The test of vocabulary is not the only means by which the languages of the North American aborigines might be classified. There are peculiarities of phonetics, morphology, grammar, sentence-structure, &c., which suggest groupings of the linguistic stocks independent of their lexical content. Some languages are harsh and consonantal (e.g.the Kootenay and others of the North Pacific region), some melodious and vocalic, as are certain of the tongues of California and the south-eastern United States. Some employ reduplication with great frequency, like certain Shoshonian dialects; others, like Kootenay, but rarely. A few, like the Chinook, are exceedingly onomatopoeic. Some, like the northern languages of California, have no proper plural forms. Of the Californian languages the Pomo alone distinguishes gender in the pronoun, a feature common to other languages no farther off than Oregon. The high development and syntactical use of demonstratives which characterize the Kwakiutl are not found among the Californian tongues. A few languages, like the Chinook and the Tonika, possess real grammatical gender. Some languages are essentially prefix, others essentially suffix tongues; while yet others possess both prefixes and suffixes, or even infixes as well. In some languages vocalic changes, in others consonantal, have grammatical or semantic meaning. In certain languages tense, mood and voice are ratherweakly developed. In some languages syntactical cases occur (e.g.in certain Californian tongues), while in many others they are quite unknown. Altogether the most recent investigations have revealed a much greater variety in morphological and in grammatical processes than was commonly believed to exist, so that the general statement that the American Indian tongues are all clearly and distinctly of the “incorporating” and “polysynthetic” types needs considerable modification. Using criteria of phonetics, morphology, grammar, &c., some of the best authorities have been able to suggest certain groups of North American Indian languages exhibiting peculiarities justifying the assumption of relationship together. Thus Dr Franz Boas (Mem. Intern. Congr. Anthrop., 1893, pp. 339-346, andAnn. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, pp. 88-106) has grouped the linguistic stocks of the North Pacific coast region as follows: (1) Tlingit (Koluschan) and Haida; (2) Tsimshian; (3) Wakashan (Kwakiutl-Nootka), Salish, Chemakum; (4) Chinook. In the same region the present writer has suggested a possible relationship of the Kootenay with Shoshonian. In the Californian area Dr R. B. Dixon and Dr A. L. Kroeber have made out these probable groups among the numerous language stocks of that part of the United States: (1) Chumashan and Salinan; (2) Yurok (Weitspekan), Wishoskan, Athabaskan, Karok (Quoratean), Chimarikan; (3) Maidu (Pujunan), Lutuamian, Wintun (Copehan), Yukian, Pomo (Kulanapan), Costanoan, Esselenian, Yokuts (Mariposan), Shoshonian, Shastan, Moquelumnan and possibly Washoan; (4) Yanan; (5) Yuman. Suggestions of even larger groups than any of these have also been made. It may be that, judged by certain criteria, the Kootenay, Shoshonian, Iroquoian and Siouan may belong together, but this is merely tentative. It is also possible, from the consideration of morphological peculiarities, that some if not all of the languages of the so-called “Palaeo-Asiatic” peoples of Siberia, as Boas has suggested (Science, vol. xxiii., n.s., 1906, p. 644), may be included within the American group of linguistic stocks. Indeed Sternberg (Intern. Amer.-Kongr.xiv., Stuttgart, 1904, pp. 137-140) has undertaken to show the relationship morphologically of one of these languages, the Giliak (of the island of Saghalin and the region about the mouth of the Amur), to the American tongues, and its divergence from the “Ural-Altaic” family of speech. Here, however, more detailed investigations are needed to settle the question.
The test of vocabulary is not the only means by which the languages of the North American aborigines might be classified. There are peculiarities of phonetics, morphology, grammar, sentence-structure, &c., which suggest groupings of the linguistic stocks independent of their lexical content. Some languages are harsh and consonantal (e.g.the Kootenay and others of the North Pacific region), some melodious and vocalic, as are certain of the tongues of California and the south-eastern United States. Some employ reduplication with great frequency, like certain Shoshonian dialects; others, like Kootenay, but rarely. A few, like the Chinook, are exceedingly onomatopoeic. Some, like the northern languages of California, have no proper plural forms. Of the Californian languages the Pomo alone distinguishes gender in the pronoun, a feature common to other languages no farther off than Oregon. The high development and syntactical use of demonstratives which characterize the Kwakiutl are not found among the Californian tongues. A few languages, like the Chinook and the Tonika, possess real grammatical gender. Some languages are essentially prefix, others essentially suffix tongues; while yet others possess both prefixes and suffixes, or even infixes as well. In some languages vocalic changes, in others consonantal, have grammatical or semantic meaning. In certain languages tense, mood and voice are ratherweakly developed. In some languages syntactical cases occur (e.g.in certain Californian tongues), while in many others they are quite unknown. Altogether the most recent investigations have revealed a much greater variety in morphological and in grammatical processes than was commonly believed to exist, so that the general statement that the American Indian tongues are all clearly and distinctly of the “incorporating” and “polysynthetic” types needs considerable modification. Using criteria of phonetics, morphology, grammar, &c., some of the best authorities have been able to suggest certain groups of North American Indian languages exhibiting peculiarities justifying the assumption of relationship together. Thus Dr Franz Boas (Mem. Intern. Congr. Anthrop., 1893, pp. 339-346, andAnn. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, pp. 88-106) has grouped the linguistic stocks of the North Pacific coast region as follows: (1) Tlingit (Koluschan) and Haida; (2) Tsimshian; (3) Wakashan (Kwakiutl-Nootka), Salish, Chemakum; (4) Chinook. In the same region the present writer has suggested a possible relationship of the Kootenay with Shoshonian. In the Californian area Dr R. B. Dixon and Dr A. L. Kroeber have made out these probable groups among the numerous language stocks of that part of the United States: (1) Chumashan and Salinan; (2) Yurok (Weitspekan), Wishoskan, Athabaskan, Karok (Quoratean), Chimarikan; (3) Maidu (Pujunan), Lutuamian, Wintun (Copehan), Yukian, Pomo (Kulanapan), Costanoan, Esselenian, Yokuts (Mariposan), Shoshonian, Shastan, Moquelumnan and possibly Washoan; (4) Yanan; (5) Yuman. Suggestions of even larger groups than any of these have also been made. It may be that, judged by certain criteria, the Kootenay, Shoshonian, Iroquoian and Siouan may belong together, but this is merely tentative. It is also possible, from the consideration of morphological peculiarities, that some if not all of the languages of the so-called “Palaeo-Asiatic” peoples of Siberia, as Boas has suggested (Science, vol. xxiii., n.s., 1906, p. 644), may be included within the American group of linguistic stocks. Indeed Sternberg (Intern. Amer.-Kongr.xiv., Stuttgart, 1904, pp. 137-140) has undertaken to show the relationship morphologically of one of these languages, the Giliak (of the island of Saghalin and the region about the mouth of the Amur), to the American tongues, and its divergence from the “Ural-Altaic” family of speech. Here, however, more detailed investigations are needed to settle the question.
At one time the opinion was widely prevalent that primitive languages changed very rapidly, sometimes even within a generation, and the American Indian tongues were rather freely used as typical examples of such extremeGeneral character of Indian languages.variation. The error of this view is now admitted everywhere, and for the speech of the New World aborigines Dr Franz Boas states (Hndb. Amer. Ind.pt. i., 1907, p. 759): “There is, however, no historical proof of the change of any Indian language since the time of the discovery comparable with that of the language of England between the 10th and 13th centuries.” Another statement that has obtained currency, appearing even in otherwise reputable quarters sometimes, is to the effect that some of the vocabularies of American Indian languages consist of but a few hundred words, one being indeed so scanty that its speakers could not converse by night, since darkness prevented resort to the use of gesture. This is absolutely contrary to fact, for the vocabularies of the languages of the American Indians are rich, and, according to the best authority on the subject, “it is certain that in every one there are a couple of thousand of stem words and many thousand words, as that term is defined in English dictionaries” (Boas). The number of words in the vocabulary of the individual Indian is also much greater than is generally thought to be the case. It was long customary, even in “scientific” circles, to deny to American Indian tongues the possession of abstract terms, but here again the authority of the best recent investigators is conclusive, for “the power to form abstract ideas is, nevertheless, not lacking, and the development of abstract thought would find in every one of the languages a ready means of expression” (Boas). In this connexion, however, it should be remembered that, in general, the languages of the American aborigines “are not so well adapted to generalized statements as to lively descriptions.” The holophrastic terms characteristic of so many American Indian languages “are not due to a lack of power to classify, but are rather expressions of form of culture, single terms being intended for those ideas of prime importance to the people” (Boas). This consideration of American primitive tongues in their relation to culture-types opens up a comparatively new field of research, and one of much evolutional significance.
