The incident, however, led to military measures being taken by the government of Lord Dufferin, which had far-reachingIncrease in the Army.effects on Indian finance. The total strength of the army was raised by 10,000 British and 20,000 native troops, at an annual cost of about two millions sterling; and the frontier post of Quetta, in the neighbourhood of Kandahar, was connected with the Indian railway system by a line that involved very expensive tunnelling.
The Panjdeh incident was likewise the cause of the establishment of Imperial Service troops in India. At the moment when war seemed imminent, the leading native princes made offers of pecuniary aid. These offers wereImperial Service troops.declined, but it was intimated to them at a later date that, if they would place a small military force in each state at the disposal of the British government, to be commanded by state officers, but drilled, disciplined and armed under the supervision of British officers and on British lines, the government would undertake to find the necessary supervising officer, arms and organization. The proposal was widely accepted, and the Imperial Service troops, as they are called, amount at present to some 20,000 cavalry, infantry and transport, whose efficiency is very highly thought of. They have rendered good service in the wars on the north-west frontier, and also in China and Somaliland. Later in the same year (1885) occurred the third Burmese war. For the causes of the dispute with King Thebaw, and a description of the military operations which ensued before the country was finally pacified, seeBurma.
From 1885 onwards the attention of the Indian government was increasingly devoted to the north-west frontier. Between the years 1885 and 1895 there were delimited at various times by joint commissions the Russo-Afghan frontier between the Oxus and Sarakhs on the Persian frontier, the Russo-Afghan frontier from Lake Victoria to the frontier of China and the Afghan-Indian frontier from the Kunar river to a point in the neighbourhood of the Nawa Kotal. To the westward, after various disagreements and two military expeditions, the territories comprising the Zhob, Barhan and Bori valleys, occupied by Pathan tribes, were in 1890 finally incorporated in the general system of the Trans-Indus protectorate. About the same time in the extreme north the post of British resident in Gilgit was re-established, and the supremacy of Kashmir over the adjoining petty chiefships of Hunza-Nagar was enforced (1891-1892). In 1893 the frontiers of Afghanistan and British India were defined by a joint agreement between the two governments, known as the Durand agreement. There followed on the part of the British authorities, interference in Chitral, ending in an expedition in 1895 and the ejection of the local chiefs in favour of candidates amenable to British influence. A more formidable hostile combination, however, awaited the government of India. By the agreement of 1893 with the amir most of the Waziri clan and also the Afridis had been left outside the limits of the amir’s influence and transferred to the British zone. Soon after that date the establishment by the British military authorities of posts within the Waziri country led to apprehension on the part of the local tribesmen. In 1895 the occupation of points within the Swat territory for the safety of the road from India to Chitral similarly roused the suspicion of the Swatis. The Waziris and Swatis successively rose in arms, in June and July 1897, and their example was followed by the Mohmands. Finally, in August the powerful Afridi tribe joined the combination and closed the Khyber Pass, which runs through their territory, and which was held by them, on conditions, in trust for the government of India. This led to the military operations known as the Tirah campaign, which proved very costly both in men and money.
Meanwhile considerable difficulties had been experienced with the Indian currency, which was on a purely silver basis. Before 1873 the fluctuations in the value of silver as compared with gold had been comparatively small,The currency.and the exchange value of the rupee was rarely less than two shillings. But after 1873, in consequence of changes in the monetary systems of France and Germany, and the increased production of silver, this stability of exchange no longer continued, and the rupee sank steadily in value, till it was worthlittle more than half its face value. This great shrinkage in exchange caused considerable loss to the Indian government in remitting to Europe, and entailed hardship upon Anglo-Indians who received pensions or other payments in rupees, while on the other hand it supplied an artificial stimulus to the export trade by increasing the purchasing power of gold. This advantage, however, was outweighed by the uncertainty as to what the exchange value of the rupee might be at any particular date, which imported a gambling element into commerce. Accordingly in June 1893 an act was passed closing the Indian mints to the free coinage of silver. Six years later, in 1899, the change was completed by an act making gold legal tender at the rate of £1 for Rs.15, or at the rate of is. 4d. per rupee, and both the government and the individual now know exactly what their obligations will be.
