The Project Gutenberg eBook ofEncyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Hydromechanics" to "Ichnography"This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Hydromechanics" to "Ichnography"Author: VariousRelease date: July 29, 2012 [eBook #40370]Most recently updated: October 23, 2024Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "HYDROMECHANICS" TO "ICHNOGRAPHY" ***
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Hydromechanics" to "Ichnography"Author: VariousRelease date: July 29, 2012 [eBook #40370]Most recently updated: October 23, 2024Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Hydromechanics" to "Ichnography"
Author: Various
Author: Various
Release date: July 29, 2012 [eBook #40370]Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "HYDROMECHANICS" TO "ICHNOGRAPHY" ***
Articles in This Slice
HYDROMECHANICS(ὑδρομηχανικά), the science of the mechanics of water and fluids in general, includinghydrostaticsor the mathematical theory of fluids in equilibrium, andhydromechanics, the theory of fluids in motion. The practical application of hydromechanics forms the province of hydraulics (q.v.).
Historical.—The fundamental principles of hydrostatics were first given by Archimedes in his workΠερὶ τῶν ὀχουμένων, orDe iis quae vehuntur in humido, about 250B.C., and were afterwards applied to experiments by Marino Ghetaldi (1566-1627) in hisPromotus Archimedes(1603). Archimedes maintained that each particle of a fluid mass, when in equilibrium, is equally pressed in every direction; and he inquired into the conditions according to which a solid body floating in a fluid should assume and preserve a position of equilibrium.In the Greek school at Alexandria, which flourished under the auspices of the Ptolemies, the first attempts were made at the construction of hydraulic machinery, and about 120B.C.the fountain of compression, the siphon, and the forcing-pump were invented by Ctesibius and Hero. The siphon is a simple instrument; but the forcing-pump is a complicated invention, which could scarcely have been expected in the infancy of hydraulics. It was probably suggested to Ctesibius by theEgyptian WheelorNoria, which was common at that time, and which was a kind of chain pump, consisting of a number of earthen pots carried round by a wheel. In some of these machines the pots have a valve in the bottom which enables them to descend without much resistance, and diminishes greatly the load upon the wheel; and, if we suppose that this valve was introduced so early as the time of Ctesibius, it is not difficult to perceive how such a machine might have led to the invention of the forcing-pump.Notwithstanding these inventions of the Alexandrian school, its attention does not seem to have been directed to the motion of fluids; and the first attempt to investigate this subject was made by Sextus Julius Frontinus, inspector of the public fountains at Rome in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. In his workDe aquaeductibus urbis Romae commentarius, he considers the methods which were at that time employed for ascertaining the quantity of water discharged from ajutages, and the mode of distributing the waters of an aqueduct or a fountain. He remarked that the flow of water from an orifice depends not only on the magnitude of the orifice itself, but also on the height of the water in the reservoir; and that a pipe employed to carry off a portion of water from an aqueduct should, as circumstances required, have a position more or less inclined to the original direction of the current. But as he was unacquainted with the law of the velocities of running water as depending upon the depth of the orifice, the want of precision which appears in his results is not surprising.Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), and Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), two of the disciples of Galileo, applied the discoveries of their master to the science of hydrodynamics. In 1628 Castelli published a small work,Della misura dell’ acque correnti, in which he satisfactorily explained several phenomena in the motion of fluids in rivers and canals; but he committed a great paralogism in supposing the velocity of the water proportional to the depth of the orifice below the surface of the vessel. Torricelli, observing that in a jet where the water rushed through a small ajutage it rose to nearly the same height with the reservoir from which it was supplied, imagined that it ought to move with the same velocity as if it had fallen through that height by the force of gravity, and hence he deduced the proposition that the velocities of liquids are as the square root of the head, apart from the resistance of the air and the friction of the orifice. This theorem was published in 1643, at the end of his treatiseDe motu gravium projectorum, and it was confirmed by the experiments of Raffaello Magiotti on the quantities of water discharged from different ajutages under different pressures (1648).In the hands of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) hydrostatics assumed the dignity of a science, and in a treatise on the equilibrium of liquids (Sur l’équilibre des liqueurs), found among his manuscripts after his death and published in 1663, the laws of the equilibrium of liquids were demonstrated in the most simple manner, and amply confirmed by experiments.The theorem of Torricelli was employed by many succeeding writers, but particularly by Edmé Mariotte (1620-1684), whoseTraité du mouvement des eaux, published after his death in the year 1686, is founded on a great variety of well-conducted experiments on the motion of fluids, performed at Versailles and Chantilly. In the discussion of some points he committed considerable mistakes. Others he treated very superficially, and in none of his experiments apparently did he attend to the diminution of efflux arising from the contraction of the liquid vein, when the orifice is merely a perforation in a thin plate; but he appears to have been the first who attempted to ascribe the discrepancy between theory and experiment to the retardation of the water’s velocity through friction. His contemporary Domenico Guglielmini (1655-1710), who was inspector of the rivers and canals at Bologna, had ascribed this diminution of velocity in rivers to transverse motions arising from inequalities in their bottom. But as Mariotte observed similar obstructions even in glass pipes where no transverse currents could exist, the cause assigned by Guglielmini seemed destitute of foundation. The French philosopher, therefore, regarded these obstructions as the effects of friction. He supposed that the filaments of water which graze along the sides of the pipe lose a portion of their velocity; that the contiguous filaments, having on this account a greater velocity, rub upon the former, and suffer a diminution of their celerity; and that the other filaments are affected with similar retardations proportional to their distance from the axis of the pipe. In this way the medium velocity of the current may be diminished, and consequently the quantity of water discharged in a given time must, from the effects of friction, be considerably less than that which is computed from theory.The effects of friction and viscosity in diminishing the velocity of running water were noticed in thePrincipiaof Sir Isaac Newton, who threw much light upon several branches of hydromechanics. At a time when the Cartesian system of vortices universally prevailed, he found it necessary to investigate that hypothesis, and in the course of his investigations he showed that the velocity of any stratum of the vortex is an arithmetical mean between the velocities of the strata which enclose it; and from this it evidently follows that the velocity of a filament of water moving in a pipe is an arithmetical mean between the velocities of the filaments which surround it. Taking advantage of these results, Henri Pitot (1695-1771) afterwards showed that the retardations arising from friction are inversely as the diameters of the pipes in which the fluid moves. The attention of Newton was also directed to the discharge of water from orifices in the bottom of vessels. He supposed a cylindrical vessel full of water to be perforated in its bottom with a small hole by which the water escaped, and the vessel to be supplied with water in such a manner that it always remained full at the same height. He then supposed this cylindrical column of water to be divided into two parts,—the first, which he called the “cataract,” being an hyperboloid generated by the revolution of an hyperbola of the fifth degree around the axis of the cylinder which should pass through the orifice, and the second the remainder of the water in the cylindrical vessel. He considered the horizontal strata of this hyperboloid as always in motion, while the remainder of the water was in a state of rest, and imagined that there was a kind of cataract in the middle of the fluid. When the results of this theory were compared with the quantity of water actually discharged, Newton concluded that the velocity with which the water issued from the orifice was equal to that which a falling body would receive by descending through half the height of water in the reservoir. This conclusion, however, is absolutely irreconcilable with the known fact that jets of water rise nearly to the same height as their reservoirs, and Newton seems to have been aware of this objection. Accordingly, in the second edition of hisPrincipia, which appeared in 1713, he reconsidered his theory. He had discovered a contraction in the vein of fluid (vena contracta) which issued from the orifice, and found that, at the distance of about a diameter of the aperture, the section of the vein was contracted in the subduplicate ratio of two to one. He