As a result of the most recent and authoritative philological investigations, the following may be cited as some of the chief characteristics of many, and in some cases, of most of the languages of the aborigines north of Mexico.1. Tendency to express ideas with great graphic detail as to place, form, &c.2. “Polysynthesis,” a device making possible, by the use of modifications of stems and radicals and the employment of prefixes, suffixes, and sometimes infixes, &c., the expression of a large number of special ideas. By such methods of composition (to cite two examples from Boas) the Eskimo can say at one breath, so to speak, “He only orders him to go and see,” and the Tsimshian, “He went with him upward in the dark and came against an obstacle.” The EskimoTakusariartorumagaluarnerpâ?(“Do you think he really intends to go to look after it?”) is made up from the following elements:Takusar(pâ), “he looks after it”;iartor(poq), “he goes to”;uma(voq), “he intends to”; (g)aluar(poq), “he does so, but”;nerpoq, “do you think he.” The Cree “word” “kekawewechetushekamikowanowow” (“may it,”i.e.the grace of Jesus Christ, “remain with you”) is resolvable into:Kelawow(here split intokeat the beginning and-owowas terminal), “you” (pl.);ka= sign of futurity (first and second persons);we= an optative particle;weche= “with”;tusheka= verbal radical, “remain”;mik= pronominal particle showing that the subject of the verb is in the third person and the object in the second, “it-you”;owan= verbal possessive particle, indicating that the subject of the verb is something inanimate belonging to the animate third person, “his-it.” The Carrier (Athabaskan)lekœnahweshœndœthœnœzkrok, “I usually recommence to walk to and fro on all fours while singing,” which Morice calls “a simple word,” is built up from the following elements:le= “prefix expressing reciprocity, which, when in connexion with a verb of locomotion, indicates that the movement is executed between two certain points without giving prominence to either”;kœ= particle denoting direction toward these points;na= “iterative particle, suggesting that the action is repeated”;hwe= particle referring to the action as being in its incipient stage;shœn= “song” (when incorporated in a verb it “indicates that singing accompanies the action expressed by the verbal root”);dœ= “a particle called for byshœn, said particle always entering into the composition of verbs denoting reference to vocal sounds”;thœ= the secondary radical of the uncomposite verbthîzkretinflected fromthifor the sake of euphony withnœz;nœz= “the pronominal element of the whole compound” (thenis demanded by the previoushwe,œmarks the present tense, andzmarks the first person singular of the third conjugation);krok= “the main radical, altered here by the usitative from the normal formkret, and is expressive of locomotion habitually executed on four feet or on all fours.”3. Incorporation of noun and adjectives in verb, or of pronouns in verb. From the Kootenay language of south-eastern British Columbia the following examples may be given: Natltlamkine = “He carries (the)headin (his) hand”; Howankotlamkine = “I shake (the) head in (my) hand”; Witlwumine = “(His)bellyis large”; Tlitkatine = “He has no tail”; Matlnaktletline = “He opens his eyes.” In these expressions are incorporated, with certain abbreviations of form, the wordsaqktlam, “head”;aqkowum, “belly”;aqkat, “tail”;aqkaktletl, “eyes.” In some languages the form for the noun incorporated in the verb is entirely different from that in independent use. Of pronominal incorporation these examples are from the Kootenay: Nupqanapine = “Heseesme”;Honupqanisine = “Iseeyou”; Tshatlipitlisine = “Hewill killyou”; Tshatlitqanawasine = “Hewill biteus”; Tshatltsukwatisine = “Heis going to seizeyou”;Hintshatltlpatlnapine = “Youwill honourme.” For incorporation of adjectives these examples will serve: Honitenustik = “I paint (my face),” literally, “1 make itred” (kanohos, “red”; the radical isnōsornūsfornōhōs); Howitlkeine = “I shout,” literally, “I talkbig”; Howitlkaine = “I amtall(big).” In some languages the pronouns denoting subject, direct object and indirect object are all incorporated in the verb.4. The formation of nouns of very composite character by the use of stems or radicals and prefixes, suffixes, &c., of various sorts, the intricacy of such formations exceeding often anything known in the Indo-European and Semitic languages. Often the component parts are “clipped,” or changed by decapitation, decaudation, syncopation, &c., before being used in the compound. The following examples from various Indian languages will illustrate the process:—Kootenay:Aqkinkanuktlamnam= “crown of head,” fromaq(prefix of uncertain meaning),kinkan= “top,”tlam= “head,”-nam(suffix = “somebody’s”). Tlingit:Kanyiqkuwate= “aurora,” literally, “fire (kan)-like (yiq)-out-of-doors (ku)-colour (wate).”5. The development of a great variety of forms for personal and demonstrative pronouns. In the latter, sometimes, the language distinguishes “visibility and invisibility, present and past, location to the right, left, front and back of, and above and below the speaker” (Boas). According to Morice (Trans. Canad. Inst., 1889-1890, p. 187), the Carrier language of the Athabaskan stock has no fewer than seventeen possessive pronouns of the third person.6. Indistinctness of demarcation between noun and verb; in some languages the transitive and in others the intransitive only is really verbal in form.7. The use of the intransitive verb as a means of expressing ideas which in European tongues,e.g., would be carried by adjectives. In the Carrier language almost all adjectives are “genuine verbs” (Morice).8. The expression of abstract nouns in a verbalized form. Thus Cree (Algonkian) generally says, in preference to using the abstract nounpimatisewin, “life,” the periphrastic verbāpimatisenanewuk, literally “that they (indefinite as to person) live.” So far is this carried sometimes that Horden (Cree Grammar, London, 1881, p. 5) says: “I have known an Indian speak a long sentence, on the duties of married persons to each other, without using a single noun.”As an interesting example of a long word in American-Indian languages may be mentioned the Iroquoistaontasakonatiatawitserakninonseronniontonhatieseke. This “word,” which, as Forbes (Congr. intern. d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, p. 103) suggests, would serve well on the signboard of a dealer in novelties, is translated by him, “Que plusieurs personnes viennent acheter des habits pour d’autres personnes avec de quoi payer.” Not so formidable isdeyeknonhsedehrihadasterasterahetakwa, a term for “stove polish,” in use on the Mohawk Reservation near Brantford, Ontario.
As a result of the most recent and authoritative philological investigations, the following may be cited as some of the chief characteristics of many, and in some cases, of most of the languages of the aborigines north of Mexico.
1. Tendency to express ideas with great graphic detail as to place, form, &c.
2. “Polysynthesis,” a device making possible, by the use of modifications of stems and radicals and the employment of prefixes, suffixes, and sometimes infixes, &c., the expression of a large number of special ideas. By such methods of composition (to cite two examples from Boas) the Eskimo can say at one breath, so to speak, “He only orders him to go and see,” and the Tsimshian, “He went with him upward in the dark and came against an obstacle.” The EskimoTakusariartorumagaluarnerpâ?(“Do you think he really intends to go to look after it?”) is made up from the following elements:Takusar(pâ), “he looks after it”;iartor(poq), “he goes to”;uma(voq), “he intends to”; (g)aluar(poq), “he does so, but”;nerpoq, “do you think he.” The Cree “word” “kekawewechetushekamikowanowow” (“may it,”i.e.the grace of Jesus Christ, “remain with you”) is resolvable into:Kelawow(here split intokeat the beginning and-owowas terminal), “you” (pl.);ka= sign of futurity (first and second persons);we= an optative particle;weche= “with”;tusheka= verbal radical, “remain”;mik= pronominal particle showing that the subject of the verb is in the third person and the object in the second, “it-you”;owan= verbal possessive particle, indicating that the subject of the verb is something inanimate belonging to the animate third person, “his-it.” The Carrier (Athabaskan)lekœnahweshœndœthœnœzkrok, “I usually recommence to walk to and fro on all fours while singing,” which Morice calls “a simple word,” is built up from the following elements:le= “prefix expressing reciprocity, which, when in connexion with a verb of locomotion, indicates that the movement is executed between two certain points without giving prominence to either”;kœ= particle denoting direction toward these points;na= “iterative particle, suggesting that the action is repeated”;hwe= particle referring to the action as being in its incipient stage;shœn= “song” (when incorporated in a verb it “indicates that singing accompanies the action expressed by the verbal root”);dœ= “a particle called for byshœn, said particle always entering into the composition of verbs denoting reference to vocal sounds”;thœ= the secondary radical of the uncomposite verbthîzkretinflected fromthifor the sake of euphony withnœz;nœz= “the pronominal element of the whole compound” (thenis demanded by the previoushwe,œmarks the present tense, andzmarks the first person singular of the third conjugation);krok= “the main radical, altered here by the usitative from the normal formkret, and is expressive of locomotion habitually executed on four feet or on all fours.”
3. Incorporation of noun and adjectives in verb, or of pronouns in verb. From the Kootenay language of south-eastern British Columbia the following examples may be given: Natltlamkine = “He carries (the)headin (his) hand”; Howankotlamkine = “I shake (the) head in (my) hand”; Witlwumine = “(His)bellyis large”; Tlitkatine = “He has no tail”; Matlnaktletline = “He opens his eyes.” In these expressions are incorporated, with certain abbreviations of form, the wordsaqktlam, “head”;aqkowum, “belly”;aqkat, “tail”;aqkaktletl, “eyes.” In some languages the form for the noun incorporated in the verb is entirely different from that in independent use. Of pronominal incorporation these examples are from the Kootenay: Nupqanapine = “Heseesme”;Honupqanisine = “Iseeyou”; Tshatlipitlisine = “Hewill killyou”; Tshatlitqanawasine = “Hewill biteus”; Tshatltsukwatisine = “Heis going to seizeyou”;Hintshatltlpatlnapine = “Youwill honourme.” For incorporation of adjectives these examples will serve: Honitenustik = “I paint (my face),” literally, “1 make itred” (kanohos, “red”; the radical isnōsornūsfornōhōs); Howitlkeine = “I shout,” literally, “I talkbig”; Howitlkaine = “I amtall(big).” In some languages the pronouns denoting subject, direct object and indirect object are all incorporated in the verb.
4. The formation of nouns of very composite character by the use of stems or radicals and prefixes, suffixes, &c., of various sorts, the intricacy of such formations exceeding often anything known in the Indo-European and Semitic languages. Often the component parts are “clipped,” or changed by decapitation, decaudation, syncopation, &c., before being used in the compound. The following examples from various Indian languages will illustrate the process:—Kootenay:Aqkinkanuktlamnam= “crown of head,” fromaq(prefix of uncertain meaning),kinkan= “top,”tlam= “head,”-nam(suffix = “somebody’s”). Tlingit:Kanyiqkuwate= “aurora,” literally, “fire (kan)-like (yiq)-out-of-doors (ku)-colour (wate).”
5. The development of a great variety of forms for personal and demonstrative pronouns. In the latter, sometimes, the language distinguishes “visibility and invisibility, present and past, location to the right, left, front and back of, and above and below the speaker” (Boas). According to Morice (Trans. Canad. Inst., 1889-1890, p. 187), the Carrier language of the Athabaskan stock has no fewer than seventeen possessive pronouns of the third person.