When Lord Curzon became viceroy in 1898, he reversed the policy on the north-west frontier which had given rise to the Tirah campaign, withdrew outlying garrisons in tribal country, substituted for them tribal militia,Lord Curzon’s reforms.and created the new North-West Frontier province, for the purpose of introducing consistency of policy and firmness of control upon that disturbed border. In addition, after making careful inquiry through various commissions, he reformed the systems of education and police, laid down a comprehensive scheme of irrigation, improved the leave rules and the excessive report-writing of the civil service, encouraged the native princes by the formation of the Imperial Cadet Corps and introduced many other reforms. His term of office was also notable for the coronation durbar at Delhi in January 1903, the expedition to Lhasa in 1904, which first unveiled that forbidden city to European gaze, and the partition of Bengal in 1905. In December 1904 Lord Curzon entered upon a second term of office, which was unfortunately marred by a controversy with Lord Kitchener, the commander-in-chief, as to the position of the military member of council. Lord Curzon, finding himself at variance with the secretary of state, resigned before the end of the first year, and was succeeded by Lord Minto.
The new viceroy, who might have expected a tranquil time after the energetic reforms of his predecessor, soon found himself face to face with the most serious troubles, euphemistically called the “unrest,” that British rule has hadLord Minto. The unrest.to encounter in India since the Mutiny. For many years the educated class among the natives had been claiming for themselves a larger share in the administration, and had organized a political party under the name of the National Congress, which held annual meetings at Christmas in one or ether of the large cities of the peninsula. This class also exercised a wide influence through the press, printed both in the vernacular languages and in English, especially among young students. There is no doubt too that the adoption of Western civilization by the Japanese and their victorious war with Russia set in motion a current through all the peoples of the East. The occasion though not the cause of trouble arose from the partition of Bengal, which was represented by Bengali agitators as an insult to their mother country. While the first riots occurred in the Punjab and Madras, it is only in Bengal and eastern Bengal that the unrest has been bitter and continuous. This is the centre of theswadeshimovement for the boycott of English goods, of the most seditious speeches and writings and of conspiracies for the assassination of officials. At first the government attempted to quell the disaffection by means of the ordinary law, with fair success outside Bengal; but there, owing to the secret ramifications of the conspiracy, it has been found necessary to adopt special measures. Recourse has been had to a regulation of the year 1818, by which persons may be imprisoned or “deported” without reason assigned; and three acts of the legislature have been passed for dealing more directly with the prevalent classes of crime: (1) an Explosives Act, containing provisions similar to those in force in England; (2) a Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act, which can only be applied specially by proclamation; and (3) a Criminal Law Amendment Act, of which the two chief provisions are—a magisterial inquiry in private (similar to the Scotch procedure) and a trial before three judges of the High Court without a jury.
While the law was thus sternly enforced, important acts of conciliation and measures of reform were carried out simultaneously.Reforms.In 1907 two natives, a Hindu and a Mahommedan, were appointed to the secretary of state’s council; and in 1909 another native, a Hindu barrister, was for the first time appointed, as legal member, to the council of the viceroy. Occasion was taken of the fiftieth anniversary of the assumption by the crown of the government of India to address a message (on November 2, 1908) by the king-emperor to the princes and peoples, reviewing in stately language the later development, and containing these memorable words:—
“From the first, the principle of representative institutions began to be gradually introduced, and the time has come when, in the judgment of my viceroy and governor-general and others of my counsellors, that principle may be prudently extended. Important classes among you, representing ideas that have been fostered and encouraged by British rule, claim equality of citizenship, and a greater share in legislation and government. The politic satisfaction of such a claim will strengthen, not impair, existing authority and power. Administration will be all the more efficient if the officers who conduct it have greater opportunities of regular contact with those whom it affects and with those who influence and reflect common opinion about it.”
“From the first, the principle of representative institutions began to be gradually introduced, and the time has come when, in the judgment of my viceroy and governor-general and others of my counsellors, that principle may be prudently extended. Important classes among you, representing ideas that have been fostered and encouraged by British rule, claim equality of citizenship, and a greater share in legislation and government. The politic satisfaction of such a claim will strengthen, not impair, existing authority and power. Administration will be all the more efficient if the officers who conduct it have greater opportunities of regular contact with those whom it affects and with those who influence and reflect common opinion about it.”
The policy here adumbrated was (at least partly) carried into effect by parliament in the Indian Councils Act 1909, which reconstituted all the legislative councils by the addition of members directly elected, and conferred upon these councils wider powers of discussion. It further authorized the addition of two members to the executive councils at Madras and Bombay, and the creation of an executive council in Bengal and also (subject to conditions) in other provinces under a lieutenant-governor. Regulations for bringing the act into operation were issued by the governor-general in council, with the approval of the secretary of state, in November 1909. They provided (inter alia) for a non-official majority in all of the provincial councils, but not in that of the governor-general; for an elaborate system of election of members by organized constituencies; for nomination where direct election is not appropriate; and for the separate representation of Mahommedans and other special interests. They also contain provisions authorizing the asking of supplementary questions, the moving and discussion of resolutions on any matter of public interest and the annual consideration of the contents of the budget. In brief, the legislative councils were not only enlarged, but transformed into debating bodies, with the power of criticizing the executive. The first elections took place during December 1909, with results that showed widespread interest and were generally accepted as satisfactory. The new council of the governor-general met in the following month.
