully in theMartyrologies(see A. B. Jameson,Sacred and Legendary Art(1867) ii. 467.)

The chief source for the little we know about Hypatia is the account given by Socrates (Hist. ecclesiastica, vii. 15). She is the subject of an epigram by Palladas in the Greek Anthology (ix. 400). See Fabricius,Bibliotheca Graeca(ed. Harles), ix. 187; John Toland,Tetradymus(1720); R. Hoche inPhilologus(1860), xv. 435; monographs by Stephan Wolf (Czernowitz, 1879), H. Ligier (Dijon, 1880) and W. A. Meyer (Heidelberg, 1885), who devotes attention to the relation of Hypatia to the chief representatives of Neoplatonism; J. B. Bury,Hist. of the Later Roman Empire(1889), i. 208,317; A. Güldenpenning,Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches unter Arcadius und Theodosius II.(Halle, 1885), p. 230; Wetzer and Welte,Kirchenlexikon, vi. (1889), from a Catholic standpoint. The story of Hypatia also forms the basis of the well-known historical romance by Charles Kingsley (1853).

HYPERBATON(Gr.ὑπέρβατον, a stepping over), the name of a figure of speech, consisting of a transposition of words from their natural order, such as the placing of the object before instead of after the verb. It is a common method of securing emphasis.

HYPERBOLA,a conic section, consisting of two open branches, each extending to infinity. It may be defined in several ways. Thein solidodefinition as the section of a cone by a plane at a less inclination to the axis than the generator brings out the existence of the two infinite branches if we imagine the cone to be double and to extend to infinity. Thein planodefinition,i.e.as the conic having an eccentricity greater than unity, is a convenient starting-point for the Euclidian investigation. In projective geometry it may be defined as the conic which intersects the line at infinity in two real points, or to which it is possible to draw two real tangents from the centre. Analytically, it is defined by an equation of the second degree, of which the highest terms have real roots (seeConic Section).

While resembling the parabola in extending to infinity, the curve has closest affinities to the ellipse. Thus it has a real centre, two foci, two directrices and two vertices; the transverse axis, joining the vertices, corresponds to the major axis of the ellipse, and the line through the centre and perpendicular to this axis is called the conjugate axis, and corresponds to the minor axis of the ellipse; about these axes the curve is symmetrical. The curve does not appear to intersect the conjugate axis, but the introduction of imaginaries permits us to regard it as cutting this axis in two unreal points. Calling the foci S, S′, the real vertices A, A′, the extremities of the conjugate axis B, B’ and the centre C, the positions of B, B′ are given by AB = AB′ = CS. If a rectangle be constructed about AA′ and BB′, the diagonals of this figure are the “asymptotes” of the curve; they are the tangents from the centre, and hence touch the curve at infinity. These two lines may be pictured in thein solidodefinition as the section of a cone by a plane through its vertex and parallel to the plane generating the hyperbola. If the asymptotes be perpendicular, or, in other words, the principal axes be equal, the curve is called the rectangular hyperbola. The hyperbola which has for its transverse and conjugate axes the transverse and conjugate axes of another hyperbola is said to be the conjugate hyperbola.Some properties of the curve will be briefly stated: If PN be the ordinate of the point P on the curve, AA’ the vertices, X the meet of the directrix and axis and C the centre, then PN2: AN·NA′: : SX2: AX·A′X,i.e.PN2is to AN·NA′ in a constant ratio. The circle on AA’ as diameter is called the auxiliarly circle; obviously AN·NA’ equals the square of the tangent to this circle from N, and hence the ratio of PN to the tangent to the auxiliarly circle from N equals the ratio of the conjugate axis to the transverse. We may observe that the asymptotes intersect this circle in the same points as the directrices. An important property is: the difference of the focal distances of any point on the curve equals the transverse axis. The tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal distances of the point, and the normal is equally inclined to the focal distances. Also the auxiliarly circle is the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent. Two tangents from any point are equally inclined to the focal distance of the point. If the tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, and the transverse in N, then Ct. PN = BC2; similarly if g and G be the corresponding intersections of the normal, PG : Pg : : BC2: AC2. A diameter is a line through the centre and terminated by the curve: it bisects all chords parallel to the tangents at its extremities; the diameter parallel to these chords is its conjugate diameter. Any diameter is a mean proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the diameter. Any line cuts off equal distances between the curve and the asymptotes. If the tangent at P meets the asymptotes in R, R′, then CR·CR′ = CS2. The geometry of the rectangular hyperbola is simplified by the fact that its principal axes are equal.Analytically the hyperbola is given by ax2+ 2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 wherein ab > h2. Referred to the centre this becomes Ax2+ 2Hxy + By2+ C = 0; and if the axes of coordinates be the principal axes of the curve, the equation is further simplified to Ax2− By2= C, or if the semi-transverse axis be a, and the semi-conjugate b, x2/a2− y2/b2= 1. This is the most commonly used form. In the rectangular hyperbola a = b; hence its equation is x2− y2= 0. The equations to the asymptotes are x/a = ±y/b and x = ±y respectively. Referred to the asymptotes as axes the general equation becomes xy = k2; obviously the axes are oblique in the general hyperbola and rectangular in the rectangular hyperbola. The values of the constant k2are ½(a2+ b2) and ½a2respectively. (SeeGeometry:Analytical;Projective.)