6. Indistinctness of demarcation between noun and verb; in some languages the transitive and in others the intransitive only is really verbal in form.
7. The use of the intransitive verb as a means of expressing ideas which in European tongues,e.g., would be carried by adjectives. In the Carrier language almost all adjectives are “genuine verbs” (Morice).
8. The expression of abstract nouns in a verbalized form. Thus Cree (Algonkian) generally says, in preference to using the abstract nounpimatisewin, “life,” the periphrastic verbāpimatisenanewuk, literally “that they (indefinite as to person) live.” So far is this carried sometimes that Horden (Cree Grammar, London, 1881, p. 5) says: “I have known an Indian speak a long sentence, on the duties of married persons to each other, without using a single noun.”
As an interesting example of a long word in American-Indian languages may be mentioned the Iroquoistaontasakonatiatawitserakninonseronniontonhatieseke. This “word,” which, as Forbes (Congr. intern. d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, p. 103) suggests, would serve well on the signboard of a dealer in novelties, is translated by him, “Que plusieurs personnes viennent acheter des habits pour d’autres personnes avec de quoi payer.” Not so formidable isdeyeknonhsedehrihadasterasterahetakwa, a term for “stove polish,” in use on the Mohawk Reservation near Brantford, Ontario.
The literature in the native languages of North America due to missionary efforts has now reached large proportions. Naturally Bible translations have been most important. According to Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. pp. 143-145), “the Bible has been printed in part or in whole in 32 Indian languages north of Mexico. In 18 one or more portions have been printed; in 9 others the New Testament or more has appeared; and in 5 languages, namely, the Massachuset, Cree, Labrador Eskimo, Santee Dakota and Tukkuthkutchin, the whole Bible is in print.” Of the 32 languages possessing Bible translations of some sort 3 are Eskimoan dialects, 4 Athabaskan, 13 Algonkian, 3 Iroquoian, 2 Muskogian, 2 Siouan, 1 Caddoan, 1 Sahaptian, 1 Wakashan, 1 Tsimshian, 1 Haidan. Translations of the Lord’s Prayer, hymns, articles of faith and brief devotional compositions exist now in many more languages and dialects. A goodly number of other books have also been made accessible in Indian versions,e.g.Bunyan’sPilgrim’s Progress(Dakota, 1857), Baxter’sCall to the Unconverted(Massachuset, 1655), Goodrich’sChild’s Book of the Creation(Choctaw, 1839), Thomas à Kempis’sImitation of Christ(Greenland Eskimo, 1787), Newton’sThe King’s Highway(Dakota, 1879), &c. The “Five Civilized Tribes,” who are now full-fledged citizens of the state of Oklahoma, possess a mass of literature (legal, religious, political, educational, &c.) published in the alphabet adapted from the “Cherokee Alphabet” invented by Sequoyah about 1821, “which at once raised them to the rank of a literary people.”
Of periodicals in Indian languages there have been many published from time to time among the “Five Civilized Tribes.” Of theCherokee Advocate, Mooney said in 1897-1898, “It is still continued under the auspices of the Nation, printed in both languages (i.e.Cherokee and English), and distributed free at the expense of the Nation to those unable to read English—an example without parallel in any other government.” More or less ephemeral periodicals (weekly, monthly, &c.) are on record in various Algonkian, Iroquoian, Siouan and other languages, and the Greenland Eskimo have one, published irregularly since 1861. Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 389) chronicles 122 dictionaries (of which more than half are still in MSS.) of 63 North American-Indian languages, belonging to 19 different stocks.
The following linguistic stocks are represented by printed dictionaries (in one or more dialects): Algonkian, Athabaskan, Chinookan, Eskimoan, Iroquoian, Lutuamian, Muskogian, Salishan, Shoshonian, Siouan. There exists a considerable number of texts (myths, legends, historical data, songs, grammatical material, &c.) in quite a number of Indian languages that have been published by scientific investigators. The Algonkian (e.g.Jones’sFox Texts, 1908), Athabaskan (e.g.Goddard’sHupa Texts, 1904, Matthews’sNavaho Legends, 1897, &c.), Caddoan (e.g.Miss A. C. Fletcher’sHako Ceremony, 1900), Chinookan (Boas’sChinook Texts, 1904, andKathlamet Texts, 1901), Eskimoan (texts in Boas’sEskimo of Baffin Land, &c., 1901, 1908: and Thalbitzer’sEskimo Language, 1904, Barnum’sInnuit Grammar, 1901), Haidan (Swanton’sHaida Texts, 1905, &c.), Iroquoian (texts in Hale’sIroquois Book of Rites, 1883, and Hewitt’sIroquoian Cosmology, 1899), Lutuamian (texts in Gatschet’sKlamath Indians, 1890), Muskogian (texts in Gatschet’sMigration Legend of the Creeks, 1884-1888), Salishan (texts in various publications of Boas and Hill-Tout), Siouan (Riggs and Dorsey in various publications), Tsimshian (Boas’sTsimshian Texts, 1902), Wakashan (Boas’sKwakiutl Texts, 1902-1905), &c.
The following linguistic stocks are represented by printed dictionaries (in one or more dialects): Algonkian, Athabaskan, Chinookan, Eskimoan, Iroquoian, Lutuamian, Muskogian, Salishan, Shoshonian, Siouan. There exists a considerable number of texts (myths, legends, historical data, songs, grammatical material, &c.) in quite a number of Indian languages that have been published by scientific investigators. The Algonkian (e.g.Jones’sFox Texts, 1908), Athabaskan (e.g.Goddard’sHupa Texts, 1904, Matthews’sNavaho Legends, 1897, &c.), Caddoan (e.g.Miss A. C. Fletcher’sHako Ceremony, 1900), Chinookan (Boas’sChinook Texts, 1904, andKathlamet Texts, 1901), Eskimoan (texts in Boas’sEskimo of Baffin Land, &c., 1901, 1908: and Thalbitzer’sEskimo Language, 1904, Barnum’sInnuit Grammar, 1901), Haidan (Swanton’sHaida Texts, 1905, &c.), Iroquoian (texts in Hale’sIroquois Book of Rites, 1883, and Hewitt’sIroquoian Cosmology, 1899), Lutuamian (texts in Gatschet’sKlamath Indians, 1890), Muskogian (texts in Gatschet’sMigration Legend of the Creeks, 1884-1888), Salishan (texts in various publications of Boas and Hill-Tout), Siouan (Riggs and Dorsey in various publications), Tsimshian (Boas’sTsimshian Texts, 1902), Wakashan (Boas’sKwakiutl Texts, 1902-1905), &c.
The question of the direction of migration of the principal aboriginal stocks north of Mexico has been reopened of late years. Not long ago there seemed to be practical agreement as to the following views. The EskimoMigrations of Indian stocks.stock had reached its present habitats from a primitive home somewhere in the interior of north-western Canada or Alaska; the general trend of the Athabaskan migrations, and those of the Shoshonian tribes had been south and south-east, the first from somewhere in the interior of north-western Canada, the second from about the latitude of southern British Columbia; the Algonkian tribes had moved south, east and west from a point somewhere between the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay; the Iroquoian stock had passed southward and westward from some spot to the north-east of the Great Lakes; the Siouan tribes, from their primitive home in the Carolinas, had migrated westward beyond the Mississippi; some stocks, like the Kitunahan, now found west of the Rocky Mountains, had dwelt formerly in the plains region to the east. Professor Cyrus Thomas, however, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, discussing primary Indian migrations in North America (Congr. intern. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906, i. 189-204), rejects the theory that the Siouan stock originated in the Carolinas, and adopts for them an origin in the region north of Lake Superior, whence he also derives the Iroquoian stock, whose primitive home Dr David Boyle (Ann. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, p. 154), the Canadian ethnologist, would place in Kentucky and southern Ohio. Another interesting contribution to this subject is made by Mr P. E. Goddard (Congr. intern. des. Amér., Quebec, 1906, i. 337-358). Contemplating the distribution of the tribes belonging to the Athabaskan stock in three divisions, viz. a northern (continuous and very extensive), a Pacific coast division (scattered through Washington, Oregon, California), and a southern division which occupies a large area in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, Texas and Mexico, Mr Goddard suggests that the intrusion of non-Athabaskan peoples into a region once completely in the possession of the Athabaskan stock is the best explanation for the facts as now existing not explicable from assimilation to environment, which has here played a great rôle. It is possible also that a like explanation may hold for the conditions apparent in some other linguistic stocks. Many Indian tribes have been forcibly removed from their own habitats to reservations, or induced to move by missionary efforts, &c. Thus, in the state of Oklahoma are to be found representatives of the following tribes: Apache, Arapaho, Caddo, Cherokee, Cheyenne, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Comanche, Creek, Iowa, Kansa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, Miami, Missouri, Modoc, Osage, Oto, Ottawa, Pawnee, Peoria, Ponca, Potawatomi, Quapaw, Sac and Fox, Seminole, Seneca, Shawnee, Tonkawa, Wichita, Wyandot, &c.; these belong to 10 different linguistic stocks, whose original habitats were widely distant from one another in many cases.
Some of the American-Indian linguistic stocks (those of California especially) hardly know real tribal divisions, but local groups or settlements only; others have many large and important tribes.
The tabular alphabetical list given in the following pages contains the names of the more important and more interesting tribes of American aborigines north of Mexico, and of the stocks to which they belong, their situation and population in 1909, the degree of intermixture with whites or negroes, their social, moral and religious condition, state of progress, &c., and also references to the best or the most recent literature concerning them.
Up to the date of their publication references to the literature concerning the tribes of the stocks treated will be found in Pilling’s bibliographies: Algonquian (1891), Athabascan (1892), Chinookan (1893), Eskimoan (1887), Iroquoian (1888), Muskhogean (1889), Salishan (1893), Siouan (1887) and Wakashan (1894). See also theHandbook of American Indians North of Mexico(Washington, 1907-1910); and the sumptuous monograph of E. S. Curtis,The North American Indian(N.Y., vols. i.-xx., 1908), with its remarkable reproduction of Indian types.