Authorities.—Vincent A. Smith,The Early History of India(Oxford, 1904, 2nd ed., 1908); andAsoka(“Rulers of India” series, Oxford, 1901); J. W. McCrindle,Ancient India(1901); T. W. Rhys Davids,Buddhist India(1903);Imperial Gazetteer of India(1907-1909); Sir J. Campbell,Gazetteer of Bombay(1896); Stanley Lane-Poole,Medieval India(“Story of the Nations” series, 1903);The Mohammedan Dynasties(1894) andThe Mogul Emperors(1892); H. C. Fanshawe,Delhi Past and Present(1902); Sir H. M. Elliot,History of India as told by its own Historians(1867). For the “unrest,” its causation and history, see the series of articles inThe Times, beginning July 16, 1910.
Authorities.—Vincent A. Smith,The Early History of India(Oxford, 1904, 2nd ed., 1908); andAsoka(“Rulers of India” series, Oxford, 1901); J. W. McCrindle,Ancient India(1901); T. W. Rhys Davids,Buddhist India(1903);Imperial Gazetteer of India(1907-1909); Sir J. Campbell,Gazetteer of Bombay(1896); Stanley Lane-Poole,Medieval India(“Story of the Nations” series, 1903);The Mohammedan Dynasties(1894) andThe Mogul Emperors(1892); H. C. Fanshawe,Delhi Past and Present(1902); Sir H. M. Elliot,History of India as told by its own Historians(1867). For the “unrest,” its causation and history, see the series of articles inThe Times, beginning July 16, 1910.
(W. W. H.; J. S. Co.)
Indian Costume
Personal attire in India so far resembles a uniform that a resident can tell from a garb alone the native place, religion and social standing of the wearer. This is still true, though the present facility of intercommunication has had its effect in tending to assimilate the appearance of natives. Together with costume it is necessary to study the methods of wearing the hair, for each race adopts a different method.
The population of India, of which the main divisions are religious, falls naturally into four groups, (1) Mahommedans, (2) Hindus, (3) Sikhs, (4) Parsees. To these may be addedaboriginal races such as Bhils, Sonthals, Gonds, &c., whose costume is chiefly noticeable from its absence.
Mahommedan Men.—Apart from the two sects, Sunnis and Shias, whose garb differs in some respects, there are four families of Moslems, viz. Pathans, Moguls, Syeds and Sheiks. The first came to India with Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi inA.D.1002; the second are of Tatar origin and came to India with Baber; the Syeds claim descent from Mahomet, while Sheiks comprise all other Mussulmans, including converted Hindus. It is now no longer possible to distinguish these families by their turbans as was formerly the case.
Hair.—In thehadis, or traditional sayings of Mahomet other than those to be found in the Koran, it is laid down that the head is to be shaved and the beard to be allowed to grow naturally to “a legal” length,i.e.7 or 8 in. long. This is known asfitrahor the custom of prophets. The beard is frequently dyed with henna and indigo for much the same reasons as in Europe by elderly men; this is entirely optional. The wearing of whiskers while shaving the chin was a Mogul fashion of the 17th and 18th centuries and is now seldom seen except among Deccani Mahommedans. The mustachios must not grow below the line of the upper lip, which must be clearly seen; a division or parting is made below the nose. The lower lip is also carefully kept clear. Hair under the arms or elsewhere on the body except the breast is always removed.
Mahommedan clothing for indoor wear consists of three pieces: (a) Head-dress, (b) body-covering, (c) covering for the legs.