Some properties of the curve will be briefly stated: If PN be the ordinate of the point P on the curve, AA’ the vertices, X the meet of the directrix and axis and C the centre, then PN2: AN·NA′: : SX2: AX·A′X,i.e.PN2is to AN·NA′ in a constant ratio. The circle on AA’ as diameter is called the auxiliarly circle; obviously AN·NA’ equals the square of the tangent to this circle from N, and hence the ratio of PN to the tangent to the auxiliarly circle from N equals the ratio of the conjugate axis to the transverse. We may observe that the asymptotes intersect this circle in the same points as the directrices. An important property is: the difference of the focal distances of any point on the curve equals the transverse axis. The tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal distances of the point, and the normal is equally inclined to the focal distances. Also the auxiliarly circle is the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent. Two tangents from any point are equally inclined to the focal distance of the point. If the tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, and the transverse in N, then Ct. PN = BC2; similarly if g and G be the corresponding intersections of the normal, PG : Pg : : BC2: AC2. A diameter is a line through the centre and terminated by the curve: it bisects all chords parallel to the tangents at its extremities; the diameter parallel to these chords is its conjugate diameter. Any diameter is a mean proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the diameter. Any line cuts off equal distances between the curve and the asymptotes. If the tangent at P meets the asymptotes in R, R′, then CR·CR′ = CS2. The geometry of the rectangular hyperbola is simplified by the fact that its principal axes are equal.

Analytically the hyperbola is given by ax2+ 2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 wherein ab > h2. Referred to the centre this becomes Ax2+ 2Hxy + By2+ C = 0; and if the axes of coordinates be the principal axes of the curve, the equation is further simplified to Ax2− By2= C, or if the semi-transverse axis be a, and the semi-conjugate b, x2/a2− y2/b2= 1. This is the most commonly used form. In the rectangular hyperbola a = b; hence its equation is x2− y2= 0. The equations to the asymptotes are x/a = ±y/b and x = ±y respectively. Referred to the asymptotes as axes the general equation becomes xy = k2; obviously the axes are oblique in the general hyperbola and rectangular in the rectangular hyperbola. The values of the constant k2are ½(a2+ b2) and ½a2respectively. (SeeGeometry:Analytical;Projective.)

HYPERBOLE(from Gr.ὑπερβάλλειν, to throw beyond), a figure of rhetoric whereby the speaker expresses more than the truth, in order to produce a vivid impression; hence, an exaggeration.

HYPERBOREANS(Ὑπερβόρεοι, Ὑπερβόρειοι), a mythical people intimately connected with the worship of Apollo. Their name does not occur in theIliador theOdyssey, but Herodotus (iv. 32) states that they were mentioned in Hesiod and in theEpigoni, an epic of the Theban cycle. According to Herodotus, two maidens, Opis and Arge, and later two others, Hyperoche and Laodice, escorted by five men, called by the Delians Perphereës, were sent by the Hyperboreans with certain offerings to Delos. Finding that their messengers did not return, the Hyperboreans adopted the plan of wrapping the offerings in wheat-straw and requested their neighbours to hand them on to the next nation, and so on, till they finally reached Delos. The theory of H. L. Ahrens, that Hyperboreans and Perphereës are identical, is now widely accepted. In some of the dialects of northern Greece (especially Macedonia and Delphi) φ had a tendency to become β. The original form ofΠερφερέεςwasὑπερφερέταιorὑπέρφοροι(“those who carry over”), which becomingὑπέρβοροιgave rise to the popular derivation fromβορέας(“dwellers beyond the north wind”). The Hyperboreans were thus the bearers of the sacrificial gifts to Apollo over land and sea, irrespective of their home, the name being given to Delphians, Thessalians, Athenians and Delians. It is objected by O. Schröder that the formΠερφερέεςrequires a passive meaning, “those who are carried round the altar,” perhaps dancers like the whirling dervishes; distinguishing them from the Hyperboreans, he explains the latter as those who live “abovethe mountains,” that is, in heaven. Under the influence of the derivation fromβορέας, the home of the Hyperboreans was placed in a region beyond the north wind, a paradise like the Elysian plains, inaccessible by land or sea, whither Apollo could remove those mortals who had lived a life of piety. It was a land of perpetual sunshine and great fertility; its inhabitants were free from disease and war. The duration of their life was 1000 years, but if any desired to shorten it, he decked himself with garlands and threw himself from a rock into the sea. The close connexion of the Hyperboreans with the cult of Apollo may be seen by comparing the Hyperborean myths, the characters of which by their names mostly recall Apollo or Artemis (Agyieus, Opis, Hecaergos, Loxo), with the ceremonial of the Apolline worship. No meat was eaten at the Pyanepsia; the Hyperboreans were vegetarians. At the festival of Apollo at Leucas a victim flung himself from a rock into the sea, like the Hyperborean who was tired of life. According to an Athenian decree (380B.C.) asses were sacrificed to Apollo at Delphi, and Pindar (Pythia, x. 33) speaks of “hecatombs of asses” being offered to him by the Hyperboreans. As the latter conveyed sacrificial gifts to Delos hidden in wheat-straw, so at the Thargelia a sheaf of corn was carried round in procession, concealing a symbol of the god (for other resemblances see Crusius’s article). Although the Hyperborean legends are mainly connected with Delphi and Delos, traces of them are found in Argos (the stories of Heracles, Perseus, Io), Attica, Macedonia, Thrace, Sicily and Italy (which Niebuhr indeed considers their original home). In modern times the name has been applied to a group of races, which includes the Chukchis, Koryaks, Yukaghirs, Ainus, Gilyaks and Kamchadales, inhabiting the arctic regions of Asia and America. But if ever ethnically one, the Asiatic and American branches are now as far apart from each other as they both are from the Mongolo-Tatar stock.