regarded, therefore, the section of the contracted vein as the true orifice from which the discharge of water ought to be deduced, and the velocity of the effluent water as due to the whole height of water in the reservoir; and by this means his theory became more conformable to the results of experience, though still open to serious objections. Newton was also the first to investigate the difficult subject of the motion of waves (q.v.).In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) published hisHydrodynamica seu de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii. His theory of the motion of fluids, the germ of which was first published in his memoir entitledTheoria nova de motu aquarum per canales quocunque fluentes, communicated to the Academy of St Petersburg as early as 1726, was founded on two suppositions, which appeared to him conformable to experience. He supposed that the surface of the fluid, contained in a vessel which is emptying itself by an orifice, remains always horizontal; and, if the fluid mass is conceived to be divided into an infinite number of horizontal strata of the same bulk, that these strata remain contiguous to each other, and that all their points descend vertically, with velocities inversely proportional to their breadth, or to the horizontal sections of the reservoir. In order to determine the motion of each stratum, he employed the principle of theconservatio virium vivarum, and obtained very elegant solutions. But in the absence of a general demonstration of that principle, his results did not command the confidence which they would otherwise have deserved, and it became desirable to have a theory more certain, and depending solely on the fundamental laws of mechanics. Colin Maclaurin (1698-1746) and John Bernoulli (1667-1748), who were of this opinion, resolved the problem by more direct methods, the one in hisFluxions, published in 1742, and the other in hisHydraulica nunc primum detecta, et demonstrata directe ex fundamentis pure mechanicis, which forms the fourth volume of his works. The method employed by Maclaurin has been thought not sufficiently rigorous; and that of John Bernoulli is, in the opinion of Lagrange, defective in clearness and precision. The theory of Daniel Bernoulli was opposed also by Jean le Rond d’Alembert. When generalizing the theory of pendulums of Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705) he discovered a principle of dynamics so simple and general that it reduced the laws of the motions of bodies to that of their equilibrium. He applied thisprinciple to the motion of fluids, and gave a specimen of its application at the end of hisDynamicsin 1743. It was more fully developed in hisTraité des fluides, published in 1744, in which he gave simple and elegant solutions of problems relating to the equilibrium and motion of fluids. He made use of the same suppositions as Daniel Bernoulli, though his calculus was established in a very different manner. He considered, at every instant, the actual motion of a stratum as composed of a motion which it had in the preceding instant and of a motion which it had lost; and the laws of equilibrium between the motions lost furnished him with equations representing the motion of the fluid. It remained a desideratum to express by equations the motion of a particle of the fluid in any assigned direction. These equations were found by d’Alembert from two principles—that a rectangular canal, taken in a mass of fluid in equilibrium, is itself in equilibrium, and that a portion of the fluid, in passing from one place to another, preserves the same volume when the fluid is incompressible, or dilates itself according to a given law when the fluid is elastic. His ingenious method, published in 1752, in hisEssai sur la résistance des fluides, was brought to perfection in hisOpuscules mathématiques, and was adopted by Leonhard Euler.The resolution of the questions concerning the motion of fluids was effected by means of Euler’s partial differential coefficients. This calculus was first applied to the motion of water by d’Alembert, and enabled both him and Euler to represent the theory of fluids in formulae restricted by no particular hypothesis.One of the most successful labourers in the science of hydrodynamics at this period was Pierre Louis Georges Dubuat (1734-1809). Following in the steps of the Abbé Charles Bossut (Nouvelles Experiences sur la résistance des fluides, 1777), he published, in 1786, a revised edition of hisPrincipes d’hydraulique, which contains a satisfactory theory of the motion of fluids, founded solely upon experiments. Dubuat considered that if water were a perfect fluid, and the channels in which it flowed infinitely smooth, its motion would be continually accelerated, like that of bodies descending in an inclined plane. But as the motion of rivers is not continually accelerated, and soon arrives at a state of uniformity, it is evident that the viscosity of the water, and the friction of the channel in which it descends, must equal the accelerating force. Dubuat, therefore, assumed it as a proposition of fundamental importance that, when water flows in any channel or bed, the accelerating force which obliges it to move is equal to the sum of all the resistances which it meets with, whether they arise from its own viscosity or from the friction of its bed. This principle was employed by him in the first edition of his work, which appeared in 1779. The theory contained in that edition was founded on the experiments of others, but he soon saw that a theory so new, and leading to results so different from the ordinary theory, should be founded on new experiments more direct than the former, and he was employed in the performance of these from 1780 to 1783. The experiments of Bossut were made only on pipes of a moderate declivity, but Dubuat used declivities of every kind, and made his experiments upon channels of various sizes.The theory of running water was greatly advanced by the researches of Gaspard Riche de Prony (1755-1839). From a collection of the best experiments by previous workers he selected eighty-two (fifty-one on the velocity of water in conduit pipes, and thirty-one on its velocity in open canals); and, discussing these on physical and mechanical principles, he succeeded in drawing up general formulae, which afforded a simple expression for the velocity of running water.J. A. Eytelwein (1764-1848) of Berlin, who published in 1801 a valuable compendium of hydraulics entitledHandbuch der Mechanik und der Hydraulik, investigated the subject of the discharge of water by compound pipes, the motions of jets and their impulses against plane and oblique surfaces; and he showed theoretically that a water-wheel will have its maximum effect when its circumference moves with half the velocity of the stream.J. N. P. Hachette (1769-1834) in 1816-1817 published memoirs containing the results of experiments on the spouting of fluids and the discharge of vessels. His object was to measure the contracted part of a fluid vein, to examine the phenomena attendant on additional tubes, and to investigate the form of the fluid vein and the results obtained when different forms of orifices are employed. Extensive experiments on the discharge of water from orifices (Expériences hydrauliques, Paris, 1832) were conducted under the direction of the French government by J. V. Poncelet (1788-1867) and J. A. Lesbros (1790-1860). P. P. Boileau (1811-1891) discussed their results and added experiments of his own (Traité de la mésure des eaux courantes, Paris, 1854). K. R. Bornemann re-examined all these results with great care, and gave formulae expressing the variation of the coefficients of discharge in different conditions (Civil Ingénieur, 1880). Julius Weisbach (1806-1871) also made many experimental investigations on the discharge of fluids. The experiments of J. B. Francis (Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, Boston, Mass., 1855) led him to propose variations in the accepted formulae for the discharge over weirs, and a generation later a very complete investigation of this subject was carried out by H. Bazin. An elaborate inquiry on the flow of water in pipes and channels was conducted by H. G. P. Darcy (1803-1858) and continued by H. Bazin, at the expense of the French government (Recherches hydrauliques, Paris, 1866). German engineers have also devoted special attention to the measurement of the flow in rivers; theBeiträge zur Hydrographie des Königreiches Böhmen(Prague, 1872-1875) of A. R. Harlacher (1842-1890) contained valuable measurements of this kind, together with a comparison of the experimental results with the formulae of flow that had been proposed up to the date of its publication, and important data were yielded by the gaugings of the Mississippi made for the United States government by A. A. Humphreys and H. L. Abbot, by Robert Gordon’s gaugings of the Irrawaddy, and by Allen J. C. Cunningham’s experiments on the Ganges canal. The friction of water, investigated for slow speeds by Coulomb, was measured for higher speeds by William Froude (1810-1879), whose work is of great value in the theory of ship resistance (Brit. Assoc. Report., 1869), and stream line motion was studied by Professor Osborne Reynolds and by Professor H. S. Hele Shaw.
Historical.—The fundamental principles of hydrostatics were first given by Archimedes in his workΠερὶ τῶν ὀχουμένων, orDe iis quae vehuntur in humido, about 250B.C., and were afterwards applied to experiments by Marino Ghetaldi (1566-1627) in hisPromotus Archimedes(1603). Archimedes maintained that each particle of a fluid mass, when in equilibrium, is equally pressed in every direction; and he inquired into the conditions according to which a solid body floating in a fluid should assume and preserve a position of equilibrium.