Head-dress.—This is of two kinds: the turban and the cap. The former is chiefly worn in northern India, the latter in Oudh and the United Provinces. What is known in Europe as a turban (from the Persiansarband, a binding for the head) is in India divided into two classes. The first, made of a single piece of cloth 20 to 30 in. wide and from 6 to 9 yds. long, is bound round the head from right to left or from left to right indifferently and quite simply, so as to form narrow angles over the forehead and at the back. This form is calledamāmāh(Arabic),dastār(Persian),shimlāorshamlā,safā,lungi,selā,rumāl, ordopattā. The termsamāmāhanddastārare used chiefly with reference to the turbans of priests andulema, that is learned and religious persons. They are usually white; formerly Syeds wore them of green colour. They are never of bright hue. Thelungiis made of cloth of a special kind manufactured mostly in Ludhiana. It is generally blue and has an ornamented border. In the case of Pathans and sometimes of Punjabi Moslems it is bound round a tall red conical cap called akullah(Plate I. fig. 1). The ends are frequently allowed to hang down over the shoulders, and are calledshimlaorshamla, terms which also apply to the whole head-dress. The namessafa,sela,rumalanddopattaare sometimes given to this form of turban. Theselais gaudier and more ornamental generally; it is worn by the nobles and wealthier classes.
The second form of the turban is known as thepagri.12This head-dress is of Hindu origin but is much worn by Mahommedans. It is a single piece of cloth 6 to 8 in. wide, and of any length from 10 to 50 yds. The methods of binding thepagriare innumerable, each method having a distinctive name asarabi(Arab fashion);mansabi(official fashion, much used in the Deccan);mushakhi(sheik fashion);chakridar(worn by hadjis, that is those who have made the pilgrimage to Mecca);khirki-dār(a fashion of piling the cloth high, adopted by retainers of great men);latudār(top-shaped, worn bykāyasthsor writers);joridār(the cloth twisted into rope shape) (Plate I. fig. 6);siparali(shield-shaped, worn by the Shiā sect);murassa, ornastālikh(ornately bound),latpati(carelessly bound) (Plate I. fig. 4). Many other fashions which it would be difficult to describe can best be learned by studying pictures with the help of a competent teacher. Thechīrāis a pagri of checked cloth. Themandīlis of gold or highly ornamented cloth; it is worn by nobles and persons of distinction.
The cap ortopiis not bound round the head, but is placed upon it. It is made of cut and sewn cloth. Some varieties aredopallari, a skull-cap;kishtinumā, or boat-shaped cap;goltopi, a round cap of the kind known in England as “pork-pie”;bezwi, or egg-shaped cap;sigoshiā, or three-cornered cap;chaugoshiā, or four-cornered cap;tājdār, or crown-shaped cap; &c. Many other caps are named after the locality of manufacture or some peculiarity of make,e.g.Kashmīrē-kītopī;jhālardār, fringed cap, &c.
A form of cap much worn in Bengal and western India is known asIrānī kullāh, or Persian cap. It is made of goatskin and is shaped like atārbūshbut has no tassel. The cap worn in cold weather is calledtop,topa, orkantop(ear-cover) (Plate I. fig. 2); these are sometimes padded with cotton. Caps are much worn by Mussulmans of Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and other cities of the United provinces.
Thetārbūshortūrki-topīwas introduced into India by Sir Sayyid Ahmad (Plate I. fig. 3). It must not be confused with the Moorish “fez,” which is skull-shaped. Thetārbūshis of Greek origin and was adopted by Sultan Mahmud of Turkey in the early part of the 19th century. To remove the head-dress of whatever kind is, in the East, an act of discourtesy; to strike it off is a deep insult.
Clothing.—The following rules from thehadithor traditional sayings of the prophet are noteworthy:—“Wear white garments, for verily they are full of cleanliness, and pleasant to the eye.” “It is lawful for the woman of my people to clothe herself in silken garments, and to wear ornaments of gold; but it is forbidden to man: any man who shall wear silken garments in this world, shall not wear them in the next.” “God will not be merciful to him who through vanity wears long trousers” (i.e.reaching below the ankle). The foregoing rules are now only observed by the ultra-orthodox, such as the Wāhabī sect and by ulemas, or learned elderly men. The Mogul court of Delhi, especially during the reign of Mahommed Shah, nicknamedRangīlaor the “dandy,” greatly influenced change in these matters. Coloured clothing, gold ornaments and silken raiment began to be worn commonly by Mussulman men in his reign.
For the upper part of the body the principal article of clothing is thekūrtā. The Persian name for this ispairahanand the Arabickamīs, whence “chemise.” Thiskūrtāis the equivalent for the shirt of Europe. It is usually of white cotton, and has the opening orgalāin front, at the back, or on either side indifferently. It was formerly fastened with strings, but now with theghundi(the old form of button) andtukmahor loop. In southern India, Gujarat and in the United Provinces thekūrtāis much the same as to length and fit as the English shirt; as the traveller goes northward from Delhi to the Afghan border he sees thekūrtābecoming longer and looser till he finds the Pathan wearing it almost to his ankles, with very full wide sleeves. The sleeves are everywhere long and are sometimes fastened with one or two buttons at the wrist.