Up to the date of their publication references to the literature concerning the tribes of the stocks treated will be found in Pilling’s bibliographies: Algonquian (1891), Athabascan (1892), Chinookan (1893), Eskimoan (1887), Iroquoian (1888), Muskhogean (1889), Salishan (1893), Siouan (1887) and Wakashan (1894). See also theHandbook of American Indians North of Mexico(Washington, 1907-1910); and the sumptuous monograph of E. S. Curtis,The North American Indian(N.Y., vols. i.-xx., 1908), with its remarkable reproduction of Indian types.
Abnaki.
Algonkian.
At Becancour, Quebec, 27; at St François du Lac and Pierreville, 330. Decreasing.
Probably no pure blood left.
As civilized as the neighbouring whites. All Catholics.
Maurault,Hist. des Abénaquis(Quebec, 1866); Jack,Trans. Canad. Inst., 1892-1893.
Acnomawi(Pit river Indians).
Shastan.
N.E. California. About 1100 in the Pit river region; also 50 or 60 on the Klamath Reservation, Oregon.
Little.
Progress very slow; influence of schools felt. Klamath Achomawi under Methodist influence.
Powers,Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. iii., 1877; various writings of Dr R. B. Dixon,American Anthropologist, 1905-1908, &c.
Aleuts.
Eskimoan.
Aleutian Islands and part of Alaska. About 1600. Decreasing.
About 50% are mixed bloods.
“Decaying.” Once converted to Greek Orthodox church. Methodist mission at Unalaska.
Works (in Russian) of Veniaminov, 1840-1848; Golder,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1905-1907; Chamberlain,Dict. Relig. and Ethics(Hastings, vol. i., 1908).
Amalecites(Maliseets).
Algonkian.
106 at Viger (Cacouna, Quebec); 702 in various parts of W. New Brunswick. Apparently increasing.
Probably few pure bloods.
Fairly good. At Viger industrially unsettled. Catholics.
Writings of S. T. Rand; Chamberlain (M.),Maliseet Vocabulary(Cambridge, 1899).
Apache.
Athabaskan.
In Arizona, 4879; New Mexico, 1244; Oklahoma, 453. Not rapidly decreasing as formerly thought.
Considerable Spanish blood due to captives, &c.
Marked improvement here and there. Catholic and Lutheran missions.
Cremony,Life among the Apaches(1868); Bourke,9th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1887-1888, andJourn. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890; Hrdlička,American Anthropologist, 1905.
Arapaho.
Algonkian.
358 at Ft. Belknap Reservation, Montana; 873 at Wind river Reservation, Wyoming; 885 in Oklahoma. Holding their own.
Some Spanish (Mexican) blood in places.
Oklahoma Arapaho American citizens; progress elsewhere. Mennonite missions chiefly; also Dutch Reformed.
Writings of Kroeber and Dorsey,Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900-1907, andPubl. Field Columb. Mus., 1903; Scott,Amer. Anthrop., 1907.
Assiniboin.
Siouan.
In Montana, 1248; Alberta, 971; Saskatchewan, 420.
Some little.
In Canada “steady advance,” elsewhere good. Alberta Assiniboins are Methodists; in Montana Catholic and Presbyterian missions on reservations.
Maclean, CanadianSavage Folk(Toronto, 1890); McGee,15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894.
Babines.
Athabaskan.
530 on Babine Lake, Bulkley river, &c., in central British Columbia.
Little, if any.
Conservative. Little progress. Reached by Catholic mission of Stuart Lake, B.C.
Morice,Anthropos, 1906-1907, andAnn. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905, and other writings.
Bannock.
Shoshonian.
About 500 at Ft. Hall, and 78 at Lemhi Agency, Idaho.
Little.
Considerable improvement morally and industrially.
Hoffman,Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886; Mooney,14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; Lowie,Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1909.
Beaver.
Athabaskan.
About 700 on Peace river, a western affluent of Lake Athabaska.
Very little.
Rather stationary.
See Babines.
Bilqula(Bellacoola).
Salishan.
287 on Dean Inlet, Bentinck Arm, Bellacoola river, &c., coast of central British Columbia. Decreasing.
Little.
Not very encouraging. Mission influence not yet strongly felt.
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.1891, andMem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1898.
Blackfeet(Siksika).
Algonkian.
About 824 in Alberta, Canada. Decreasing.
Little.
Steadily improving morally and financially. Anglicans, 237; Catholics, 260; pagans, 327.
Maclean,Canadian Savage Folk(Toronto, 1890), and other writings; Grinnell,Blackfoot Lodge - Tales(N.Y., 1903), and other writings; Wissler,Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Schultz,My Life as an Indian(N.Y., 1907); Wissler,Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1908.
Bloods.
Algonkian.
1168 near Ft. Macleod, Alberta. Probably decreasing somewhat.
Little.
All able-bodied Indians will soon be self-supporting. Presbyterians, 150; Catholics, 150; the rest pagan.
See Blackfeet.
Caddo.
Caddoan.
550 in Oklahoma. Increasing slightly.
Considerable French blood.
Citizens of United States. Catholic, Methodist and Presbyterian missions.
Mooney,14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; writings of Fletcher, Dorsey, &c.
Cariboo-Eaters.
Athabaskan.
1700 in the region E. of Lake Athabaska, N.W. Canada.
Little, if any.
Little progress.
See Babines.
Carriers.
Athabaskan.
970 between Tatla Lake and Ft. Alexandria, central British Columbia.
Little.
Semi-sedentary and naturally progressive as Indians; improvements beginning to be marked. Under influence of Catholic mission at Stuart Lake, B.C.
Morice,Proc. Canad. Inst., 1889,Trans. Canad. Inst., 1894,Hist. of Northern Inter. of British Columbia(Toronto, 1904), and other writings. See Babines.
Catawba.
Siouan.
About 100 on the Catawba river, York county, South Carolina. Decreasing.
Much mixed with white blood.
Slowly adopting white man’s ways. Chiefly farmers.
Mooney,Siouan Tribes of the East(Washington, 1894); Gatschet,American Anthropologist, 1900; Harrington, ibid., 1908.
Cayuga.
Iroquoian.
179 on the Iroquois Reservations in New York State; 1044 with the Six Nations in Ontario; also some with the Seneca in Oklahoma and with Oneida in Wisconsin.
Some English admixture.
Canadian Cayuga steadily improving; they are “pagan.”
See Six Nations.
Cayuse.
Wailatpuan.
405 on Umatilla Reservation, Oregon.
About ¼ are of mixed blood, chiefly French.
Conditions improving, Good work of Catholic and Presbyterian missions.
Mowry,Marcus Whitman(1991): Lewis,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc.1906.
Chehalis.
Salishan.
182 on Puyallup Reservation, Washington. Perhaps increasing slightly.
No data.
Gradually improving and generally prosperous. Congregational mission.
Gibbs,Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. iii., 1877; Eells,Hist. of Ind. Missions on the Pacific Coast(N.Y., 1882), and other writings.
Chemehuevi.
Shoshonian.
About 300 on the Colorado Reservation; a few elsewhere in Arizona and California.
No data.
Some improvement. Missions of the Presbyterians and of the Church of the Nazarene.
See Ute.
Cherokee.
Iroquoian.
About 28,000, of which 1489 are in North Carolina and the rest in Oklahoma.
Not more than ¼ are of approximately pure blood.
Oklahoma Cherokee citizens of the United States, and making excellent progress. Various religious faiths.
Royce,5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1883-1884; Mooney, 7th Rep., 1885-1886, and especially19th Rep., 1897-1898.
Cheyenne.
Algonkian.
1440 northern Cheyenne in Montana, 1894 southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Former increasing, latter decreasing.
Some white blood, from captives, &c.
Southern Cheyenne citizens of United States; Mennonite mission doing good work. Northern Cheyenne making progress as labourers, &c.; Mennonite and Catholic missions.
Mooney,14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; Dorsey,Publ. Field Columb. Mus., 1905; Grinnell,Intern. Congr. Americanists, 1902-1906;Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907-1908;Amer. Anthrop., 1902-1906; Mooney and Petter,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1907.
Chickahominy.
Algonkian.
Some 220 on Chickahominy river, Virginia.
No pure bloods left. Considerable negro admixture.
Fishers and Farmers.
Tooker,Algonquian Series(N.Y., 1900); Mooney,Amer. Anthrop., 1907.
Chickasaw.
Muskogian.
5558 in Oklahoma.
Large admixture of white blood.
American citizens and progressing well. Various religious faiths.
Speck,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907, andAmer. Anthrop., 1907.
Chilcotin.
Athabaskan.
About 450 on Chilcotin river, in S. central British Columbia.
Little.
Fairly laborious, but clinging to native customs, though making progress. Catholic mission influence.
Writings of Morice (see Carriers); Farrand,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900.
Chilkat.
Koluschan.
About 700 at head of Lynn Canal, Alaska. Decreasing.
No data.
Little progress.
Emmons and Boas,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1908.
Chinook.
Chinookan.
About 300 in Oregon. Decreasing.
Some little.
Stationary or “worse.”
Boas,Chinook Texts(Washington, 1894), and other writings; Sapir,Amer. Anthrop., 1907.
Chipewyan.
Athabaskan.
About 3000 in the region S. of Lake Athabaska, N.W. Canada.
Some Canadian-French admixture.
Coming to be more influenced by the whites. Reached by Catholic missions.
Writings of Petitot, Legoff, Morice (see Babines), &c.; Morice,Anthropos, 1900-1907, andAnn. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905.
Chippewa(Ojibwa).
Algonkian.
About 18,000 in Ontario, Manitoba, &c.; nearly the same number in the United States (Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, N. Dakota).
Much French and English admixture in various regions.