In the Greek school at Alexandria, which flourished under the auspices of the Ptolemies, the first attempts were made at the construction of hydraulic machinery, and about 120B.C.the fountain of compression, the siphon, and the forcing-pump were invented by Ctesibius and Hero. The siphon is a simple instrument; but the forcing-pump is a complicated invention, which could scarcely have been expected in the infancy of hydraulics. It was probably suggested to Ctesibius by theEgyptian WheelorNoria, which was common at that time, and which was a kind of chain pump, consisting of a number of earthen pots carried round by a wheel. In some of these machines the pots have a valve in the bottom which enables them to descend without much resistance, and diminishes greatly the load upon the wheel; and, if we suppose that this valve was introduced so early as the time of Ctesibius, it is not difficult to perceive how such a machine might have led to the invention of the forcing-pump.
Notwithstanding these inventions of the Alexandrian school, its attention does not seem to have been directed to the motion of fluids; and the first attempt to investigate this subject was made by Sextus Julius Frontinus, inspector of the public fountains at Rome in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. In his workDe aquaeductibus urbis Romae commentarius, he considers the methods which were at that time employed for ascertaining the quantity of water discharged from ajutages, and the mode of distributing the waters of an aqueduct or a fountain. He remarked that the flow of water from an orifice depends not only on the magnitude of the orifice itself, but also on the height of the water in the reservoir; and that a pipe employed to carry off a portion of water from an aqueduct should, as circumstances required, have a position more or less inclined to the original direction of the current. But as he was unacquainted with the law of the velocities of running water as depending upon the depth of the orifice, the want of precision which appears in his results is not surprising.
Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), and Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), two of the disciples of Galileo, applied the discoveries of their master to the science of hydrodynamics. In 1628 Castelli published a small work,Della misura dell’ acque correnti, in which he satisfactorily explained several phenomena in the motion of fluids in rivers and canals; but he committed a great paralogism in supposing the velocity of the water proportional to the depth of the orifice below the surface of the vessel. Torricelli, observing that in a jet where the water rushed through a small ajutage it rose to nearly the same height with the reservoir from which it was supplied, imagined that it ought to move with the same velocity as if it had fallen through that height by the force of gravity, and hence he deduced the proposition that the velocities of liquids are as the square root of the head, apart from the resistance of the air and the friction of the orifice. This theorem was published in 1643, at the end of his treatiseDe motu gravium projectorum, and it was confirmed by the experiments of Raffaello Magiotti on the quantities of water discharged from different ajutages under different pressures (1648).
In the hands of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) hydrostatics assumed the dignity of a science, and in a treatise on the equilibrium of liquids (Sur l’équilibre des liqueurs), found among his manuscripts after his death and published in 1663, the laws of the equilibrium of liquids were demonstrated in the most simple manner, and amply confirmed by experiments.
The theorem of Torricelli was employed by many succeeding writers, but particularly by Edmé Mariotte (1620-1684), whoseTraité du mouvement des eaux, published after his death in the year 1686, is founded on a great variety of well-conducted experiments on the motion of fluids, performed at Versailles and Chantilly. In the discussion of some points he committed considerable mistakes. Others he treated very superficially, and in none of his experiments apparently did he attend to the diminution of efflux arising from the contraction of the liquid vein, when the orifice is merely a perforation in a thin plate; but he appears to have been the first who attempted to ascribe the discrepancy between theory and experiment to the retardation of the water’s velocity through friction. His contemporary Domenico Guglielmini (1655-1710), who was inspector of the rivers and canals at Bologna, had ascribed this diminution of velocity in rivers to transverse motions arising from inequalities in their bottom. But as Mariotte observed similar obstructions even in glass pipes where no transverse currents could exist, the cause assigned by Guglielmini seemed destitute of foundation. The French philosopher, therefore, regarded these obstructions as the effects of friction. He supposed that the filaments of water which graze along the sides of the pipe lose a portion of their velocity; that the contiguous filaments, having on this account a greater velocity, rub upon the former, and suffer a diminution of their celerity; and that the other filaments are affected with similar retardations proportional to their distance from the axis of the pipe. In this way the medium velocity of the current may be diminished, and consequently the quantity of water discharged in a given time must, from the effects of friction, be considerably less than that which is computed from theory.
The effects of friction and viscosity in diminishing the velocity of running water were noticed in thePrincipiaof Sir Isaac Newton, who threw much light upon several branches of hydromechanics. At a time when the Cartesian system of vortices universally prevailed, he found it necessary to investigate that hypothesis, and in the course of his investigations he showed that the velocity of any stratum of the vortex is an arithmetical mean between the velocities of the strata which enclose it; and from this it evidently follows that the velocity of a filament of water moving in a pipe is an arithmetical mean between the velocities of the filaments which surround it. Taking advantage of these results, Henri Pitot (1695-1771) afterwards showed that the retardations arising from friction are inversely as the diameters of the pipes in which the fluid moves. The attention of Newton was also directed to the discharge of water from orifices in the bottom of vessels. He supposed a cylindrical vessel full of water to be perforated in its bottom with a small hole by which the water escaped, and the vessel to be supplied with water in such a manner that it always remained full at the same height. He then supposed this cylindrical column of water to be divided into two parts,—the first, which he called the “cataract,” being an hyperboloid generated by the revolution of an hyperbola of the fifth degree around the axis of the cylinder which should pass through the orifice, and the second the remainder of the water in the cylindrical vessel. He considered the horizontal strata of this hyperboloid as always in motion, while the remainder of the water was in a state of rest, and imagined that there was a kind of cataract in the middle of the fluid. When the results of this theory were compared with the quantity of water actually discharged, Newton concluded that the velocity with which the water issued from the orifice was equal to that which a falling body would receive by descending through half the height of water in the reservoir. This conclusion, however, is absolutely irreconcilable with the known fact that jets of water rise nearly to the same height as their reservoirs, and Newton seems to have been aware of this objection. Accordingly, in the second edition of hisPrincipia, which appeared in 1713, he reconsidered his theory. He had discovered a contraction in the vein of fluid (vena contracta) which issued from the orifice, and found that, at the distance of about a diameter of the aperture, the section of the vein was contracted in the subduplicate ratio of two to one. He regarded, therefore, the section of the contracted vein as the true orifice from which the discharge of water ought to be deduced, and the velocity of the effluent water as due to the whole height of water in the reservoir; and by this means his theory became more conformable to the results of experience, though still open to serious objections. Newton was also the first to investigate the difficult subject of the motion of waves (q.v.).