See O. Crusius in Roscher’sLexikon der Mythologie; O. Schröder inArchiv für Religionswissenschaft(1904), viii. 69; W. Mannhardt,Wald- und Feldkulte(1905); L. R. Farnell,Cults of the Greek States(1907), iv. 100.

HYPEREIDES(c.390-322B.C.), one of the ten Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus. Having studied under Isocrates, he began life as a writer of speeches for the courts, and in 360 he prosecuted Autocles, a general charged with treason in Thrace (frags. 55-65, Blass). At the time of the so-called “Social War” (358-355) he accused Aristophon, then one of the most influential men at Athens, of malpractices (frags. 40-44, Blass), and impeached Philocrates (343) for high treason. From the peace of 346 to 324 Hypereides supported Demosthenes in the struggle against Macedon; but in the affair of Harpalus he was one of the ten public prosecutors of Demosthenes, and on the exile of his former leader he became the head of the patriotic party (324). After the death of Alexander, he was the chief promoter of the Lamian war against Antipater and Craterus. After the decisive defeat at Crannon (322), Hypereides and the other orators, whose surrender was demanded by Antipater, were condemned to death by the Athenian partisans of Macedonia. Hypereides fled to Aegina, but Antipater’s emissaries dragged him from the temple of Aeacus, where he had taken refuge, and put him to death; according to others, he was taken before Antipater at Athens or Cleonae. His body was afterwards removed to Athens for burial.

Hypereides was an ardent pursuer of “the beautiful,” which in his time generally meant pleasure and luxury. His temper was easy-going and humorous; and hence, though in his development of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, the essential tendencies of his style are those of Lysias, whom he surpassed, however, in the richness of his vocabulary and in the variety of his powers. His diction was plain and forcible, though he occasionally indulged in long compound words probably borrowed from the Middle Comedy, with which, and with the everyday life of his time, he was in full sympathy. His composition was simple. He was specially distinguished for subtlety of expression, grace and wit, as well as for tact in approaching his case and handling his subject matter. Sir R. C. Jebb sums up the criticism of pseudo-Longinus (De sublimitate, 34) in the phrase—“Hypereides was the Sheridan of Athens.”

Seventy-seven speeches were attributed to Hypereides, of which twenty-five were regarded as spurious even by ancient critics. It is said that a MS. of most of the speeches was in existence in the 16th century in the library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, at Ofen, but was destroyed at the capture of the city by the Turks in 1526. Only a few fragments were known until comparatively recent times. In 1847 large fragments of his speeches AgainstDemosthenes(see above) andFor Lycophron(incidentally interesting as elucidating the order of marriage processions and other details of Athenian life, and the Athenian government of Lemnos), and the whole of theFor Euxenippus(c.330, alocus classicusonεἰσαγγελίαιor state prosecutions), were found in a tomb at Thebes in Egypt, and in 1856 a considerable portion of aλόγος παρανόμων, aFuneral Orationover Leosthenes and his comrades who had fallen in the Lamian war, the best extant specimen of epideictic oratory (seeBabington,Churchill). Towards the end of the century further discoveries were made of the conclusion of the speechAgainst Philippides(dealing with aγραφὴ παρανόμων, or indictment for the proposal of an unconstitutional measure, arising out of the disputes of the Macedonian and anti-Macedonian parties at Athens), and of the whole of theAgainst Athenogenes(a perfumer accused of fraud in the sale of his business). These have been edited by F. G. Kenyon (1893). An important speech that is lost is theDeliacus(frags. 67-75, Blass) on the presidency of the Delian temple claimed by both Athens and Delos, which was adjudged by the Amphictyons to Athens.On Hypereides generally see pseudo-Plutarch,Decem oratorum vitae; F. Blass,Attische Beredsamkeit, iii.; R. C. Jebb,Attic Orators, ii. 381. A full list of editions and articles is given in F. Blass,Hyperidis orationes sex cum ceterarum fragmentis(1894, Teubner series), to which may be added I. Bassi,Le Quattro Orazioni di Iperide(introduction and notes, 1888), and J. E. Sandys inClassical Review(January 1895) (a review of the editions of Kenyon and Blass). For the discourse against Athenogenes see H. Weil,Études sur l’antiquité grecque(1900).

On Hypereides generally see pseudo-Plutarch,Decem oratorum vitae; F. Blass,Attische Beredsamkeit, iii.; R. C. Jebb,Attic Orators, ii. 381. A full list of editions and articles is given in F. Blass,Hyperidis orationes sex cum ceterarum fragmentis(1894, Teubner series), to which may be added I. Bassi,Le Quattro Orazioni di Iperide(introduction and notes, 1888), and J. E. Sandys inClassical Review(January 1895) (a review of the editions of Kenyon and Blass). For the discourse against Athenogenes see H. Weil,Études sur l’antiquité grecque(1900).

HYPERION,in Greek mythology, one of the Titans, son of Uranus and Gaea and father of Helios, the sun-god (Hesiod,Theog.134, 371; Apollodorus i. 1. 2). In the well-known passage in Shakespeare (Hamlet, i. 2: “Hyperion to a satyr,” where as in other poets the vowel -i- though really long, is shortened for metrical reasons) Hyperion is used for Apollo as expressive of the idea of beauty. The name is often used as an epithet of Helios, who is himself sometimes called simply Hyperion. It is explained as (1) he who moves above (ὑπερ-ιων), but the quantity of the vowel is against this; (2) he who is above (ὑπερι-ων). Others take it to be a patronymic in form, likeΚρονῖων, Μολῖων.