Good progress. Many Indians quite equal to average whites of neighbourhood. Among the Canadian Chippewa the Methodists, Catholics and Anglicans are well represented; among those in the United States the Catholics and Episcopalians chiefly, also Methodists, Lutherans, &c. A number of native ministers.
Warren,Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., 1885; Blackbird,Ottawa and Chippewa Indians(1887); W. Jones,Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Hugolin,Congr. int. d. Amér.(Quebec, 1906); P. Jones,Hist. Ojebway Inds.(1861).
Choctaw.
Muskogian.
17,529 in Oklahoma; 1356 in Mississippi and Louisiana.
Large element of white and some negro blood.
Citizens of United States, making good progress. Various religious faiths.
Gatschet,Migration Legend of Creeks(1884-1888); Speck,Amer. Anthrop., 1907.
Clayoquot.
Wakashan.
224 in the region of Clayoquot Sound, Vancouver Island. Decreasing.
No data.
Rather stationary, but beginning to improve. Influence of Catholic mission and industrial school.
See Nootka.
Clallam.
Salishan.
354 on Puyallup Reservation, Washington.
Little.
Improving, but suffering from white contact. Congregationalist mission.
Eells inAnn. Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1887, and other writings.
Colville.
Salishan.
316 at Colville Agency, Washington. Decreasing slightly.
Some Canadian-French, &c.
Improving.
See Chehalis.
Comanche.
Shoshonian.
1408 in Oklahoma. Now holding their own.
Some due to Spanish (Mexican) captives, &c.
Good progress, in spite of white impositions.
Mooney,14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893.
Cowichan.
Salishan.
About 1000 on E. coast of Vancouver Island, and on islands in Gulf of Georgia.
Little.
Industrious; steady progress. Catholic and Methodist missions, chiefly former.
Hill-Tout,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1902, andTrans. R, Anthrop. Inst., 1907; Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889.
Cree.
Algonkian.
About 12,000 in Manitoba, and some 5000 in Saskatchewan, Alberta, Keewatin, &c.
Large element of French, Scottish and English blood.
Slow but steady progress (except with a few bands). Catholics, Methodists and Anglicans strongly represented by missions and church members; many Presbyterians also.
Writings of Petitot, Lacombe, Horden, Bell, Watkins, Evans, Young, &c.; Lacombe.Dict. de la langue des Cris(1876); Russell.Explor. in the Far North(1898); Stewart,Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Maclean,Canad. Sav. Folk(1890).
Creek.
Muskogian.
11,000 in Oklahoma.
Large element of white blood; some negro.
American citizens, making good progress. Various religious faiths.
Gatschet,Migration Legend of the Creeks(1884-1888); Speck,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1907.
Crows(Absaroka).
Siouan.
1804 at Crow Agency, Montana.
Little.
Improving industrially and financially. Morals still bad.
Simms,Publ. Field Columb. Mus., 1903; Schultz,My Life as an Indian(N.Y., 1907).
Dakota(Santee, Yankton, Teton—Sioux).
Siouan.
About 18,000 in South and 4400 in North Dakota; 3200 in Montana; 900 in Minnesota. Seemingly decreasing.
Considerable white blood, varying with different sections.
Capable of and making good progress. Episcopal, Catholic, Congregational missions with good results.
Writings of Dorsey, Riggs, Eastman, &c. Riggs,Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. vii., 1890, and vol. ix., 1893; Wissler,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1907; Eastman,Indian Boyhood(1902).
Delaware.
Algonkian.
In Oklahoma, 800 with Cherokee and 90 with Wichita; 164 with Six Nations in Ontario.
Considerable.
Oklahoma, Delaware, U.S. citizens, and progressing; Canadians making also good progress.
Brinton,Lenápé and their Legends(Phila., 1885), andEssays of an Americanist(1890); Nelson,Indians of New Jersey(1894).
Dog-Ribs.
Athabaskan.
About 1000 in the region E. of the Hares, to Back river, N. W. Canada.
Little.
“Wild and indolent,” not yet much under white influence.
See Chipewyans, Carriers.
Eskimo(Greenland).
Eskimoan.
West coast, 10,500; East coast, 500. Slowly increasing.
Large element of white blood, estimated already in 1855 at 30%.
More or less “civilized” and “Christian” as result of Moravian missions.
Writings of Rink, Holm, Nansen, Peary. Rink,Tales and Trad. of the Eskimo(Lond., 1875) andEskimo Tribes(1887); Nansen,Eskimo Life(1893); Thalbitzer,Eskimo Language(1904).
Eskimo(Labrador).
Eskimoan.
About 1300.
Considerable on S.E. coast.
Much improvement due to Moravian and (later) other Protestant missions.
Packard,Amer. Naturalist, 1885; Turner,11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890.
Eskimo(central regions).
Eskimoan.
About 2500.
Little.
Not much improvement except here and there. Some reached by Episcopalian mission.
Boas,6th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnct., 1884-1885, andBull. Amer. Nat. Hist., 1901 and 1908.
Eskimo(Mackenzie, &c.).
Eskimoan.
About 1500.
Little.
Not much improvement. Reached by Catholic missions.
Petitot,Les Grands Esquimaux(1887),Monographie des Esquimaux Tchiglit(Paris, 1876) and other writings; Stefánsson,Harper’s Magazine, 1908-1909.
Eskimo(Alaska).
Eskimoan.
About 12,000, exclusive of Aleuts.
Considerable on certain parts of coast.
Much improvement in parts since introduction of reindeer in 1892. Presbyterian, Methodist, Catholic, Moravian, Baptist, Swedish Evangelical, Quaker, Congregational, Lutheran missions now at work.
Dall,Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. i., 1877; Murdoch,9th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1887-1888; and Nelson,18th Rep., 1896-1897; Barnum,Innuit Gramm, and Dict.(1901).
Eskimo(N.E. Asia).
Eskimoan.
About 1200.
Little.
Little improvement.
Hooper,Tents of the Tuski(1853); Dali,Amer. Naturalist(1881). See Eskimo (Alaska).
Flatheads.
Salishan.
615 at Flathead Agency, Montana.
Considerable.
Continued Improvement. Catholic missions.
McDermott,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901; Ronan,Flathead Indians(1890).
Gosiute.
Shoshonian.
About 200 in Utah.
Little.
Some improvement in last few years.
Chamberlin,Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908. See Paiute, Ute.
Grosventres (Atsina).
Algonkian.
558 at Ft. Belknap Agency, Montana.
Little.
Law-abiding, industrious and fast becoming more moral. Catholic, chief mission influence, also Presbyterian.
Kroeber,Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1907-1908.
Haida.
Haidan.
About 600 on Queen Charlotte Is., and 300 in Alaska. Decreasing.
Some little.
Now “gradually advancing along the lines of civilization.” Mission influences Methodists and Anglican, with much success, especially former.
Swanton,Contrib. to Ethnol. of the Haida(1905) and other writings; Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889; Newcombe,Congr. intern. des Amér.(Quebec, 1906).
Hankut’qin.
Athabaskan.
About 400 on the Yukon, above the Kotlo, in Alaska.
Little, if any.
Not yet much under white or missionary influence.
See Babines.
Hares.
Athabaskan.
About 600 W. of Gt. Bear Lake to Eskimo country, in N.W. Canada.
Little.
“Wild and indolent,” with little improvement. Reached by Catholic missions.
See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.
Havasupai.
Yuman.
166 N. of Prescott in N.W. Arizona. Decreasing.
Little.
“Good workers”; not yet distinctly under mission influence.
James,Indians of the Painted Desert Region(Boston, 1903); Dorsey,Indians of the South-west(1903).
Hidatsa.
Siouan.
467 near Ft. Berthold, N. Dakota.
Little.
Making good progress. Congregational and Catholic missions.
Matthews,Ethnogr. and Philol. of the Hidatsa(1877); McGee,15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894; Pepper and Wilson,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1908.
Hupa.
Athabaskan.
420 in Hoopa Valley, N.E. California.
Little.
Self-supporting by agriculture and stock-raising, Presbyterian and Episcopal missions with good results.
Goddard,Life and Culture of the Hupa(1903),Hupa Texts(1904), and other writings.
Hurons of Lorette.
Iroquoian.
466 at Lorette, near the city of Quebec. Increasing, but losing somewhat by emigration.
No pure-bloods left.
Practically civilized. All Catholics, except one Anglican and six Presbyterians.
Gérin,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1900.
Iowa.
Siouan.
246 in Kansas; 88 in Oklahoma. Holding their own.
Considerable.
In 1906 “accomplished more on their allotments than at any time heretofore.” One regular missionary.
Dorsey,Trans. Anthrop. Soc. Wash., 1883, and15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894; also11th Rep.
Iroquois(of Caughnawaga).
Iroquoian.
2075 at Caughnawaga, in S.W. Quebec (largely Mohawk). Increasing.
Few, if any, pure-bloods left.
Practically civilized and making fair progress. Chiefly Catholics, but there is a Methodist school.
Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.
Iroquois(of Lake of Two Mountains).
Iroquoian.
395 at Lake of Two Mountains, Quebec.
Few, if any, pure-bloods left.
Practically civilized and making fair progress. Catholics and Methodists represented.
Cuoq,Lexique de la langue iroquoise(1882), and other writings.
Iroquois(of St Régis).
Iroquoian.
1449 at St Régis, Quebec; 1208 at St Regis, New York.
Few pure-bloods left.
Practically all civilized and making fair progress.
Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.
Iroquois(of Watha).
Iroquoian.
About 65 at Watha (formerly Gibson), near the southern end of Lake Muskoka, Ontario.
Considerable.
Industrious and progressive. Influence of Methodist mission.
Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.
Iroquois(of St Albert).
Iroquoian.
94 near St Albert, Alberta (“Michel’s band”).
“Indians only in name,” no pure-bloods left.
Practically civilized; outlook promising. Catholics.
Chamberlain,Amer. Anthrop., 1904.