In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) published hisHydrodynamica seu de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii. His theory of the motion of fluids, the germ of which was first published in his memoir entitledTheoria nova de motu aquarum per canales quocunque fluentes, communicated to the Academy of St Petersburg as early as 1726, was founded on two suppositions, which appeared to him conformable to experience. He supposed that the surface of the fluid, contained in a vessel which is emptying itself by an orifice, remains always horizontal; and, if the fluid mass is conceived to be divided into an infinite number of horizontal strata of the same bulk, that these strata remain contiguous to each other, and that all their points descend vertically, with velocities inversely proportional to their breadth, or to the horizontal sections of the reservoir. In order to determine the motion of each stratum, he employed the principle of theconservatio virium vivarum, and obtained very elegant solutions. But in the absence of a general demonstration of that principle, his results did not command the confidence which they would otherwise have deserved, and it became desirable to have a theory more certain, and depending solely on the fundamental laws of mechanics. Colin Maclaurin (1698-1746) and John Bernoulli (1667-1748), who were of this opinion, resolved the problem by more direct methods, the one in hisFluxions, published in 1742, and the other in hisHydraulica nunc primum detecta, et demonstrata directe ex fundamentis pure mechanicis, which forms the fourth volume of his works. The method employed by Maclaurin has been thought not sufficiently rigorous; and that of John Bernoulli is, in the opinion of Lagrange, defective in clearness and precision. The theory of Daniel Bernoulli was opposed also by Jean le Rond d’Alembert. When generalizing the theory of pendulums of Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705) he discovered a principle of dynamics so simple and general that it reduced the laws of the motions of bodies to that of their equilibrium. He applied thisprinciple to the motion of fluids, and gave a specimen of its application at the end of hisDynamicsin 1743. It was more fully developed in hisTraité des fluides, published in 1744, in which he gave simple and elegant solutions of problems relating to the equilibrium and motion of fluids. He made use of the same suppositions as Daniel Bernoulli, though his calculus was established in a very different manner. He considered, at every instant, the actual motion of a stratum as composed of a motion which it had in the preceding instant and of a motion which it had lost; and the laws of equilibrium between the motions lost furnished him with equations representing the motion of the fluid. It remained a desideratum to express by equations the motion of a particle of the fluid in any assigned direction. These equations were found by d’Alembert from two principles—that a rectangular canal, taken in a mass of fluid in equilibrium, is itself in equilibrium, and that a portion of the fluid, in passing from one place to another, preserves the same volume when the fluid is incompressible, or dilates itself according to a given law when the fluid is elastic. His ingenious method, published in 1752, in hisEssai sur la résistance des fluides, was brought to perfection in hisOpuscules mathématiques, and was adopted by Leonhard Euler.
The resolution of the questions concerning the motion of fluids was effected by means of Euler’s partial differential coefficients. This calculus was first applied to the motion of water by d’Alembert, and enabled both him and Euler to represent the theory of fluids in formulae restricted by no particular hypothesis.
One of the most successful labourers in the science of hydrodynamics at this period was Pierre Louis Georges Dubuat (1734-1809). Following in the steps of the Abbé Charles Bossut (Nouvelles Experiences sur la résistance des fluides, 1777), he published, in 1786, a revised edition of hisPrincipes d’hydraulique, which contains a satisfactory theory of the motion of fluids, founded solely upon experiments. Dubuat considered that if water were a perfect fluid, and the channels in which it flowed infinitely smooth, its motion would be continually accelerated, like that of bodies descending in an inclined plane. But as the motion of rivers is not continually accelerated, and soon arrives at a state of uniformity, it is evident that the viscosity of the water, and the friction of the channel in which it descends, must equal the accelerating force. Dubuat, therefore, assumed it as a proposition of fundamental importance that, when water flows in any channel or bed, the accelerating force which obliges it to move is equal to the sum of all the resistances which it meets with, whether they arise from its own viscosity or from the friction of its bed. This principle was employed by him in the first edition of his work, which appeared in 1779. The theory contained in that edition was founded on the experiments of others, but he soon saw that a theory so new, and leading to results so different from the ordinary theory, should be founded on new experiments more direct than the former, and he was employed in the performance of these from 1780 to 1783. The experiments of Bossut were made only on pipes of a moderate declivity, but Dubuat used declivities of every kind, and made his experiments upon channels of various sizes.
The theory of running water was greatly advanced by the researches of Gaspard Riche de Prony (1755-1839). From a collection of the best experiments by previous workers he selected eighty-two (fifty-one on the velocity of water in conduit pipes, and thirty-one on its velocity in open canals); and, discussing these on physical and mechanical principles, he succeeded in drawing up general formulae, which afforded a simple expression for the velocity of running water.
J. A. Eytelwein (1764-1848) of Berlin, who published in 1801 a valuable compendium of hydraulics entitledHandbuch der Mechanik und der Hydraulik, investigated the subject of the discharge of water by compound pipes, the motions of jets and their impulses against plane and oblique surfaces; and he showed theoretically that a water-wheel will have its maximum effect when its circumference moves with half the velocity of the stream.
J. N. P. Hachette (1769-1834) in 1816-1817 published memoirs containing the results of experiments on the spouting of fluids and the discharge of vessels. His object was to measure the contracted part of a fluid vein, to examine the phenomena attendant on additional tubes, and to investigate the form of the fluid vein and the results obtained when different forms of orifices are employed. Extensive experiments on the discharge of water from orifices (Expériences hydrauliques, Paris, 1832) were conducted under the direction of the French government by J. V. Poncelet (1788-1867) and J. A. Lesbros (1790-1860). P. P. Boileau (1811-1891) discussed their results and added experiments of his own (Traité de la mésure des eaux courantes, Paris, 1854). K. R. Bornemann re-examined all these results with great care, and gave formulae expressing the variation of the coefficients of discharge in different conditions (Civil Ingénieur, 1880). Julius Weisbach (1806-1871) also made many experimental investigations on the discharge of fluids. The experiments of J. B. Francis (Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, Boston, Mass., 1855) led him to propose variations in the accepted formulae for the discharge over weirs, and a generation later a very complete investigation of this subject was carried out by H. Bazin. An elaborate inquiry on the flow of water in pipes and channels was conducted by H. G. P. Darcy (1803-1858) and continued by H. Bazin, at the expense of the French government (Recherches hydrauliques, Paris, 1866). German engineers have also devoted special attention to the measurement of the flow in rivers; theBeiträge zur Hydrographie des Königreiches Böhmen(Prague, 1872-1875) of A. R. Harlacher (1842-1890) contained valuable measurements of this kind, together with a comparison of the experimental results with the formulae of flow that had been proposed up to the date of its publication, and important data were yielded by the gaugings of the Mississippi made for the United States government by A. A. Humphreys and H. L. Abbot, by Robert Gordon’s gaugings of the Irrawaddy, and by Allen J. C. Cunningham’s experiments on the Ganges canal. The friction of water, investigated for slow speeds by Coulomb, was measured for higher speeds by William Froude (1810-1879), whose work is of great value in the theory of ship resistance (Brit. Assoc. Report., 1869), and stream line motion was studied by Professor Osborne Reynolds and by Professor H. S. Hele Shaw.
(X.)
Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics is a science which grew originally out of a number of isolated practical problems; but it satisfies the requirement of perfect accuracy in its application to phenomena, the largest and smallest, of the behaviour of a fluid. At the same time, it delights the pure theorist by the simplicity of the logic with which the fundamental theorems may be established, and by the elegance of its mathematical operations, insomuch that hydrostatics may be considered as the Euclidean pure geometry of mechanical science.
1.The Different States of a Substance or Matter.—All substance in nature falls into one of the two classes, solid and fluid; a solid substance, the land, for instance, as contrasted with a fluid, like water, being a substance which does not flow of itself.
Afluid, as the name implies, is a substance which flows, or is capable of flowing; water and air are the two fluids distributed most universally over the surface of the earth.
Fluids again are divided into two classes, termed a liquid and a gas, of which water and air are the chief examples.
Aliquidis a fluid which is incompressible or practically so,i.e.it does not change in volume sensibly with change of pressure.
Agasis a compressible fluid, and the change in volume is considerable with moderate variation of pressure.
Liquids, again, can be poured from one open vessel into another, and can be kept in an uncovered vessel, but a gas tends to diffuse itself indefinitely and must be preserved in a closed reservoir.
The distinguishing characteristics of the three kinds of substance or states of matter, the solid, liquid and gas, are summarized thus in O. Lodge’sMechanics:—
A solid has both size and shape.A liquid has size but not shape.A gas has neither size nor shape.
A solid has both size and shape.
A liquid has size but not shape.
A gas has neither size nor shape.