Mussulmans always wear some form of trousers. They are known asizār(Arabic) orpa’ejáma13(Persian). This article of clothing is sometimes loose, sometimes tight all the way, sometimes loose as far as the knee and tight below like Jodhpur riding breeches. They are fastened round the waist with a scarf or string calledkamarband(waistband) orizārband, and are usually of white cotton. The varieties of cut are sharai or canonical, orthodox, which reach to the ankles and fit as close to the leg as European trousers;rumiorgharāredār, which reach to the ankles but are much wider than European trousers (this pattern is much worn by the Shias); andtangorchust, reaching to the ankles, from which to the knee they fit quite close. When this last kind is “rucked” at the ankle it is calledchuridār(Plate I. fig. 4). They are sometimes buttoned at the ankle, especially in the Meerut district. Theshalwārpattern,very large round the waist and hanging in folds, is worn by Pathans, Baluchis, Sindis, Multanis, &c.
Plate I.
Plate II.
The new fashion in vogue amongst the younger generation of Mussulman is called theikbārahorpatalūnnumā, which is like the European trousers. They are usually made of calico; they have no buttons but are fastened with string (kamarband). Bathing drawers are calledghutannahand reach to the knee. The tight drawers worn by wrestlers are calledjanghiah.
Garments for outdoor wear are theangā, orangarkhā, thechapkan, theachkanorsherwāni; theangā, a coat with full sleeves, is made of any material, white or coloured. It is slit at the sides, has perpendicularly cut side-pockets, and is fastened with strings just below the breast. It is opened on the right or left side according to local custom. Theangāis now considered old-fashioned, and is chiefly worn by elderly men or religious persons. It is still not uncommon in Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and at native courts, but is being superseded by theachkan(Plate I. fig. 4), which is buttoned straight down the front. Bothangāandachkanreach to a little below the knee, as also does thechapkan, a relic of Mogul court dress, best known as the shield-like and highly adorned coat worn by governmentchaprasis(Plate II. fig. 3). Over theangāis sometimes worn an overcoat called achogā; this is made of any material, thick or thin, plain or ornamented; it has one or two fastenings only, loops below the breast whence it hangs loosely to below the knees. Thechogāis sometimes known by its Arabic namesabāorkabā, terms applied to it when worn by priests or ulemas. In cold weather Pathans and other border residents wearposteens, sleeved coats made of sheepskin with the woolly side in. In India farther south in cold weather an overcoat calleddaglāis worn; this is anangāpadded with cotton wool. A paddedchogāis calledlabādā; when very heavily paddedfarghūl. Whereas the European wears his waistcoatunderhis coat, the Indian wears hisoverhisangāorchapkan(not over theachkan). A sleeveless waistcoat generally made of silk is called asadari; when it has half sleeves it is callednimāstīn; the full-sleeved waistcoat worn in winter padded with cotton is calledmirzāi. For ceremonial purposes a coat calledjāmāis worn. This fits closely as to the upper part of the body, but flows loosely below the waist. It is generally white, and is fastened in front by strings.
In Gujarat and other parts of western India are to be found classes of Moslems who differ somewhat from those met with elsewhere, such as Memans, Borās and Khojās. The first are Sunnis: the two last Shias. Memans wear (1) a gold embroidered skull-cap, (2) a longkamīsfastened at the neck with 3 or 4 buttons on a gold chain, (3)sadariya,i.e.a tight waistcoat without sleeves, fastened in front with small silk buttons and loops, (4) an over-waistcoat calledshāyā-sadriyainstead of theangā, with sleeves, and slits at the sides (probably of Arab origin). When he does not wear a skull-cap hisamāmāhis made after the arched Arab form, or is a Kashmir scarf wound round a skull-cap made of Java straw. The Borā adopts one of four forms of pagri; theUjjain, a small neatly bound one; theĀhmadābād, a loose high one; theSurat, fuller and higher than theUjjainpattern (Plate I. fig. 5); or theKathiāwādā, a conical turban with a gold stripe in the middle of the cone. The Borā wears theangā, otherwise he resembles the Meman. The Khoja wears apagrismaller than the Meman’s, called aMoghalāi phentā; this leaves a portion of the head bare at the back. The material is always ofkashīda, a kind of embroidered cloth. Amongst Mahommedans only Pathans wear ear-rings.