Jicarilla(Apache).
Athabaskan.
784 in New Mexico. Decreasing.
Little.
Improvement during past few years.
Mooney,Amer. Anthrop.1898. See Apache.
Kaibab.
Shoshonian.
About 100 in S.W. Utah. Decreasing.
Little.
“Destitute,” but gaining somewhat.
See Paiute, Ute.
Kaigani.
Haidan.
About 300 in S. Alaska.
See Haida.
See Haida.
See Haida.
Kaiyuhkho’tenne
Athabaskan.
About 1500 on the Yukon (between the Anvik and Koyukuk) in W. Alaska.
Little.
Up to the present influenced more by the Eskimo than by the whites.
See Babines, Carriers. Also Chapman,Congr. inter, d. Amér.(Quebec, 1906).
Kalapooia.
Kalapuyan.
About 125 at Grande Ronde, Oregon, and a few also on the Siletz Reservation.
Not much.
Continued improvement.
Powell,7th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1885-1886; Gatschet,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1899; Lewis,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1906.
Kalispel(Pend d’Oreille).
Salishan.
826 on the Flathead Reservation, Montana; 98 at Colville Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
Continued improvement. Catholic missions.
Giorda,Kalispel Dictionary(1877-1879). See Chehalis.
Kansa(Kaw).
Siouan.
207 in Oklahoma.
About half are mixed blood.
American citizens, making fair progress.
Dorsey,11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890, and 15th Rep., 1893-1894; Hay,Trans. Kans. State Hist. Soc., 1906.
Kickapoo.
Algonkian.
188 in Kansas; 204 in Oklahoma; about 400 in Mexico.
Considerable.
Progress hampered by liquor, &c.
Mooney,14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893; Lutz,Trans. Kansas Hist. Soc.1906.
Kawia(Cahuilla).
Shoshonian.
About 150 in southern California.
Little.
Progress good. Nominally Catholics, result of Californian missions.
Barrows,Ethnobotany of the Coahuilla Indians(1900); Kroeber,Ethnography of the Cahuilla(1908).
Kiowa.
Kiowan.
1219 in Oklahoma.
Some white blood from captives, &c.
Citizens of the U.S., making fair progress. Catholic, Methodist, Presbyterian. &c. mission influences.
Mooney.14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893, and17th Rep., 1895-1896.
Kitksan.
Tsimshian.
About 1100 on upper Skeena river in central British Columbia.
Little.
Making good progress.
See Tsimshian.
Klamath.
Lutuamian.
761 at Klamath Agency, Oregon.
Little.
Mostly self-supporting. Methodist mission, but poor work done.
Gatschet,The Klamath Indians(Washington, 1890); Dorsey,Amer. Anthrop., 1901.
Klekatat.
Sahaptian.
About 300 merged with Yakima and other tribes on Yakima Reservation, Washington.
Considerable.
Late reports indicate much bad influence of whites.
Lyman,Proc Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1904; Lewis,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Soc., 1906.
Konkau(Concow).
Pujunan.
171 at Round Valley, California.
Little.
Gradually improving.
See Maidu.
Kootenay.
Kitunahan.
In S.E. British Columbia; 220 at St Mary’s; 59 al Tobacco Plains; 82 at Columbia Lakes; 170, lower Kootenay. At Flathead Agency, Montana, 565. Holding their own, or increasing.
A little French and English.
Good, especially upper Kootenay; continued progress. Kootenay in U.S. not so progressive. Catholic missions with good results.
Boas.Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889; Chamberlain,ibid., 1892 (and other writings),Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Schultz,My Life as an Indian(N.Y., 1907).
Koyukukho’tenne.
Athabaskan.
About 500 on the Koyukuk and Yukon, above the ’Kaiyuhkho’tenne in Alaska.
Little, if any.
Little progress noted.
See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.
Kwakiute.
Wakashan.
About 2000 in Vancouver Island and British Columbia. Decreasing.
Considerable in places.
Improvement recently. Anglican and Methodist missions—former counting 469; latter, 19 members; rest, “pagans.”
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889, 1890, 1896. Rep.U.S. Nat. Mus., 1895, and other writings; Boas and Hunt,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902.
Lillooet(Statliumh).
Salishan.
About 900 in S.W. British Columbia, on Fraser river, Douglas and Lillooet Lakes, &c.
Considerable in places.
Getting along well generally. Catholic and Anglican missions.
Boas,Ethnogr. Album(N.Y., 1890); Hill-Tout,Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1905; Teit,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1906.
Lummi.
Salishan.
418 at Tulalip Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
Suffering from white contact.
See Chehalis.
Maidu.
Pujunan.
In N.E. California. About 250 full-bloods.
Not much.
Few and scattered.
Dixon,Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902-1905;Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1900-1907.
Makah.
Wakashan.
400 on Makah, 25 on Ozette Reservation, Washington.
Considerable.
Progress good.
Swan.The Indians of Cape Flattery(Washington, 1870); Dorsey,Amer. Antiquarian, 1901.
Mandan.
Siouan.
264 at Ft. Berthold. N. Dakota. Beginning to increase again.
Considerable.
Making some progress. Catholic and Protestant mission influences.
Will and Spindle.The Mandans(1906); Dorsey in11thand15th Reps. Bur. Ethnol.
Maricopa.
Yuman.
344 at Pima Agency Arizona. Decreasing slightly.
No data.
Progress in 1906 excellent. Catholic mission school.
See Yuma.
Maskegon(Swampy Cree).
Algonkian.
About 2500 in Manitoba, Keewatin, Saskatchewan.
Considerable in certain regions.
Generally law-abiding, but improvident; some making good progress.
Simms inJourn. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1906; Stewart inAnn. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905.
Masset.
Haidan.
360 at Masset, Q. Charlotte Is.
See Haida.
See Haida.
See Haida.
Menominee.
Algonkian.
About 1600, of which 1364 under superintendency of Green Bay, Wisconsin.
Considerable.
Making gradual progress, with noticeable improvement in many respects. Catholic church has many members.
Hoffman in14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893.
Miami.
Algonkian.
129 in Oklahoma. 240 in Indiana, a few elsewhere; total about 400.
Considerable French blood, about 50%.
American citizens; intelligent, thrifty and progressive.
Pilling,Bibl. of Algon. Lang.(1891).
Micmac.
Algonkian.
2114 in Nova Scotia, 288 in Prince Edward Island, 1000 in New Brunswick, 591 in Quebec.
Large element of French; some Scottish and English blood.
Progress good; not degenerating nor decreasing. All Catholics.
Writings of Dr S. T. Rand, especiallyMicmac Legends(1894); Pacifique and Prince,Congr. intern. des Amér. Quebec, 1906; LelandAlgonquin Legends(1885); Leland and Prince,Kuloskap(1902).
Mission Indians.
Yuman; Shoshonian.
About 3000 in S. California.
Considerable in some sections.
Self-supporting; some individuals remarkably able and industrious. Catholics nominally.
Writings of Miss C. G. du Bois,Journ. Amer. Folk-LoreandAmer. Anthrop., 1900-1908, &c. See Kawia.
Mississagua.
Algonkian.
At Alnwick, 249; at the river Credit, 267; Rice Lake, 90; Mud Lake, 190; Scugog, 35. Increasing slightly.
Considerable.
Fairly good generally; some at the Credit very successful farmers, competing with whites. Methodists chiefly.
Chamberlain,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1888, andLanguage of the Mississagas of Skugog(Phila., 1892); Burnham,Ont. Hist. Soc. Pap. and Rec., 1905.
Modoc.
Lutuamian.
52 in Oklahoma, 229 on Klamath Reservation, Oregon. Apparently decreasing slowly, or holding their own.
Little.
Generally industrious and moral. Methodist mission.
Miller,My Life Among the Modocs(1873); Gatschet,Amer. Anthrop., 1894. See Klamath.
Mohave.
Yuman.
About 1600 in Arizona.
Little.
Good; industrious but restless. Presbyterian and Church of the Nazarene missions.
Bourke,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore. 1889; Kroeber,Amer. Anthrop., 1902. See Yuman.
Mohawk.
Iroquoian.
1762 with Six Nations, Grand river, Ont., 1320, Bay of Quinte, Ont., slight increase. The “Iroquois” at Caughnawaga, &c., are largely Mohawks.
Considerable English and French.
See Six Nations.
Forbes,Congr. intern. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906; Brant-Sero,Man(London, 1901). See Six Nations.
Montagnais.
Algonkian.
About 2000 in N.E. Quebec, N. shore of St Lawrence and St John, &c.
Large element of French blood.
At St John, “energetic, hard working and provident”; others suffering from liquor, &c. Catholic missions.
Chambers,The Ouananiche(1896); Chamberlain,Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; David,Congr. int. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906.
Moqui(Hopi).
Shoshonian.
About 2000 in N.E. Arizona.
Little.
Still “pagan,” but “dry-farming” experts. At Oraibi two factions, progressives and conservatives. Mennonite mission.
Bourke,Snake Dance Among the Moquis(1884); Hough,Amer. Anthrop., 1898; Dersey and Voth,Field Columb. Mus. Publ., 1901-1902. Also the numerous monographs of Dr. J. W. Fewkes inRep. Bur. Ethnol. Amer. Anthrop., Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1894-1908.
“Moravians.”
Algonkian.
329 on river Thames, Ontario, Canada.
Considerable.
Generally industrious and very law-abiding. All Methodists.
Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.
Munsee.
Algonkian.
118 on river Thames, Ontario, Canada; also a few with the Stockbridges in Wisconsin and the Chippewa in Kansas.
Considerable.
Fairly industrious; progress slow.
Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.
Nahané.
Athabaskan.
About 1000 in N.W. British Columbia, N. and S. of Stikeen river, and E. to beyond the Rockies.
Not much.
Have suffered much from white contact. Reached by Catholic missions from Stuart Lake.