HYPERSTHENE,a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of orthorhombic pyroxenes. It differs from the other members (enstatite [q.v.] and bronzite) of this group in containing a considerable amount of iron replacing magnesium: the chemical formula is (Mg, Fe)SiO3. Distinctly developed crystals are rare, the mineral being usually found as foliated masses embedded in those igneous rocks—norite, hypersthene-andesite, &c.—of which it forms an essential constituent. The coarsely grained labradorite-hypersthene-rock (norite) of the island of St Paul off the coast of Labrador has furnished the most typical material; and for this reason the mineral has been known as “Labrador hornblende” or paulite. The colour is brownish-black, and the pleochrism strong; the hardness is 6, and the specific gravity 3.4-3.5. On certain surfaces it displays a brilliant copper-red metallic sheen or schiller, which has the same origin as the bronzy sheen of bronzite (q.v.), but is even more pronounced. Like bronzite, it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental purposes.

(L. J. S.)

HYPERTROPHY(Gr.ὑπέρ, over, andτροφή, nourishment), a term in medicine employed to designate an abnormal increase in bulk of one or more of the organs or component tissues of the body (seePathology). In its strict sense this term can only be applied where the increase affects the natural textures of a part, and is not applicable where the enlargement is due to the presence of some extraneous morbid formation. Hypertrophy of a part may manifest itself either by simply an increase in the size of its constituents, or by this combined with an increase in their number (hyperplasia). In many instances both are associated.

The conditions giving rise to hypertrophy are the reverse of those described as producing Atrophy (q.v.). They are concisely stated by Sir James Paget as being chiefly or only three, namely: (1) the increased exercise of a part in its healthy functions; (2) an increased accumulation in the blood of the particular materials which a part appropriates to its nutrition or in secretion; and (3) an increased afflux of healthy blood.

Illustrations are furnished of the first of these conditions by the high development of muscular tissue under habitual active exercise; of the second in the case of obesity, which is an hypertrophy of the fatty tissues, the elements of which are furnished by the blood; and of the third in the occasional overgrowth of hair in the neighbourhood of parts which are the seat of inflammation. Obviously therefore, in many instances, hypertrophy cannot be regarded as a deviation from health, but rather on the contrary as indicative of a high degree of nutrition and physical power. Even in those cases where it is found associated with disease, it is often produced as a salutary effort of nature to compensate for obstructions or other difficulties which have arisen in the system, and thus to ward off evil consequences. No better example of this can be seen than in the case of certain forms of heart disease, where from defect at some of the natural orifices of that organ the onward flow of the blood is interfered with, and would soon give rise to serious embarrassment to the circulation, were it not that behind the seat of obstruction the heart gradually becomes hypertrophied, and thus acquires greater propelling power to overcome the resistance in front. Again, it has been noticed, in the case of certain double organs such as the kidneys, that when one has been destroyed by disease the other has become hypertrophied to such a degree as enables it to discharge the functions of both.

Hypertrophy may, however, in certain circumstances constitute a disease, as in goitre and elephantiasis (q.v.), and also in the case of certain tumours and growths (such as cutaneous excrescences, fatty tumours, mucous polypi, &c.), which are simply enlargements of normal textures. Hypertrophy does not in all cases involve an increase in bulk; for, just as in atrophy there may be no diminution in the size of the affected organ, so in hypertrophy there may be no increase. This is apt to be the case where certain only of the elements of an organ undergo increase, while the others remain unaffected or are actually atrophied by the pressure of the hypertrophied tissue, as is seen in the disease known as cirrhosis of the liver.

A spurious hypertrophy is observed in the rare disease to which G. B. Duchenne applied the name ofpseudo-hypertrophic paralysis. This ailment, which appears to be confined to children, consists essentially of a progressive loss of power accompanied with a remarkable enlargement of certain muscles or groups of muscles, more rarely of the whole muscular system. This increase of bulk is, however, not a true hypertrophy, but rather an excessive development of connective tissue in the substance of the muscles, the proper texture of which tends in consequence to undergo atrophy or degeneration. The appearance presented by a child suffering from this disease is striking. The attitude and gait are remarkably altered, the child standing with shoulders thrown back, small of the back deeply curved inwards, and legs wide apart, while walking is accompanied with a peculiar swinging or rocking movement. The calves of the legs, the buttocks, the muscles of the back, and occasionally other muscles, are seen to be unduly enlarged, and contrast strangely with the general feebleness. The progress of the disease is marked by increasing failure of locomotory power, and ultimately by complete paralysis of the limbs. The malady is little amenable to treatment, and, although often prolonged for years, generally proves fatal before the period of maturity.

HYPNOTISM,a term now in general use as covering all that pertains to the art of inducing the hypnotic state, or hypnosis, and to the study of that state, its conditions, peculiarities and effects. Hypnosis is a condition, allied to normal sleep (Gr.ὕπνος), which can be induced in a large majority of normal persons. Its most characteristic and constant symptom is the increased suggestibility of the subject (seeSuggestion). Other symptoms are very varied and differ widely in different subjects and in the same subject at different times. There can be no doubt that the increased suggestibility and all the other symptoms of hypnosis imply some abnormal condition of the brain of a temporary and harmless nature. It would seem that in all ages and in almost all countries individuals have occasionally fallen into abnormal states of mind more or less closely resembling the hypnotic state, and have thereby excited the superstitious wonder of their fellows. In some cases the state has been deliberately induced, in others it has appeared spontaneously, generally under the influence of some emotional excitement. The most familiar of these allied states is the somnambulism or sleep-walking to which some persons seem to be hereditarily disposed. Of a rather different type are the states of ecstasy into which religious enthusiasts have occasionally fallen and which were especially frequent among the peoples of Europe during the middle ages. While in this condition individuals have appeared to be insensitive to all impressions made on their sense-organs, even to such as would excite acute pain in normal persons, have been capable of maintaining rigid postures for long periods of time, have experienced vivid hallucinations, and have produced, through the power of the imagination, extraordinary organic changes in the body, such as the bloody stigmata on the hands and feet in several well-attested instances. It has been proved in recent years that effects of all these kinds may be produced by hypnotic suggestion. Different again, but closely paralleled by some subjects in hypnosis, is the state oflatahinto which a certain proportion of persons of the Malay race are liable to fall. These persons, if their attention is suddenly and forcibly drawn to any other person, will begin to imitate his every action and attitude, and may do so in spite of their best efforts to restrain their imitative movements. Among the half-bred French-Canadians of the forest regions of Canada occur individuals, known as “jumpers,” who are liable to fall suddenly into a similar state of abject imitativeness, and the same peculiar behaviour has been observed among some of the remote tribes of Siberia.