Mahommedan Women.Head-dress.—Therupatta(also calleddopatta), or veil, is of various colours and materials. Its length is about 3 yds., its width about 1½. It is worn over the head and thrown over the left shoulder. It is considered essential to modesty to cover the head. This head-dress is also known asorhna,orhni,pochan,pochni(Baluchistan and western India)chundri,reo(Sind),sipatta,takraiorchadar(Pathan). Among the poorer classes it is calledpacholi. Farther south in India when of thicker material it is calledchadarorchaddar. It is calledpachedi,potraormalāyāby Meman, Borā and Khojā women. As a rule married women wear brighter colours than unmarried ones. In Kashmir a small round cap,goltopi, is worn. Thekassawais a handkerchief bound over the head and tied at the back, and is worn by Mahommedan women indoors to keep the hair tidy; Mahommedan women plait their hair and let it hang down behind (Plate I. fig. 6).
Clothing.—A short jacket fastened at the back and with short sleeves is worn. It may be of any material. In Sind, Gujarat and other parts of western India it is called acholi. It is also very generally known asangiyā. Other common names aremahramandsināband(breast-cover). Thekūrtāis a sort of sleeveless shirt, open in front and reaching to the waist. It may be of any material. When this is worn with theangiyait is worn over it. This combination of dress is worn only by young married women. In Kashmir and northern India generally theangiyais not worn, and thekūrtāis worn instead. This is like thekamīsof the man, already described; it has full sleeves, is open at the front, which is embroidered, and reaches to the knee or lower. Among Pathans there are two kinds ofkūrtā(kamīsorkhat); one worn by married women calledgìrādānā khatis dark red or blue, embroidered with silk in front; thejalānā khatworn by unmarried women is less conspicuous for colour and ornament. A large pocket (jeb) is often sewn on in front like the Highlander’s sporran.
ThePa’ejāmās, also calledizār, are cut like those of men, and known by the same names. They differ only in being of silk or other fine material and being coloured (Plate I. fig. 6). Among Pathans they are calledpartogorpartek(pardek), and those of unmarried girls are of white, while married women wear them ofsusi, a kind of coloured silk or cotton. As a general rule the wearing ofpaijāmāsis the chief distinction between Mussulman and Hindu women. In the Shahpur and other districts, however, where Mahommedans have followed Hindu customs, Moslem women wear themajlā, a cloth about 3 yds. long by 1½ wide tied tightly round the waist so as to fall in folds over the legs. Even Mahommedan men sometimes wear themajlāin these districts. This form of dress is known among Moslems astahband[lower binding] (Plate I. fig. 6). In Rajputana, Gujarat and the southern Punjab, Mahommedan women sometimes wear alhengaorghagraskirt without trousers; in the Sirsa district and parts of Gujarat the ghagra is worn over the trousers. Thesadarior waistcoat is worn by women as well as men. Thetillakorpeshwazis a dress or robe the skirt and bodice of which are made in one piece, usually of red or other coloured material; it is common in Gujarat, Rajputana and the Sirsa district, and is the style usually adopted by nautch girls when dancing. Meman women wear also theabā, or overcoat, which differs from that worn by men in that it has loose half sleeves, and fastens with two buttons at each side of the neck over the shoulders; it is embroidered on the breast, and adorned with gold lace on the skirts.
In Delhi, Lucknow, Agra and other towns in the Punjab and the United Provinces a special wedding dress is worn by the bride, calledrīt-kājorā, the “dress of custom.” It is worn on the wedding night only; and it is a rule that no scissors are employed in making it. The trouser string of this dress is not the usualkamarband, but is made of untwisted cotton thread calledkalāwā. Out of doors Mahommedan women wear thebūrkā, a long loose white garment entirely covering the head and body. It has two holes for the eyes. Mahommedan women pencil the eyes withkohlorsūrmā, usemissifor the teeth and colour the palms and nails of the hand with henna. A nose-ring is a sign of marriage.
Hindus.—Caste does not influence dress amongst Hindus as much as might be expected. The garment distinctive of the Hindus of all castes, men and women, all over India, is thedhotior loin cloth. It is a very ancient dress, and their gods are represented as clothed in it in old sculptures.
The general term used for clothing iskaprā,latāorlugā. Under Mahommedan influence Hindu clothing developed into “suits,” consisting of five pieces for men, hence calledpancho tuk kapra—(1) head-dress, (2)dhoti, (3) coat, (4)chaddaror sheet, (5) bathing cloth; and three for women, hence calledtīn tuk—(1)dhoti, (2) jacket, (3) shawl.
Men.—The Hindu (except the Rajput) shaves his head, leaving only a top-knot on the point of the skull. He shaves the face (except the eye-brows) and his body. The Rajput wears a full beard and whiskers, usually parted in the middle. He sometimes draws the beard and whiskers to the side of the head, and to keep it tidy wraps round it a cloth calleddhātāorgalmochā.