2.The Change of State of Matter.—By a change of temperature and pressure combined, a substance can in general be made to pass from one state into another; thus by gradually increasing the temperature a solid piece of ice can be melted into the liquid state of water, and the water again can be boiled off into the gaseous state as steam. Again, by raising the temperature, a metal in the solid state can be melted and liquefied, and poured into a mould to assume any form desired, which is retained when the metal cools and solidifies again; the gaseous state of a metal is revealed by the spectroscope. Conversely, a combination of increased pressure and lowering of temperature will, if carried far enough, reduce a gas to a liquid, and afterwards to the solid state; and nearly every gaseous substance has now undergone this operation.
A certain critical temperature is observed in a gas, above which the liquefaction is impossible; so that the gaseous state has two subdivisions into (i.) a true gas, which cannot be liquefied, because its temperature is above the critical temperature, (ii.) a vapour, where the temperature is below the critical, and which can ultimately be liquefied by further lowering of temperature or increase of pressure.
3.Plasticity and Viscosity.—Every solid substance is found to be plastic more or less, as exemplified by punching, shearing and cutting; but the plastic solid is distinguished from the viscous fluid in that a plastic solid requires a certain magnitude of stress to be exceeded to make it flow, whereas the viscous liquid will yield to the slightest stress, but requires a certain length of time for the effect to be appreciable.
According to Maxwell (Theory of Heat) “When a continuous alteration of form is produced only by a stress exceeding a certain value, the substance is called a solid, however soft and plastic it may be. But when the smallest stress, if only continued long enough, will cause a perceptible and increasing change of form, the substance must be regarded as a viscous fluid, however hard it may be.” Maxwell illustrates the difference between a soft solid and a hard liquid by a jelly and a block of pitch; also by the experiment of supporting a candle and a stick of sealing-wax; after a considerable time the sealing-wax will be found bent and so is a fluid, but the candle remains straight as a solid.
4.Definition of a Fluid.—A fluid is a substance which yields continually to the slightest tangential stress in its interior; that is, it can be divided very easily along any plane (given plenty of time if the fluid is viscous). It follows that when the fluid has come to rest, the tangential stress in any plane in its interior must vanish, and the stress must be entirely normal to the plane. This mechanical axiom of thenormality of fluid pressureis the foundation of the mathematical theory of hydrostatics.
The theorems of hydrostatics are thus true for all stationary fluids, however viscous they may be; it is only when we come to hydrodynamics, the science of the motion of a fluid, that viscosity will make itself felt and modify the theory; unless we begin by postulating the perfect fluid, devoid of viscosity, so that the principle of thenormality of fluid pressureis taken to hold when the fluid is in movement.
5.The Measurement of Fluid Pressure.—The pressure at any point of a plane in the interior of a fluid is the intensity of the normal thrust estimated per unit area of the plane.Thus, if a thrust of P ℔ is distributed uniformly over a plane area of A sq. ft., as on the horizontal bottom of the sea or any reservoir, the pressure at any point of the plane is P/A ℔ per sq. ft., or P/144A ℔ per sq. in. (℔/ft.2and ℔/in.2, in the Hospitalier notation, to be employed in the sequel). If the distribution of the thrust is not uniform, as, for instance, on a vertical or inclined face or wall of a reservoir, then P/A represents the average pressure over the area; and the actual pressure at any point is the average pressure over a small area enclosing the point. Thus, if a thrust ΔP ℔ acts on a small plane area ΔA ft.2enclosing a point B, the pressure p at B is the limit of ΔP/ΔA; andp = lt (ΔP/ΔA) = dP/dA,(1)in the notation of the differential calculus.6.The Equality of Fluid Pressure in all Directions.—This fundamental principle of hydrostatics follows at once from the principle of the normality of fluid pressure implied in the definition of a fluid in § 4. Take any two arbitrary directions in the plane of the paper, and draw a small isosceles triangle abc, whose sides are perpendicular to the two directions, and consider the equilibrium of a small triangular prism of fluid, of which the triangle is the cross section. Let P, Q denote the normal thrust across the sides bc, ca, and R the normal thrust across the base ab. Then, since these three forces maintain equilibrium, and R makes equal angles with P and Q, therefore P and Q must be equal. But the faces bc, ca, over which P and Q act, are also equal, so that the pressure on each face is equal. A scalene triangle abc might also be employed, or a tetrahedron.Fig.1a.It follows that the pressure of a fluid requires to be calculated in one direction only, chosen as the simplest direction for convenience.7.The Transmissibility of Fluid Pressure.—Any additional pressure applied to the fluid will be transmitted equally to every point in the case of a liquid; this principle of thetransmissibility of pressurewas enunciated by Pascal, 1653, and applied by him to the invention of thehydraulic press.This machine consists essentially of two communicating cylinders (fig. 1a), filled with liquid and closed by pistons. If a thrust P ℔ is applied to one piston of area A ft.2, it will be balanced by a thrust W ℔ applied to the other piston of area B ft.2, wherep = P/A = W/B,(1)the pressure p of the liquid being supposed uniform; and, by making the ratio B/A sufficiently large, the mechanical advantage can be increased to any desired amount, and in the simplest manner possible, without the intervention of levers and machinery.Fig. 1bshows also a modern form of the hydraulic press, applied to the operation of covering an electric cable with a lead coating.8.Theorem.—In a fluid at rest under gravity the pressure is the same at any two points in the same horizontal plane; in other words, a surface of equal pressure is a horizontal plane.This is proved by taking any two points A and B at the same level, and considering the equilibrium of a thin prism of liquid AB, bounded by planes at A and B perpendicular to AB. As gravity and the fluid pressure on the sides of the prism act at right angles to AB, the equilibrium requires the equality of thrust on the ends A and B; and as the areas are equal, the pressure must be equal at A and B; and so the pressure is the same at all points in the same horizontal plane. If the fluid is a liquid, it can have a free surface without diffusing itself, as a gas would; and this free surface, being a surface of zero pressure, or more generally of uniform atmospheric pressure, will also be a surface of equal pressure, and therefore a horizontal plane.Fig.1b.Hence thetheorem.—The free surface of a liquid at rest under gravity is a horizontal plane. This is the characteristic distinguishing between a solid and a liquid; as, for instance, between land and water. The land has hills and valleys, but the surface of water at rest is a horizontal plane; and if disturbed the surface moves in waves.9.Theorem.—In a homogeneous liquid at rest under gravity the pressure increases uniformly with the depth.This is proved by taking the two points A and B in the same vertical line, and considering the equilibrium of the prism by resolving vertically. In this case the thrust at the lower end B must exceed the thrust at A, the upper end, by the weight of the prism of liquid; so that, denoting the cross section of the prism by α ft.2, the pressure at A and By by p0and p ℔/ft.2, and by w the density of the liquid estimated in ℔/ft.3,pα − p0α = wα·AB,(1)p = w·AB + p0.(2)Thus in water, where w = 62.4℔/ft.3, the pressure increases 62.4 ℔/ft.2, or 62.4 ÷ 144 = 0.433 ℔/in.2for every additional foot of depth.10.Theorem.—If two liquids of different density are resting in vessels in communication, the height of the free surface of such liquid above the surface of separation is inversely as the density.For if the liquid of density σ rises to the height h and of density ρ to the height k, and p0denotes the atmospheric pressure, the pressure in the liquid at the level of the surface of separation will be σh + p0and ρk + p0, and these being equal we haveσh = ρk.(1)The principle is illustrated in the articleBarometer, where a column of mercury of density σ and height h, rising in the tube to the Torricellian vacuum, is balanced by a column of air of density ρ, which may be supposed to rise as a homogeneous fluid to a height k, called the height of the homogeneous atmosphere. Thus water being about 800 times denser than air and mercury 13.6 times denser than water,k/h = σ/ρ = 800 × 13.6 = 10,880;(2)and with an average barometer height of 30 in. this makes k 27,200 ft., about 8300 metres.11.The Head of Water or a Liquid.