The deliberate induction of states identical with, or closely allied to, hypnosis is practised by many barbarous and savage peoples, generally for ceremonial purposes. Thus, certain dervishes of Algiers are said to induce in themselves, by the aid of the sound of drums, monotonous songs and movements, a state in which they are insensitive to pain, and a similar practice of religious devotees is reported from Tibet. Perhaps the most marvellous achievement among well-attested cases of this sort is that of certainyogisof Hindustan; by long training and practice they seem to acquire the power of arresting almost completely all their vital functions. An intense effort of abstraction from the impressions of the outer world, a prolonged fixation of the eyes upon the nose or in some other strained position and a power of greatly slowing the respiration, these seem to be important features of their procedure for the attainment of their abnormal states.

In spite of the wide distribution in time and space, and the not very infrequent occurrence, of these instances of states identical with or allied to hypnosis, some three centuries of enthusiastic investigation and of bitter controversy were required to establish the occurrence of the hypnotic state among the facts accepted by the world of European science. Scientific interest in them may be traced back at least as far as the end of the 16th century. Paracelsus had founded the “sympathetic system” of medicine, according to which the stars and other bodies, especially magnets, influence men by means of a subtle emanation or fluid that pervades all space. J. B. van Helmont, a distinguished man of science of the latter part of the 16th century, extended this doctrine by teaching that a similar magnetic fluid radiates from men, and that it can be guided by their wills to influence directly the minds and bodies of others. In the middle of the 17th century there appeared in England several persons who claimed to have the power of curing diseases by stroking with the hand. Notable amongst these was Valentine Greatrakes, of Affane, in the county of Waterford, Ireland, who was born inFebruary 1628, and who attracted great attention in England by his supposed power of curing the king’s evil, or scrofula. Many of the most distinguished scientific and theological men of the day, such as Robert Boyle and R. Cudworth, witnessed and attested the cures supposed to be effected by Greatrakes, and thousands of sufferers crowded to him from all parts of the kingdom. About the middle of the 18th century John Joseph Gassner, a Roman Catholic priest in Swabia, took up the notion that the majority of diseases arose from demoniacal possession, and could only be cured by exorcism. His method was undoubtedly similar to that afterwards followed by Mesmer and others, and he had an extraordinary influence over the nervous systems of his patients. Gassner, however, believed his power to be altogether supernatural.

But it was not until the latter part of the 18th century that the doctrine of a magnetic fluid excited great popular interest and became the subject of fierce controversy in the scientific world. F. A. Mesmer (q.v.), a physician of Vienna, was largely instrumental in bringing the doctrine into prominence. He developed it by postulating a specialized variety of magnetic fluid which he calledanimal magnetism; and he claimed to be able to cure many diseases by means of this animal magnetism, teaching, also, that it may be imparted to and stored up in inert objects, which are thereby rendered potent to cure disease.

It would seem that Mesmer himself was not acquainted with the artificial somnambulism which for nearly a century was called mesmeric or magnetic sleep, and which is now familiar as hypnosis of a well-marked degree. It was observed and described about the year 1780 by the marquis de Puységur, a disciple of Mesmer, who showed that, while subjects were in this state, not only could some of their diseases be cured, but also their movements could be controlled by the “magnetizer,” and that they usually remembered nothing of the events of the period of sleep when restored to normal consciousness. These are three of the most important features of hypnosis, and the modern study of hypnotism may therefore be said to have been initiated at this date by Puységur. For, though it is probable that this state had often been induced by the earlier magnetists, they had not recognized that the peculiar behaviour of their patients resulted from their being plunged into this artificial sleep, but had attributed all the symptoms they observed to the direct physical action of external agents upon the patients.