Head-dress.—Hindus wear sometimes turbans and sometimes caps. When the turban is worn it is always of thepagriform, never theamāmāh. Hindus wind thepagriin various ways as described for Mussulmans, but the angles are formed over the ears and not from front to back. Mahrattas wear flat red pagris, with a small conical peak variously shaped and placed. Thepagriis known in different parts of India aspāg,phentā,phag,phagdiand many other names. In Bengal a sort of turban is worn which can be taken off like a hat. When Hindus wear caps ortopisthey resemble those worn by Mahommedans, but they never wear thefez,tārbūshorirāni topi. In Gaya a peculiar cap made oftālleaves is worn in rainy weather, calledghungā. Bengalis, whether Brahmans or of other castes, frequently go bareheaded.
Body Clothing.—Thedhotiis a simple piece of cloth (cotton), generally white. It is wound round the loins, the end passed between the legs from front to back and tucked in at the waist behind (Plate II. fig. 2). The small form ofdhotiworn by men of the lower class is calledlangoti. It does not fall below mid-thigh. A Brahman’sdhoti, as also that of some other castes, reaches to a little below the knee; a Rajput’s to his ankles. Thedhotiis known under many names,dhutia,pitambar,lungi, &c. In some parts of India half the dhoti only is wound round the loins, the other half being thrown over the left shoulder. Some upper classes of Hindus wear for coat thekūrtā; most wear theangharkā(Plate II. fig. 1), a shortangāreaching to the waist. It is also known askamri,baktari,badanorbandi. Hindus wear theangharkhāorangāas Mahommedans do, but whereas the Mahommedan has the opening on the left the Hindu wears it on the right. When thekūrtāis worn it is worn under theangā. Thechaddar(chadarordopatta) is of various kinds. It is a piece of cotton cloth 3 yds. long by 1 yd. wide. It is worn across the shoulders, or wrapped round the body, but when bathing, round the loins. Hindus, both men and women, wear ear-rings.
The Brakminical thread(janeo) (Plate II. fig. 2) is a cord made of twisted cotton prepared with many ceremonies. It is worn over the left shoulder and hangs down to the right hip. It is of three strands till the wearer is married, when it becomes six or nine. It is 96 handbreadths in length, and is knotted. Rajputs also wear this thread, similar in make and length, but the knots are different.
Caste and sect marks also distinguish Hindus from each other.
Women.—The hair is sometimes worn plaited (chotì), usually an odd number of thin plaits made into one large one, falling down the back and fastened at the end with ribbons. Another style is wearing it in a knot after the ancient Grecian fashion; it is always worn smooth in front and parted in the middle. Over the head is worn theorhnaor veil. The end is thrown over the left shoulder in such a manner as to conceal the breast. On the upper part of the body thekūrtāis sometimes worn. A bodice calledangiyāis worn. This covers the breast and shoulder; it has half sleeves, is very short, and is fastened at the back with strings.
The skirt is calledlhengaorghagra. It is worn mostly in Rajputana hanging in full flounces to the knee or a little below. In Bengal, Madras and Bombay Presidencies women do not wear a skirt, only acholiandsārī. This last is a long piece of cotton or silk cloth. Half is draped round the waist and hangs to the feet in folds; the remainder is passed over the head and thrown over the left shoulder (Plate II. fig. 4).
Sikh.—The Sikh does not shave or cut his hair. The beard is parted in the middle and carried up each side of the face to the top of the head. A piece of cloth calleddhātāorgalmochāis wound round the chin and head so as to keep the hair clean and tidy. The hair of the head is tied into a knot (kes) at the top of the head or at the back, a distinguishing mark of the Sikh. His religion requires the Sikh to carry five articles—kes, the knot of hair on the head; thekanga, a comb; thekard, a knife; thekach, a pair of short trousers peculiar to the Sikh; and thekharā, an iron bangle on the wrist. It isde rigueurthat he should carry some piece of iron on his person. His head-dress he calls apāg; it is a turban ofamāmāhshape but enormously large. The Sikh nobility and gentry wear two turbans, either both of pagri form or one of pagri and one ofamāmāhform. Each is of a different colour.