Writings of Petitot, Morice, &c., especially the latter inTrans. Canad. Inst., 1894,Proc. Canad. Inst., 1889. See Carriers.
Nascapee.
Algonkian.
Some 2500 in N.E. Quebec, Labrador, &c.
Not very much.
Improvement not marked. Catholic mission influence.
Turner,11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890; Chamberlain,Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905.
Navaho.
Athabaskan.
About 29,000 in Arizona and New Mexico, about 8000 in the latter state. Increasing in number.
Much Spanish (Mexican) blood.
Have made remarkable progress racially and individually. Catholic, Presbyterian, &c., missions.
Writings of Dr. W. Matthews, especiallyNavaho Legends(Boston, 1897),The Night Chant(N.Y., 1902).
Nespelim.
Salishan.
191 at Colville Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
Suffering from liquor and white contact.
See Chehalis.
Nez Percés.
Sahaptian.
83 at Colville Agency, Washington, 1534 under Ft. Lapwai superintendency, Idaho. Decreasing.
Amount uncertain.
Of a high intellectual type (seen in children); suffering much from disease and white contact. About 60% Catholics and 15% Presbyterians.
Packard,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1891; McBeth,The Nez Percés since Lewis and Clark(New York, 1908); Spinden,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1908.
Nipissing.
Algonkian.
239 on Lake Nipissing, Ontario. Increasing.
Little.
Improving.
Ann. Rep. Dept. Ind. Aff. Canada, 1907.
Niska(Nasqa).
Tsimshian.
About 800 in Nass river region in W. British Columbia. Decreasing.
Little.
Making good progress.
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1895, 1896, andIndianische Sagen(Berlin, 1895). See Tsimshian.
Nisqualli.
Salishan.
146 in W. Washington.
Considerable.
Suffering from white contact, liquor, &c.
Gibbs,Contrib. N. Amer. Ethnol., vol. i., 1877, andNiskwalli Dictionary, ibid.
Nootka.
Wakashan.
2133 (including Clayoquot) on Vancouver Island, B.C. Decreasing slowly.
Considerable in places.
Industrious and law-abiding; evil from white contact increasing. Catholic and Presbyterian missions.
Sproat,Scenes and Studies of Savage Life(1868); Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1890, andIndianische Sagen(1895).
Okanagan.
Salishan.
824 in the Kamloops-Okanagan Agency, British Columbia; 527 on Colville Reservation, Washington.
Considerable in places.
Industrious and law-abiding. Catholic, and in Canada Catholic and Anglican churches largely represented.
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1889; Teit,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900.
Omaha.
Siouan.
1128 in Nebraska.
Much white blood.
Good progress in many respects; improvidence, &c., still causing trouble. Presbyterian mission.
Dorsey,3rd Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1881-1882, and13th Rep., 1891-1892, and other writings. Also writings of Miss A. C. Fletcher. See Ponca.
Oneida.
Iroquoian.
777 on river Thames, Ontario, and 350 with Six Nations in Ontario; 2151 in Wisconsin; 286 in New York. Increasing.
Large element of white blood.
Canadian Oneidas at Delaware full citizens. All progressing excellently and self-supporting. U.S. Oneidas citizens.
Bloomfield,The Oneidas(N.Y., 1907). See Six Nations.
Onondaga.
Iroquoian.
350 with the Six Nations, Ontario; 553 in New York.
Large element of white blood.
Not so advanced in U.S. as Tuscarora.
Clark,Onondaga(Syracuse, 1849); writings of Beauchamp, de Cost Smith, M. R. Harrington, &c. See Six Nations.
Osage.
Siouan.
1994 in Oklahoma.
Very much white blood; half are mixed-bloods.
U.S. citizens and making good progress. Baptists and Catholics represented.
Dorsey (J. O.),6th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1884-1885; Brewster,Trans. Kans. State Hist. Soc., 1906; Dorsey (G. A.),Publ. Field Columb. Mus., 1904; Speck,Trans. Arch. Dept. Univ. of Penn.(Phila., 1907).
Oto.
Siouan.
About 390 with the Missouri in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
Making good progress.
See Osage.
Ottawa.
Algonkian.
About 750 on Manitoulin and Coburn Islands, Ontario; 2750 in Michigan; 197 in Oklahoma.
Considerable French and English blood.
Canadian Ottawa industrious and law-abiding, and many in the U.S. as civilized as average whites about them. Catholic and Protestant missions.
Blackbird,Ottawa and Chippewa Indians(1887). See Pilling’sBibliography of the Algonkian Languages, 1891.
Paiute.
Shoshonian.
6500 to 7000 chiefly in Nevada (about 600 in Utah; 350 in Arizona).
No data.
Peaceable, moral and industrious; “have steadily resisted the vices of civilization.” Catholic and Protestant missions.
Mooney in14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1892-1893. See Ute.
Pamunkey.
Algonkian.
About 140 in King William county, Virginia.
All mixed-bloods; some negro mixture.
Fishermen and small farmers.
Pollard,The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia(Washington, 1894).
Panamint.
Shoshonian.
About 100 in the Panamint Valley, S.E. California.
No data.
Stationary.
Coville,Amer. Anthrop., 1892.
Papago.
Piman.
4991 in Arizona; about 1000 in Mexico.
Little.
Making very good progress recently. Catholic mission.
McGee in Coville and Macdougal,Des. bot. lab., 1903; Bandelier,Arch. Inst. Papers, 1890. See Pima.
Passamaquoddy.
Algonkian.
About 350 in Maine.
Considerable French and English.
With Penobscots have representative in Maine legislature.
Leland, Algonq.Leg. of New England(Boston, 1885); Brown,Trans. R. Soc. Canada, 1889; Prince,Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1897; Leland and Prince,Kuloskap(Boston, 1902).
Pawnee.
Caddoan.
649 in Oklahoma. Decreasing.
Considerable.
Citizens of U.S. Special progress recently in agriculture. Methodist mission.
Writings of Dunbar, Grinnell, Dorsey, Fletcher, &c.; Grinnell,Pawnee Hero-Stories(1889); Dorsey,Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee(Boston, 1904), andPawnee Mythology(1906); Fletcher,22nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Etnnol., 1900-1901.
Penobscot.
Algonkian.
About 410 in Maine.
Considerable.
See Passamaquoddy.
See Passamaquoddy.
Peoria.
Algonkian.
192 with Kaskaskia, Wea and Piankaskaw in Oklahoma.
No pure-bloods left.
American citizens and progressing well.
See Pilling,Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages(1891).
Piegan.
Algonkian.
482 near Macleod, Alberta; 2072 at Blackfoot Agency, Montana.
Considerable.
Improvement slow in Montana; in Alberta, “noticeable advance along all lines.” Methodist and Anglican missions in Alberta.
See Blackfeet.
Pima.
Shoshonian.
3936 in Arizona; more in Mexico. Increasing slightly.
Considerable.
Making good progress recently. Catholic and Protestant missions.
Russel,Amer. Anthrop., 1903,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901, and26th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1904-1905; Dorsey,Indians of the South-west(1903);Hrdlicka, Amer. Anthrop., 1904; Kroeber,Univ. Calif. Publ., 1907.
Pomo.
Kulanapan.
About 1000 in N.E. California.
Little.
Progress good.
Barrett,Ethnography of the Pomo(1908).
Ponca.
Siouan.
570 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
U.S. citizens, making good progress.
Dorsey (J. O.),Cegiha Language(1890), Omaha and Ponka Letters(1891), &c.; Dorsey (G. A.),Field Columb. Mus. Publ., 1905; Boas,Congr. int. d. Amér., Quebec, 1906.
Potawatomi.
Algonkian.
179 on Walpole Island, Ontario; 1740 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
Canadian Potawatomi are law-abiding and industrious. American Potawatomi citizens making progress.
See Pilling,Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages(1891).
Pueblos.
Keresan.
3990 in 6 pueblos in N. central New Mexico.
Larger element of white blood than other Pueblos Indians, but not great.
Majority nominally Catholics.
Writings of Bandelier, Hodge, Lummis, Stevenson, &c. Stevenson,11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890; Dorsey,Indians of the South-west(1903); Bandelier,Archaeol. Inst. Papers, 1881, 1883, 1892.
Pueblos.
Shoshonian.
See Moqui.
See Moqui.
See Moqui.
See Moqui.
Pueblos.
Tanoan.
About 4200 in 12 pueblos in New Mexico.
Have not favoured intermixture. Amount little.
Nominally Catholics for most part. At San Juan notable evidences of thrift, less elsewhere.
Writings of Bandelier, Lummis, Fewkes, &c. See Pueblos (Keresan) and Moqui.
Pueblos.
Zuñian.
1500 in Western New Mexico.
Have not favoured white intermixture.
Practically all are “pagans.” Substantial progress lately in several ways.
Bandelier,Journ. Amer. Ethnol. and Archaeol., 1892; Fewkes, ibid., 1891; Stevenson,5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1883-1884, and23rd Rep., 1901-1902; Cushing,2nd Rep., 1880-1881,4th Rep., 1882-1883,13th Rep., 1891-1892, andZuñi Folk-Tales(N.Y., 1901), and other writings.
Puyallup.
Salishan.
486 at the Puyallup Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
Suffering from white contact; future not bright.
See Chehalis.
Quapaw.
Siouan.
292 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
Majority are intelligent, thrifty and progressive. Catholic missions.
Dorsey (J. O.),11th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1889-1890,13th Rep.1891-1892, and other writings.
Quileute.
Chemakuan.
232 at Neah Bay Agency, N.W. Washington.
Considerable.
Progress good.
See Clallam.
Quinaielt.
Salishan.
142 at Puyallup Agency in N.W. Washington.
Considerable.
See Nisqualli.
Farrand,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902; Conard,Open Court, 1905.
Sacs and Foxes(Sauk, &c.).
Algonkian.
343 in Iowa; 630 in Oklahoma; 90 in Kansas.
Considerable.
Continued improvement; conservative opposition less. Catholic missions.