—The pressure σh at a depth h ft. in liquid of density σ is called the pressure due to aheadof h ft. of the liquid. The atmospheric pressure is thus due to an average head of 30 in. of mercury, or 30 × 13.6 ÷ 12 = 34 ft. of water, or 27,200 ft. of air. The pressure of the air is a convenient unit to employ in practical work, where it is called an “atmosphere”; it is made the equivalent of a pressure of one kg/cm2; and one ton/inch2, employed as the unit with high pressure as in artillery, may be taken as 150 atmospheres.12.Theorem.—A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced, acting vertically upward through the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid.For if the body is removed, and replaced by the fluid as at first, this fluid is in equilibrium under its own weight and the thrust of the surrounding fluid, which must be equal and opposite, and the surrounding fluid acts in the same manner when the body replaces the displaced fluid again; so that the resultant thrust of the fluid acts vertically upward through the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced, and is equal to the weight.When the body is floating freely like a ship, the equilibrium of this liquid thrust with the weight of the ship requires that the weight of water displaced is equal to the weight of the ship and the two centres of gravity are in the same vertical line. So also a balloon begins to rise when the weight of air displaced is greater than the weight of the balloon, and it is in equilibrium when the weights are equal. This theorem is called generally theprinciple of Archimedes.It is used to determine the density of a body experimentally; for if W is the weight of a body weighed in a balance in air (strictlyin vacuo), and if W′ is the weight required to balance when the body is suspended in water, then the upward thrust of the liquidor weight of liquid displaced is W − W′, so that thespecific gravity(S.G.), defined as the ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of an equal volume of water, is W/(W − W′).As stated first by Archimedes, the principle asserts the obvious fact that a body displaces its own volume of water; and he utilized it in the problem of the determination of the adulteration of the crown of Hiero. He weighed out a lump of gold and of silver of the same weight as the crown; and, immersing the three in succession in water, he found they spilt over measures of water in the ratio1⁄14:4⁄77:2⁄21or 33 : 24 : 44; thence it follows that the gold : silver alloy of the crown was as 11 : 9 by weight.13.Theorem.—The resultant vertical thrust on any portion of a curved surface exposed to the pressure of a fluid at rest under gravity is the weight of fluid cut out by vertical lines drawn round the boundary of the curved surface.Theorem.—The resultant horizontal thrust in any direction is obtained by drawing parallel horizontal lines round the boundary, and intersecting a plane perpendicular to their direction in a plane curve; and then investigating the thrust on this plane area, which will be the same as on the curved surface.The proof of these theorems proceeds as before, employing the normality principle; they are required, for instance, in the determination of the liquid thrust on any portion of the bottom of a ship.In casting a thin hollow object like a bell, it will be seen that the resultant upward thrust on the mould may be many times greater than the weight of metal; many a curious experiment has been devised to illustrate this property and classed as a hydrostatic paradox (Boyle,Hydrostatical Paradoxes, 1666).Fig. 2.Consider, for instance, the operation of casting a hemispherical bell, in fig. 2. As the molten metal is run in, the upward thrust on the outside mould, when the level has reached PP′, is the weight of metal in the volume generated by the revolution of APQ; and this, by a theorem of Archimedes, has the same volume as the cone ORR′, or1⁄3πy3, where y is the depth of metal, the horizontal sections being equal so long as y is less than the radius of the outside hemisphere. Afterwards, when the metal has risen above B, to the level KK′, the additional thrust is the weight of the cylinder of diameter KK′ and height BH. The upward thrust is the same, however thin the metal may be in the interspace between the outer mould and the core inside; and this was formerly considered paradoxical.Analytical Equations of Equilibrium of a Fluid at rest under any System of Force.14. Referred to three fixed coordinate axes, a fluid, in which the pressure is p, the density ρ, and X, Y, Z the components of impressed force per unit mass, requires for the equilibrium of the part filling a fixed surface S, on resolving parallel to Ox,∫ ∫lpdS =∫ ∫ ∫ρX dx dy dz,(1)where l, m, n denote the direction cosines of the normal drawn outward of the surface S.But by Green’s transformation∫ ∫lp dS =∫ ∫ ∫dpdx dy dz,dx(2)thus leading to the differential relation at every pointdp= ρX,dp= ρY,dp= ρZ.dxdydz(3)The three equations of equilibrium obtained by taking moments round the axes are then found to be satisfied identically.Hence the space variation of the pressure in any direction, or thepressure-gradient, is the resolved force per unit volume in that direction. The resultant force is therefore in the direction of the steepest pressure-gradient, and this is normal to the surface of equal pressure; for equilibrium to exist in a fluid the lines of force must therefore be capable of being cut orthogonally by a system of surfaces, which will be surfaces of equal pressure.Ignoring temperature effect, and taking the density as a function of the pressure, surfaces of equal pressure are also of equal density, and the fluid is stratified by surfaces orthogonal to the lines of force;1dp,1dp,1dp, or X, Y, Zρdxρdyρdz(4)are the partial differential coefficients of some function P, = ∫ dp/ρ, of x, y, z; so that X, Y, Z must be the partial differential coefficients of a potential −V, such that the force in any direction is the downward gradient of V; and thendP+dV= 0, or P + V = constant,dxdx(5)in which P may be called the hydrostatic head and V the head of potential.With variation of temperature, the surfaces of equal pressure and density need not coincide; but, taking the pressure, density and temperature as connected by some relation, such as the gas-equation, the surfaces of equal density and temperature must intersect in lines lying on a surface of equal pressure.15. As an example of the general equations, take the simplest case of a uniform field of gravity, with Oz directed vertically downward; employing the gravitation unit of force,1dp= 0,1dp= 0,1dp= 1,ρdxρdyρdz(1)P =∫dp/ρ = z + a constant.(2)When the density ρ is uniform, this becomes, as before in (2) § 9p = ρz + p0.(3)Suppose the density ρ varies as some nth power of the depth below O, thendp/dz = ρ = μzn(4)p = μzn+1=ρz=ρ(ρ)1/n,n + 1n + 1n + 1μ(5)supposing p and ρ to vanish together.These equations can be made to represent the state of convective equilibrium of the atmosphere, depending on the gas-equationp = ρk = R ρθ,(6)where θ denotes the absolute temperature; and thenRdθ=d(p)=1,dzdzρn + 1(7)so that the temperature-gradient dθ/dz is constant, as in convective equilibrium in (11).From the gas-equation in general, in the atmosphere1dp=1dp−1dθ=ρ−1dθ=1−1dθ,ρdzpdzθdzpθdzkθdz(8)which is positive, and the density ρ diminishes with the ascent, provided the temperature-gradient dθ/dz does not exceed θ/k.With uniform temperature, taking k constant in the gas-equation,dp/dz = ρ = p/k, p = p0ez/k,(9)so that in ascending in the atmosphere of thermal equilibrium the pressure and density diminish at compound discount, and for pressures p1and p2at heights z1and z2(z1− z2)/k = loge(p2/p1) = 2.3 log10(p2/p1).(10)In the convective equilibrium of the atmosphere, the air is supposed to change in density and pressure without exchange of heat by conduction; and thenρ/ρ0= (θ/θ0)n, p/p0= (θ/θ0)n + 1,(11)dz=1dp= (n + 1)p= (n + 1) R, γ = 1 +1,dθρdθρθnwhere γ is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure and constant volume.In the more general case of the convective equilibrium of a spherical atmosphere surrounding the earth, of radius a,dp= (n + 1)p0dθ= −a2dr,ρρ0θ0r2(12)gravity varying inversely as the square of the distance r from the centre; so that, k = p0/ρ0, denoting the height of the homogeneous atmosphere at the surface, θ is given by(n + 1) k (1 − θ/θ0) = a(1 − a/r),(13)or if c denotes the distance where θ = 0,θ=a·c − r.θ0rc − a(14)When the compressibility of water is taken into account in a deep ocean, an experimental law must be employed, such asp − p0= k (ρ − ρ0), or ρ/ρ0= 1 + (p − p0)/λ, λ = kρ0,(15)so that λ is the pressure due to a head k of the liquid at density ρ0under atmospheric pressure p0; and it is the gauge pressure required on this law to double the density. Thendp/dz = kdρ/dz = ρ, ρ = ρ0ez/k, p − p0= kρ0(ez/k− 1);(16)and if the liquid was incompressible, the depth at pressure p would be (p − p0)/p0, so that the lowering of the surface due to compression iskez/k− k − z = ½z2/k, when k is large.(17)For sea water, λ is about 25,000 atmospheres, and k is then 25,000 times the height of the water barometer, about 250,000 metres, so that in an ocean 10 kilometres deep the level is lowered about 200 metres by the compressibility of the water; and the density at the bottom is increased 4%.On another physical assumption of constant cubical elasticity λ,dp = λdρ/ρ, (p − p0)/λ = log (ρ/ρ0),(18)dp=λdρ= ρ, λ(1−1)= z, 1 −ρ0=z, λ = kρ0,zdρdzρ0ρρk(19)and the lowering of the surface isp − p0− z = k logρ− z = −k log(1 −z)− z ≈z2ρ0ρ0k2k(20)as before in (17).