The success of Mesmer and his disciples, especially great in the fashionable world, led to the appointment in Paris of a royal commission for the investigation of their claims. The commission, which included men of great eminence, notably A. L. Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin, reported in the year 1784 that it could not accept the evidence for the existence of the magnetic fluid; but it did not express an opinion as to the reality of the cures said to be effected by its means, nor as to the nature of the magnetic sleep. This report and the social upheavals of the following years seem to have abolished the public interest in “animal magnetism” for the space of one generation; after which Alexandre Bertrand, a Parisian physician, revived it by his acute investigations and interpretations of the phenomena. Bertrand was the first to give an explanation of the facts of the kind that is now generally accepted. He exhibited the affinity of the “magnetic sleep” to ordinary somnambulism, and he taught that the peculiar effects are to be regarded as due to the suggestions of the operator working themselves out in the mind and body of the “magnetized” subject,i.e.he regarded the influence of the magnetizer as exerted in the first instance on the mind of the subject and only indirectly through the mind upon the body. Shortly after this revival of public interest, namely in the year 1831, a committee of the Academy of Medicine of Paris reported favourably upon “magnetism” as a therapeutic agency, and before many years had elapsed it was extensively practised by the physicians of all European countries, with few exceptions, of which England was the most notable. Most of the practitioners of this period adhered to the doctrine of the magnetic fluid emanating from the operator to his patient, and the acceptance of this doctrine was commonly combined with belief in phrenology, astrology and the influence of metals and magnets, externally applied, in curing disease and in producing a variety of strange sensations and other affections of the mind. These beliefs, claiming to rest upon carefully observed facts, were given a new elaboration and a more imposing claim to be scientifically established by the doctrine ofodylic forcepropounded by Baron Karl von Reichenbach. In this mass of ill-based assertion and belief the valuable truths of “animal magnetism” and the psychological explanations of them given by Bertrand were swamped and well-nigh lost sight of. For it was this seemingly inseparable association between the facts of hypnotism and these bizarre practices and baseless beliefs that blinded the larger and more sober part of the scientific world, and led them persistently to assert that all this group of alleged phenomena was a mass of quackery, fraud and superstition. And the fact that magnetism was practised for pecuniary gain, often in a shameless manner, by exponents who claimed to cure by its means every conceivable ill, rendered this attitude on the part of the medical profession inevitable and perhaps excusable, though not justifiable. It was owing to this baleful association that John Elliotson, one of the leading London physicians of that time, who became an ardent advocate of “magnetism” and who founded and edited theZoistin the interests of the subject, was driven out of the profession. This association may perhaps be held, also, to excuse the hostile attitude of the medical profession towards James Esdaile, a surgeon, who, practising in a government hospital in Calcutta among the natives of India, performed many major operations, such as the amputation of limbs, painlessly and with the most excellent results by aid of the “magnetic” sleep. For both Elliotson and Esdaile, though honourable practitioners, accepted the doctrine of the “magnetic” fluid and many of the erroneous beliefs that commonly were bound up with it.

In 1841 James Braid, a surgeon of Manchester, rediscovered independently Bertrand’s physiological and psychological explanations of the facts, carried them further, and placed “hypnotism,” as he named the study, on a sound basis. Braid showed that subjects in “magnetic” sleep, far from being in a profoundly insensitive condition, are often abnormally susceptible to impressions on the senses, and showed that many of the peculiarities of their behaviour were due to suggestions, made verbally or otherwise, but unintentionally, by the operator or by onlookers.

It seems, on looking back on the history of hypnotism, that at this time it was in a fair way to secure general recognition as a most interesting subject of psychological study and a valuable addition to the resources of the physician. But it was destined once more to be denied its rights by official science and to fall back into disrepute. This was due to the coincidence about the year 1848 of two events of some importance, namely—the discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform and the sudden rise of modern spiritualism. The former afforded a very convenient substitute for the most obvious practical application of hypnotism, the production of anaesthesia during surgical operations; the latter involved it once more in a mass of fraud and superstition, and, for the popular mind, drove it back to the region of the marvellous, the supernatural and the dangerous, made it, in fact, once more a branch of the black art.

From this time onward there took place a gradual differentiation of the “animal magnetism” of the 18th century into two diverging branches, hypnotism and spiritualism, two branches which, however, are not yet entirely separated and, perhaps, never will be. At the same time the original system of “animal magnetism” has lived on in an enfeebled condition and is now very nearly, though not quite, extinct.

In the development of hypnotism since the time of Braid we may distinguish three lines, the physiological, the psychological and the pathological. The last may be dismissed in a few words. Its principal representative was J. M. Charcot, who taught at the Salpêtrière in Paris that hypnosis is essentially a symptom of a morbid condition of hysteria or hystero-epilepsy. This doctrine, which, owing to the great repute enjoyed by Charcot,has done much to retard the application of hypnotism, is now completely discredited. The workers of the physiological party attached special importance to the fixation of the eyes, or to other forms of long continued and monotonous, or violent, sensory stimulation in the induction of hypnosis. They believed that by acting on the senses in these ways they induced a peculiar condition of the nervous system, which consisted in the temporary abolition of the cerebral functions and the consequent reduction of the subject to machine-like unconscious automatism. The leading exponent of this view was R. Heidenhain, professor of physiology at Breslau, whose experimental investigations played a large part in convincing the scientific world of the genuineness of the leading symptoms of hypnosis. The purely psychological doctrine of hypnosis puts aside all physical and physiological influences and effects as of but little or no importance, and seeks a psychological explanation of the induction of hypnosis and of all the phenomena. This dates from 1884, when H. Bernheim, professor of medicine at Nancy, published his workDe la Suggestion(republished in 1887 with a second part on the therapeutics of hypnotism). Bernheim was led to the study of hypnotism by A. A. Liébeault, who for twenty years had used it very largely and successfully in his general practice among the poor of Nancy. Liébeault rediscovered independently, and Bernheim made known to the world the truths, twice previously discovered and twice lost sight of, that expectation is a most important factor in the induction of hypnosis, that increased suggestibility is its essential symptom, and that in general the operator works upon his patient by mental influences. Although they went too far in the direction of ignoring the peculiarity of the state of the brain in hypnosis and the predisposing effect of monotonous sensory stimulation, and in seeking to identify hypnosis with normal sleep, the views of the Nancy investigators have prevailed, and are now in the main generally accepted. Their methods of verbal suggestion have been adopted by leading physicians in almost all civilized countries and have been proved to be efficacious in the relief of many disorders; and as a method of psychological investigation hypnotism has proved, especially in the hands of the late Ed. Gurney, of Dr Pierre Janet and of other investigators, capable of throwing much light on the constitution of the mind, has opened up a number of problems of the deepest interest, and has done more than any other of the many branches of modern psychology to show the limitations and comparative barrenness of the old psychology that relied on introspection alone and figured as a department of general philosophy. In England, “always the last to enter into the general movement of the European mind,” the prejudice, incredulity and ignorant misrepresentation with which hypnotism has everywhere been received have resisted its progress more stubbornly than elsewhere; but even in England its reality and its value as a therapeutic agent have at last been officially recognized. In 1892, just fifty years after Braid clearly demonstrated the facts and published explanations of them almost identical with those now accepted, a committee of the British Medical Association reported favourably upon hypnotism after a searching investigation; it is now regularly employed by a number of physicians of high standing, and the formation in 1907 of “The Medical Society for the Study of Suggestive Therapeutics” shows that the footing it has gained is likely to be made good.