The Sikh calls hiskūrtā jhaggā; it is very large and loose, bound with a scarf round the waist. Thekachis a sort of knickerbockers reaching to just below the knee, which they encircle tightly. Over all the Sikh wears thechoga. In outlying villages he wears instead of thekūrtāachādaror cloth, which he callskhes, on the upper part of his body. Some village Sikhs wear atahbandor waistcloth instead of thekach. Sikhs are fond of jewelry and wear ear-rings. The dress of Sikh women does not differ greatly from that of Hindu women; but in the Sirsa district and some other parts she wears the Mahommedansutanor trousers, under thelhengaor skirt. There is a small sect of Sikh known asAkāliorNihang. Their dress is entirely of dark blue colour, the turban being also blue, high and pointed; on it are fastened three steel quoits. The quoit was the ancient weapon of the Sikh, who calls itchakar. Certain steel blades are stuck through the body of the turban. The Akālis also wear large flat iron rings round the neck and arms (Plate II. fig. 6).
Parsis.—When the Parsis were first admitted into India, certain conditions were imposed upon them by the Hindus; among others they were not to eat beef, and they were to follow the Hindu custom of wearing a top-knot of hair. Old-fashioned Parsis in country districts still follow these customs. To uncover the head is looked upon as a sin; hence Parsis of both sexes always wear some head covering whether indoors or out. In the house the man wears a skull cap; out of doors the older Parsis wear thekhoka, a tall hat, higher in front than at the back, made of a stiff shiny material, with a diaper pattern (Plate I. fig. 7). The younger generation adopted a round pith hat with a rolled edge of felt, but, under the influence of theswadeshimovement, they have generally reverted to the older form (Plate I. fig. 10). Next to the skin the Parsi wears asadraor sacred shirt, with a girdle calledkasti. Over thesadraa white cotton coat is worn, reaching to a little below the waist. The Parsi wears loose cotton trousers like a Mussulman. In country districts he wears ajāmā, and over thejāmāapechodior shoulder cloth. The young Parsi in Bombay has adopted European dress to a great extent, except as to head-gear. The Parsi woman dresses her hair in the old Greek fashion with a knot behind. She also wears asadraor sacred shirt. Country Parsis in villages wear a tight-fitting sleeveless bodice, and trousers of coloured cloth. Over all she winds a silkensarior sheet round the body; it is then passed between the legs and the end thrown over the right shoulder. Out of doors she covers her head and right temple (Plate I. fig. 8). In towns thesariis not passed between the legs, but hangs in loose folds so as to hide the trousers. The upper classes wear a sleevedpolkajacket instead of the bodice. Parsi children up to the age of seven wear cotton frocks calledjabhlan. They wear long white trousers of early Victorian cut, with frills at the bottom. They wear a round cap like a smoking-cap. The little girls wear their hair flowing loose (Plate I. fig. 9).
Shoes.—There is no distinction between the shoes worn by Hindus, Moslems, Sikhs or Parsis, but Hindus will not wear them when made of cow’s leather. Shoes are calledjuta,jutiorjuteby Mahommedans, andjoreorzoreby Hindus. Shoes are usually distinguished by the name of the material, asnāri kā jūtā, leather shoes,banati jūtā, felt shoes, and so on.
There are innumerable styles of cut of shoe, three being the commonest: (1)Salimshahi, these are shaped like English slippers, but are pointed at the toe, terminating in a thin wisp turned back and fastened to the instep. They are mostly made of thin red leather, plain in the case of poorer people and richlyembroidered in the case of rich people. This cut of shoe is most in vogue amongst Moslems. (2)Gol panjē ki jūti, like English slippers, but rounded at the toes. (3)Gheltāornāgphani(snake’s head)jutā, the toe is turned up, while the back part is folded inwards and trodden under the heel. Ladies usually wear shoes of this fashion, known asphiri juti. Women’s shoes differ only in size and in being made of finer material, and in being embroidered. Hindu women seldom wear shoes. On the northern frontier the pattern known as thekafshiis worn; this is a slipper having neither sides nor back; the sole towards the heel is narrow and raised by a small iron-shod heel. In the hills shoes resembling sandals, calledchaplis, made of wood, straw or grass are worn. The soles are very thick, and are secured with straps; there is generally a loop for the big toe. They are known asphulkārruin Kashmir, andpulain Kulu and Chamba.
Shoes are invariably removed on entering mosques or other holy places. It is also customary to remove them when entering a house. Orientals sit on the floor in preference to chairs; hence it is thought very necessary by them that the carpet should be kept clean, which could not be done were persons to keep their shoes on. While it would be considered a breach of good manners to enter a room with the shoes on, an exception has been made in favour of those natives who have adopted European boots or shoes. The babus of Bengal have taken to English-made shoes of patent leather worn over white socks or stockings.