5.The Measurement of Fluid Pressure.—The pressure at any point of a plane in the interior of a fluid is the intensity of the normal thrust estimated per unit area of the plane.
Thus, if a thrust of P ℔ is distributed uniformly over a plane area of A sq. ft., as on the horizontal bottom of the sea or any reservoir, the pressure at any point of the plane is P/A ℔ per sq. ft., or P/144A ℔ per sq. in. (℔/ft.2and ℔/in.2, in the Hospitalier notation, to be employed in the sequel). If the distribution of the thrust is not uniform, as, for instance, on a vertical or inclined face or wall of a reservoir, then P/A represents the average pressure over the area; and the actual pressure at any point is the average pressure over a small area enclosing the point. Thus, if a thrust ΔP ℔ acts on a small plane area ΔA ft.2enclosing a point B, the pressure p at B is the limit of ΔP/ΔA; and
p = lt (ΔP/ΔA) = dP/dA,
(1)
in the notation of the differential calculus.
6.The Equality of Fluid Pressure in all Directions.—This fundamental principle of hydrostatics follows at once from the principle of the normality of fluid pressure implied in the definition of a fluid in § 4. Take any two arbitrary directions in the plane of the paper, and draw a small isosceles triangle abc, whose sides are perpendicular to the two directions, and consider the equilibrium of a small triangular prism of fluid, of which the triangle is the cross section. Let P, Q denote the normal thrust across the sides bc, ca, and R the normal thrust across the base ab. Then, since these three forces maintain equilibrium, and R makes equal angles with P and Q, therefore P and Q must be equal. But the faces bc, ca, over which P and Q act, are also equal, so that the pressure on each face is equal. A scalene triangle abc might also be employed, or a tetrahedron.
It follows that the pressure of a fluid requires to be calculated in one direction only, chosen as the simplest direction for convenience.
7.The Transmissibility of Fluid Pressure.—Any additional pressure applied to the fluid will be transmitted equally to every point in the case of a liquid; this principle of thetransmissibility of pressurewas enunciated by Pascal, 1653, and applied by him to the invention of thehydraulic press.
This machine consists essentially of two communicating cylinders (fig. 1a), filled with liquid and closed by pistons. If a thrust P ℔ is applied to one piston of area A ft.2, it will be balanced by a thrust W ℔ applied to the other piston of area B ft.2, where
p = P/A = W/B,
(1)
the pressure p of the liquid being supposed uniform; and, by making the ratio B/A sufficiently large, the mechanical advantage can be increased to any desired amount, and in the simplest manner possible, without the intervention of levers and machinery.
Fig. 1bshows also a modern form of the hydraulic press, applied to the operation of covering an electric cable with a lead coating.
8.Theorem.—In a fluid at rest under gravity the pressure is the same at any two points in the same horizontal plane; in other words, a surface of equal pressure is a horizontal plane.
This is proved by taking any two points A and B at the same level, and considering the equilibrium of a thin prism of liquid AB, bounded by planes at A and B perpendicular to AB. As gravity and the fluid pressure on the sides of the prism act at right angles to AB, the equilibrium requires the equality of thrust on the ends A and B; and as the areas are equal, the pressure must be equal at A and B; and so the pressure is the same at all points in the same horizontal plane. If the fluid is a liquid, it can have a free surface without diffusing itself, as a gas would; and this free surface, being a surface of zero pressure, or more generally of uniform atmospheric pressure, will also be a surface of equal pressure, and therefore a horizontal plane.
Hence thetheorem.—The free surface of a liquid at rest under gravity is a horizontal plane. This is the characteristic distinguishing between a solid and a liquid; as, for instance, between land and water. The land has hills and valleys, but the surface of water at rest is a horizontal plane; and if disturbed the surface moves in waves.
9.Theorem.—In a homogeneous liquid at rest under gravity the pressure increases uniformly with the depth.
This is proved by taking the two points A and B in the same vertical line, and considering the equilibrium of the prism by resolving vertically. In this case the thrust at the lower end B must exceed the thrust at A, the upper end, by the weight of the prism of liquid; so that, denoting the cross section of the prism by α ft.2, the pressure at A and By by p0and p ℔/ft.2, and by w the density of the liquid estimated in ℔/ft.3,
pα − p0α = wα·AB,
(1)
p = w·AB + p0.
(2)
Thus in water, where w = 62.4℔/ft.3, the pressure increases 62.4 ℔/ft.2, or 62.4 ÷ 144 = 0.433 ℔/in.2for every additional foot of depth.
10.Theorem.—If two liquids of different density are resting in vessels in communication, the height of the free surface of such liquid above the surface of separation is inversely as the density.
For if the liquid of density σ rises to the height h and of density ρ to the height k, and p0denotes the atmospheric pressure, the pressure in the liquid at the level of the surface of separation will be σh + p0and ρk + p0, and these being equal we have
σh = ρk.
(1)
The principle is illustrated in the articleBarometer, where a column of mercury of density σ and height h, rising in the tube to the Torricellian vacuum, is balanced by a column of air of density ρ, which may be supposed to rise as a homogeneous fluid to a height k, called the height of the homogeneous atmosphere. Thus water being about 800 times denser than air and mercury 13.6 times denser than water,
k/h = σ/ρ = 800 × 13.6 = 10,880;
(2)
and with an average barometer height of 30 in. this makes k 27,200 ft., about 8300 metres.
11.The Head of Water or a Liquid.—The pressure σh at a depth h ft. in liquid of density σ is called the pressure due to aheadof h ft. of the liquid. The atmospheric pressure is thus due to an average head of 30 in. of mercury, or 30 × 13.6 ÷ 12 = 34 ft. of water, or 27,200 ft. of air. The pressure of the air is a convenient unit to employ in practical work, where it is called an “atmosphere”; it is made the equivalent of a pressure of one kg/cm2; and one ton/inch2, employed as the unit with high pressure as in artillery, may be taken as 150 atmospheres.
12.Theorem.—A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced, acting vertically upward through the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid.
For if the body is removed, and replaced by the fluid as at first, this fluid is in equilibrium under its own weight and the thrust of the surrounding fluid, which must be equal and opposite, and the surrounding fluid acts in the same manner when the body replaces the displaced fluid again; so that the resultant thrust of the fluid acts vertically upward through the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced, and is equal to the weight.