Induction of Hypnosis.—It has now been abundantly proved that hypnosis can be induced in the great majority of normal persons, provided that they willingly submit themselves to the process. Several of the most experienced operators have succeeded in hypnotizing more than 90% of the cases they have attempted, and most of them are agreed that failure to induce hypnosis in any case is due either to lack of skill and tact on the part of the operator, or to some unfavourable mental condition of the subject. It has often been said that some races or peoples are by nature more readily hypnotizable than others; of the French people especially this has been maintained. But there is no sufficient ground for this statement. The differences that undoubtedly obtain between populations of different regions in respect to the ease or difficulty with which a large proportion of all persons can be hypnotized are sufficiently explained by the differences of the attitude of the public towards hypnotism; in France,e.g., and especially in Nancy, hypnotism has been made known to the public chiefly as a recognized auxiliary to the better known methods of medical treatment, whereas in England the medical profession has allowed the public to make acquaintance with hypnotism through the medium of disgusting stage-performances whose only object was to raise a laugh, and has, with few exceptions, joined in the general chorus of condemnation and mistrust. Hence in France patients submit themselves with confidence and goodwill to hypnotic treatment, whereas in England it is still necessary in most cases to remove an ill-based prejudice before the treatment can be undertaken with hope of success. For the confidence and goodwill of the patient are almost essential to success, and even after hypnosis has been induced on several occasions a patient may be so influenced by injudicious friends that he cannot again be hypnotized or, if hypnotized, is much less amenable to the power of suggestion. Various methods of hypnotization are current, but most practitioners combine the methods of Braid and of Bernheim. After asking the patient to resign himself passively into their hands, and after seating him in a comfortable arm-chair, they direct him to fix his eyes upon some small object held generally in such a position that some slight muscular strain is involved in maintaining the fixation; they then suggest to him verbally the idea or expectation of sleep and the sensations that normally accompany the oncoming of sleep, the heaviness of the eyes, the slackness of the limbs and so forth; and when the eyes show signs of fatigue, they either close them by gentle pressure or tell the subject to close them. Many also pass their hands slowly and regularly over the face, with or without contact. The old magnetizers attached great importance to such “passes,” believing that by them the “magnetic fluid” was imparted to the patient; but it seems clear that, in so far as they contribute to induce hypnosis, it is in their character merely of gentle, monotonous, sensory stimulations. A well-disposed subject soon falls into a drowsy state and tends to pass into natural sleep; but by speech, by passes, or by manipulating his limbs the operator keeps in touch with him, keeps his waning attention open to the impressions he himself makes. Most subjects then find it difficult or impossible to open their eyes or to make any other movement which is forbidden or said to be impossible by the operator, although they may be fully conscious of all that goes on about them and may have the conviction that if they did but make an effort they could break the spell. This is a light stage of hypnosis beyond which some subjects can hardly be induced to pass and beyond which few pass at the first attempt. But on successive occasions, or even on the first occasion, a favourable subject passes into deeper stages of hypnosis. Many attempts have been made to distinguish clearly marked and constantly occurring stages. But it seems now clear that the complex of symptoms displayed varies in all cases with the idiosyncrasies of the subject and with the methods adopted by the operator. In many subjects a waxy rigidity of the limbs appears spontaneously or can be induced by suggestion; the limbs then retain for long periods without fatigue any position given them by the operator. The most susceptible subjects pass into the stage known as artificial somnambulism. In this condition they continue to respond to all suggestions made by the operator, but seem as insensitive to all other impressions as a person in profound sleep or in coma; and on awaking from this condition they are usually oblivious of all that they have heard, said or done during the somnambulistic period. When in this last condition patients are usually more profoundly influenced by suggestions, especially post-hypnotic suggestions, than when in the lighter stages; but the lighter stages suffice for the production of many therapeutic effects. When a patient is completely hypnotized, his movements, his senses, his ideas and, to some extent, even the organic processes over which he has no voluntary control become more or less completely subject to the suggestions of the operator; and usually he is responsive to the operator alone (rapport) unless he is instructed by thelatter to respond also to the suggestions of other persons. If left to himself the hypnotized subject will usually awake to his normal state after a period which is longer in proportion to the depth of hypnosis; and the deeper stages seem to pass over into normal sleep. The subject can in almost every case be brought quickly back to the normal state by the verbal command of the operator.