Lasley,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1902; Jones, ibid., 1901, andFox Texts(1907); Owen,Folk-Lore of the Musquaki(1904).
Sanspoil.
Salishan.
126 at Colville Agency, Washington.
Considerable.
Improving.
See Chehalis.
Sarcee.
Athabaskan.
205 S.W. of Calgary, Alberta.
More than many other tribes of this stock.
Making good material progress lately. Anglican mission.
Maclean,Canad. Savage Folk(1890); Goddard,Congr. int. d. Amér., 1906; Morice,ibid.andAnn. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905; Simms,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1904.
Sekané(Sikani).
Athabaskan.
About 450 on Finlay and Parsnip rivers and W. to forks of Tatla Lake in N. central British Columbia.
Little.
Not so progressive as Carriers &c. Reached by Catholic mission from Stuart Lake.
Morice, Anthropos, 1906, 1907, and Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905, and other writings. See Babines, Carriers.
Seminole.
Muskogian.
2132 in Oklahoma; 350 in Florida.
Much white and some negro blood.
Oklahoma Seminoles American citizens.
MacCauley,5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1887; Coe,Red Patriots(1898). See Creek.
Seneca.
Iroquoian.
383 in Oklahoma; 2742 in New York; 215 with Six Nations, on Grand river, Ontario.
Considerable.
See Six Nations.
Sanborn,Seneca Indians(1862); Hubbard,An Account of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, orRed Jacket and his People(Albany, 1886). See Six Nations.
Shawnee.
Algonkian.
574 in Oklahoma.
Considerable.
Progress good. Catholic and Protestant missions.
See Pilling,Bibl. of Algon. Lang.(1891). Also Harvey,Shawnee Indians(1855).
Shoshonee.
Shoshonian.
About 1000 in Idaho; 242 in Nevada; 793 in Wyoming.
Amount of admixture not large.
Progress good in the last few years. Catholic and Protestant Episcopal missions.
Culin,Bull. Free Mus. Sci. and Art(Phila., 1901); Dorsey,Indians of the South-west(1903). See Ute.
Shuswap(Sequapamuq).
Salishan.
About 1000 in the S. interior of British Columbia; also 52 within the Kootenay area at the Columbia Lakes.
Considerable in places.
Industrious and law-abiding. Catholic and Protestant missions.
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1890, andEthnogr. Album(N.Y., 1900); Dawson,Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1891; Boas,Indianische Sagen(1895).
Siletz.
Indians of several stocks.
483 on Siletz Reservation, Oregon.
Considerable.
Progress good.
Dorsey,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890, andAmer. Anthrop., 1889.
Six Nations(Canada).
Iroquoian.
On Grand River Reservation, Ontario; Cayuga, 1044; Mohawk, 1762; Oneida, 350; Onondaga, 350; Seneca, 215; Tuscarora, 397. Total, 4118.
Large admixture of white blood.
Generally capable and industrious, and steadily improving; many, both in U.S. and Canada, equal to whites. The Canadian Cayuga and Onondaga are “pagans.” Many Christian faiths represented.
Boyle,Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1898 and 1905, andJourn. Anthr. Inst., 1900; Hale,Iroquois Book of Rites(Phila., 1883); Wilson,Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 1885. See also under tribal names.
Six Nations(New York).
Iroquoian.
In New York State; Cayuga, 179; Oneida, 286; Onondaga, 553; Seneca, 2742; Tuscarora, 356. Total, 4116.
Large admixture of white blood.
Improvement varying with tribes; Tuscarora said to be best. Various religious faiths.
Beauchamp,Bull. N.Y. State Mus., 1897-1907,The Iroquois Trail(1892), and other writings; Smith,2nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1880-1881; Hewitt,21st Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1899-1900, and other writings. See also under tribal names.
Skiqomic.
Salishan.
About 150 in the Howe Sd. and Burrard Inlet region of British Columbia.
Some Canadian-French admixture.
“Probably the most industrious and orderly band of Indians in the province.” Catholic mission.
Hill-Tout,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1900; Boas, ibid., 1894.
Slavé.
Athabaskan.
About 1100 in the region W. of Gt. Bear Lake, from Ft. Simpson to Ft. Norman in N.W. Canada.
No certain data; but some admixture now going on.
No marked progress, but white influence being felt. Catholics and Episcopal missions.
Various writings of Petitot and Morice; the latter inAnthropos, 1906-1907; Bompas,Mackenzie River(London, 1888); Bell,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901.
Snaimuq(Nanaimo).
Salishan.
About 160 on reserve near Nanaimo Harbour, B.C.
No data.
Making good progress recently. Catholic mission.
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889, andAmer. Anthrop., 1889.
Songish(Lkungen).
Salishan.
About 200 in S.E. Vancouver Island, B.C.
No data.
Industrious and mostly well-off. Catholic mission.
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1890; Hill-Tout,Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 1907.
Spokan.
Salishan.
91 in Idaho; 133 in Montana; 434 in Washington.
Considerable.
Improving.
Writings of Rev. M. Eells. See Chehalis.
Tahltan.
Athabaskan.
220 in the N. Interior of British Columbia, at mouth of Tahltan river.
Little.
Making good progress.
Teit,Boas Anniv. Vol.(N.Y., 1906).
Ten’a.
Athabaskan.
About 2000 on the Yukon, between Tanara and Koserefsky in Alaska.
Little.
Not yet much influenced by whites. Catholic mission.
Jetté,Congr. int. des Amér.1906;Man, 1907;Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1907.
Thompson Indian(Ntlakapamuk).
Salishan.
About 1770 in the Thompson river region, S. central British Columbia.
Not very much.
Making good progress. Catholic and Protestant missions.
Teit and Boas,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1900; Teit,Trad. of Thompson Inds.(Boston, 1898); Hill-Tout,Salish and Déné(London, 1907).
Tlingit.
Koluschan.
About 2000 in S. Alaska.
Considerable in places.
Not marked generally. Greek Orthodox and other missions.
Krause,Die Tlinkit Indianer(Berlin, 1885); Boas,Indianische Sagen(Berlin, 1905); Bogoras,Amer. Anthrop., 1902; Swanton,26th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1904-1905; Emmons,Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1903.
Tonkawa.
Tonkawan.
47 in Oklahoma.
No data.
“Contented and enjoying life.”
Mooney,Globus, 1902.
Tsimshian(Proper).
Tsimshian.
About 2000 in northern British Columbia.
Not large.
Making good progress. Anglican and other missions.
Boas,Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1889, andIndianische Sagen(Berlin, 1895); von der Schulenburg,Die Sprache der Zimshian-Indianer(1894); Wellcome, Metlakatla (1887).
Tuscarora.
Iroquoian.
397 on Six Nation Reservation, Ontario; 356 with Six Nations, New York.
Considerable.
Making good progress in both Canada and New York.
See Six Nations.
Tutchonekut’qin.
Athabaskan.
About 1000 on the Yukon from Deer river to Ft. Selkirk, in Alaska.
Little.
Little progress.
See Babines, Carriers, Chipewyan.
Uinta Ute.
Shoshonian.
435 in Utah.
Little.
See Ute.
See Ute.
Umatilla.
Sahaptian.
207 in Oregon.
Some.
Making progress. Catholic and Presbyterian missions.
See Nez Percés.
Uncompaghre Ute.
Shoshonian.
493 in Utah.
Little.
See Ute.
See Ute.
Ute.
Shoshonian.
845 in Colorado; 1245 in Utah.
Not much.
Some progress recently. Catholic and Protestant missions.
Culin,Bull. Free Mus. Sci. and Art(Phila., 1901); Kroeber,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1901, andAmer. Anthrop., 1906.
Walapai.
Yuman.
513 in Arizona. Decreasing.
Little.
Self-supporting, but poor morally.
James,Indians of the Painted Desert Region(Boston, 1903).
Wallawalla.
Sahaptian.
579 in Oregon.
Some.
Not so satisfactory recently, but progressing.
See Nez Percés.
Wichita.
Caddoan.
441 in Oklahoma.
Probably considerable.
Citizens of U.S., making good progress. Catholic and Protestant missions.
Dorsey,Mythology of the Wichita(Washington, 1904) and other writings.
Winnebago.
Siouan.
1070 in Nebraska; 1285 in Wisconsin.
Considerable.
Many good citizens of U.S. and progressing. Suffering from liquor and the mescal bean to some extent.
Thwaites,Coll. State Hist. Soc. Wisconsin, 1892; Fletcher,Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890; McGee.15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1893-1894.
Wyandot.
Iroquoian.
385 in Oklahoma; 1 at Anderdon, Ontario, Canada.
No pure-bloods left, hardly a half-blood.
More white than Indian.
Powell,1st Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., 1879-1880; Connelley,Ann. Arch. Rep. Ontario, 1905, andWyandott Folk-Lore(Topeka, 1899); Merwin,Trans. Kansas State Hist. Soc., 1906.
Yakima.
Sahaptian.
About 1500 in Washington.
Considerable.
Late reports indicate bad influence of whites.
Pandosy,Gramm. and Dict. of Yakima(1862); Lewis,Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., 1906.
Yellowknives.
Athabaskan.
About 500 N.E. of Great Slave Lake in N.W. Canada.
Not much.
No practical advance as yet.
Writings of Petitot, Morice, &c. Petitot,Autour du Grand Lac des Esclaves(1891), andMonographie des Déné-Dindjié(1876). See Carriers, Chipewyan.
Yuma.
Yuman.
807 at Fort Yuma Agency, California, and a few at San Carlos, Arizona.
Some Spanish (Mexican) blood.
Progress good. Catholic and Protestant missions.
Gatschet,Ztschr. v. Ethnologie(1893); Trippell,Overland Monthly, 1889; Dorsey,Indians of the South-west(1903). See Mission Indians.
Zuñi.
Zuñian.
See Pueblos.
Zuñian.
See Pueblos.
See Pueblos (Zuñian).