When the body is floating freely like a ship, the equilibrium of this liquid thrust with the weight of the ship requires that the weight of water displaced is equal to the weight of the ship and the two centres of gravity are in the same vertical line. So also a balloon begins to rise when the weight of air displaced is greater than the weight of the balloon, and it is in equilibrium when the weights are equal. This theorem is called generally theprinciple of Archimedes.
It is used to determine the density of a body experimentally; for if W is the weight of a body weighed in a balance in air (strictlyin vacuo), and if W′ is the weight required to balance when the body is suspended in water, then the upward thrust of the liquidor weight of liquid displaced is W − W′, so that thespecific gravity(S.G.), defined as the ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of an equal volume of water, is W/(W − W′).
As stated first by Archimedes, the principle asserts the obvious fact that a body displaces its own volume of water; and he utilized it in the problem of the determination of the adulteration of the crown of Hiero. He weighed out a lump of gold and of silver of the same weight as the crown; and, immersing the three in succession in water, he found they spilt over measures of water in the ratio1⁄14:4⁄77:2⁄21or 33 : 24 : 44; thence it follows that the gold : silver alloy of the crown was as 11 : 9 by weight.
13.Theorem.—The resultant vertical thrust on any portion of a curved surface exposed to the pressure of a fluid at rest under gravity is the weight of fluid cut out by vertical lines drawn round the boundary of the curved surface.
Theorem.—The resultant horizontal thrust in any direction is obtained by drawing parallel horizontal lines round the boundary, and intersecting a plane perpendicular to their direction in a plane curve; and then investigating the thrust on this plane area, which will be the same as on the curved surface.
The proof of these theorems proceeds as before, employing the normality principle; they are required, for instance, in the determination of the liquid thrust on any portion of the bottom of a ship.
In casting a thin hollow object like a bell, it will be seen that the resultant upward thrust on the mould may be many times greater than the weight of metal; many a curious experiment has been devised to illustrate this property and classed as a hydrostatic paradox (Boyle,Hydrostatical Paradoxes, 1666).
Consider, for instance, the operation of casting a hemispherical bell, in fig. 2. As the molten metal is run in, the upward thrust on the outside mould, when the level has reached PP′, is the weight of metal in the volume generated by the revolution of APQ; and this, by a theorem of Archimedes, has the same volume as the cone ORR′, or1⁄3πy3, where y is the depth of metal, the horizontal sections being equal so long as y is less than the radius of the outside hemisphere. Afterwards, when the metal has risen above B, to the level KK′, the additional thrust is the weight of the cylinder of diameter KK′ and height BH. The upward thrust is the same, however thin the metal may be in the interspace between the outer mould and the core inside; and this was formerly considered paradoxical.
Analytical Equations of Equilibrium of a Fluid at rest under any System of Force.
14. Referred to three fixed coordinate axes, a fluid, in which the pressure is p, the density ρ, and X, Y, Z the components of impressed force per unit mass, requires for the equilibrium of the part filling a fixed surface S, on resolving parallel to Ox,
∫ ∫lpdS =∫ ∫ ∫ρX dx dy dz,
(1)
where l, m, n denote the direction cosines of the normal drawn outward of the surface S.
But by Green’s transformation
(2)
thus leading to the differential relation at every point
(3)
The three equations of equilibrium obtained by taking moments round the axes are then found to be satisfied identically.
Hence the space variation of the pressure in any direction, or thepressure-gradient, is the resolved force per unit volume in that direction. The resultant force is therefore in the direction of the steepest pressure-gradient, and this is normal to the surface of equal pressure; for equilibrium to exist in a fluid the lines of force must therefore be capable of being cut orthogonally by a system of surfaces, which will be surfaces of equal pressure.
Ignoring temperature effect, and taking the density as a function of the pressure, surfaces of equal pressure are also of equal density, and the fluid is stratified by surfaces orthogonal to the lines of force;
(4)
are the partial differential coefficients of some function P, = ∫ dp/ρ, of x, y, z; so that X, Y, Z must be the partial differential coefficients of a potential −V, such that the force in any direction is the downward gradient of V; and then
(5)
in which P may be called the hydrostatic head and V the head of potential.
With variation of temperature, the surfaces of equal pressure and density need not coincide; but, taking the pressure, density and temperature as connected by some relation, such as the gas-equation, the surfaces of equal density and temperature must intersect in lines lying on a surface of equal pressure.
15. As an example of the general equations, take the simplest case of a uniform field of gravity, with Oz directed vertically downward; employing the gravitation unit of force,
(1)
P =∫dp/ρ = z + a constant.
(2)
When the density ρ is uniform, this becomes, as before in (2) § 9
p = ρz + p0.
(3)
Suppose the density ρ varies as some nth power of the depth below O, then
dp/dz = ρ = μzn
(4)
(5)
supposing p and ρ to vanish together.
These equations can be made to represent the state of convective equilibrium of the atmosphere, depending on the gas-equation
p = ρk = R ρθ,
(6)
where θ denotes the absolute temperature; and then
(7)
so that the temperature-gradient dθ/dz is constant, as in convective equilibrium in (11).
From the gas-equation in general, in the atmosphere
(8)
which is positive, and the density ρ diminishes with the ascent, provided the temperature-gradient dθ/dz does not exceed θ/k.
With uniform temperature, taking k constant in the gas-equation,
dp/dz = ρ = p/k, p = p0ez/k,
(9)
so that in ascending in the atmosphere of thermal equilibrium the pressure and density diminish at compound discount, and for pressures p1and p2at heights z1and z2
(z1− z2)/k = loge(p2/p1) = 2.3 log10(p2/p1).
(10)
In the convective equilibrium of the atmosphere, the air is supposed to change in density and pressure without exchange of heat by conduction; and then
ρ/ρ0= (θ/θ0)n, p/p0= (θ/θ0)n + 1,
(11)
where γ is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure and constant volume.
In the more general case of the convective equilibrium of a spherical atmosphere surrounding the earth, of radius a,
(12)
gravity varying inversely as the square of the distance r from the centre; so that, k = p0/ρ0, denoting the height of the homogeneous atmosphere at the surface, θ is given by
(n + 1) k (1 − θ/θ0) = a(1 − a/r),
(13)
or if c denotes the distance where θ = 0,
(14)
When the compressibility of water is taken into account in a deep ocean, an experimental law must be employed, such as
p − p0= k (ρ − ρ0), or ρ/ρ0= 1 + (p − p0)/λ, λ = kρ0,
(15)
so that λ is the pressure due to a head k of the liquid at density ρ0under atmospheric pressure p0; and it is the gauge pressure required on this law to double the density. Then
dp/dz = kdρ/dz = ρ, ρ = ρ0ez/k, p − p0= kρ0(ez/k− 1);
(16)
and if the liquid was incompressible, the depth at pressure p would be (p − p0)/p0, so that the lowering of the surface due to compression is
kez/k− k − z = ½z2/k, when k is large.
(17)
For sea water, λ is about 25,000 atmospheres, and k is then 25,000 times the height of the water barometer, about 250,000 metres, so that in an ocean 10 kilometres deep the level is lowered about 200 metres by the compressibility of the water; and the density at the bottom is increased 4%.
On another physical assumption of constant cubical elasticity λ,
dp = λdρ/ρ, (p − p0)/λ = log (ρ/ρ0),
(18)
(19)
and the lowering of the surface is
(20)
as before in (17).
16.Centre of Pressure.—A plane area exposed to fluid pressure on one side experiences a single resultant thrust, the integrated pressure over the area, acting through a definite point called the centre of pressure (C.P.) of the area.