The Principal Effects produced by Suggestion during Hypnosis.—The subject may not only be rendered incapable of contracting any of the muscles of the voluntary system, but may also be made to use them with extraordinarily great or sustained force (though by no means in all cases). He can with difficulty refrain from performing any action commanded by the operator, and usually carries out any simple command without hesitation. Any one of the sense-organs, or any sensory region such as the skin or deep tissues of one limb may be rendered anaesthetic by verbal suggestion, aided perhaps by some gentle manipulation of the part. On this fact depends the surgical application of hypnotism. Sceptical observers are always inclined to doubt the genuineness of the anaesthesia produced by a mere word of command, but the number of surgical operations performed under hypnotic anaesthesia suffices to put its reality beyond all question. A convincing experiment may, however, be made on almost any good subject. Anaesthesia of one eye may be suggested and its reality tested in the following way. Anaesthesia of the left eye may be suggested, and the subject be instructed to fix his gaze on a distant point and to give some signal as soon as he sees the operator’s finger in the peripheral field of view. The operator then brings his finger slowly from behind and to the right forwards towards the subject’s line of sight. The subject signals as soon as it crosses the normal temporal boundary of the field of view of the right eye. The operator then brings his finger forward from a point behind and to the left of the subject’s head. The subject allows it to cross the monocular field of the left eye and signals only when the finger enters the field of vision of the right eye across its nasal boundary. Since few persons, other than physiologists or medical men, are aware of the relations of the boundaries of the monocular and binocular fields of vision, the success of this experiment affords proof that the finger remains invisible to the subject during its passage across the monocular field of the left eye. The abolition of pain, especially of neuralgias, the pain of rheumatic and other inflammations, which is one of the most valuable applications of hypnotism, is an effect closely allied to the production of such anaesthesia.

It has often been stated that in hypnosis the senses may be rendered extraordinarily acute or hyperaesthetic, so that impressions too faint to affect the senses of the normal person may be perceived by the hypnotized subject; but in view of the fact that most observers are ignorant of the normal limits of sensitivity and discrimination, all such statements must be received with caution, until we have more convincing evidence than has yet been brought forward.

Positive and Negative Hallucinationsare among the most striking effects of hypnotic suggestion. A good subject may be made to experience an hallucinatory perception of almost any object, the more easily the less unusual and out of harmony with the surroundings is the suggested object. He may,e.g., be given a blank card and asked if he thinks it a good photograph of himself. He may then assent and describe the photograph in some detail, and, what is more astonishing, he may pick out the card as the one bearing the photograph, after it has been mixed with other similar blank cards. This seems to be due to the part played bypoints de repère, insignificant details of surface or texture, which serve as an objective basis around which the hallucinatory image is constructed by the pictorial imagination of the subject. A negative hallucination may be induced by telling the subject that a certain object or person is no longer present, when he ignores in every way that object or person. This is more puzzling than the positive hallucination and will be referred to again in discussing the theory of hypnosis. Both kinds of hallucination tend to be systematically and logically developed; if,e.g., the subject is told that a certain person is no longer visible, he may become insensitive to impressions made on any sense by that person.

Delusions, or false beliefs as to their present situation or past experiences may be induced in many subjects. On being assured that he is some other person, or that he is in some strange situation, the subject may accept the suggestion and adapt his behaviour with great histrionic skill to the induced delusion. It is probable that many, perhaps all, subjects are vaguely aware, as we sometimes are in dreams, that the delusions and hallucinations they experience are of an unreal nature. In the lighter stages of hypnosis a subject usually remembers the events of his waking life, but in the deeper stages he is apt, while remembering the events of previous hypnotic periods, to be incapable of recalling his normal life; but in this respect, as also in respect to the extent to which on awaking he remembers the events of the hypnotic period, the suggestions of the operator usually play a determining part.

Among the organic changes that have been produced by hypnotic suggestion are slowing or acceleration of the cardiac and respiratory rhythms; rise and fall of body-temperature through two or three degrees; local erythema and even inflammation of the skin with vesication or exudation of small drops of blood; evacuation of the bowel and vomiting; modifications of the secretory activity of glands, especially of the sweat-glands.

Post-hypnotic Effects.—Most subjects in whom any appreciable degree of hypnosis can be induced show some susceptibility to post-hypnotic suggestion,i.e.they may continue to be influenced, when restored to the fully waking state, by suggestions made during hypnosis, more especially if the operator suggests that this shall be the case; as a rule, the deeper the stage of hypnosis reached, the more effective are post-hypnotic suggestions. The therapeutic applications of hypnotism depend in the main upon this post-hypnotic continuance of the working of suggestions. If a subject is told that on awaking, or on a certain signal, or after the lapse of a given interval of time from the moment of awaking, he will perform a certain action, he usually feels some inclination to carry out the suggestion at the appropriate moment. If he remembers that the action has been suggested to him he may refuse to perform it, and if it is one repugnant to his moral nature, or merely one that would make him appear ridiculous, he may persist in his refusal. But if the action is of a simple and ordinary nature he will usually perform it, remarking that he cannot be comfortable till it is done. If the subject was deeply hypnotized and remembers nothing of the hypnotic period, he will carry out the post-hypnotic suggestion in almost every case, no matter how complicated or absurd it may be, so long as it is not one from which his normal self would be extremely averse; and he will respond appropriately to the suggested signals, although he is not conscious of their having been named; he will often perform the action in a very natural way, and will, if questioned, give some more or less adequate reason for it. Such actions, determined by post-hypnotic suggestions of which no conscious memory remains, may be carried out even after the lapse of many weeks or even months. Inhibitions of movement, anaesthesia, positive and negative hallucinations, and delusions may also be made to persist for brief periods after the termination of hypnosis; and organic effects, such as the action of the bowels, the oncoming of sleep and the cessation of pain, may be determined by post-hypnotic suggestion. In short, it may be said that in a good subject all the kinds of suggestion which will take effect during hypnosis will also be effective if given as post-hypnotic suggestions.

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