Chapter 6

See Jan Veth,Mannen of Beteckenis: Jozef Israëls; Chesneau,Peintres français et étrangers; Ph. Zilcken,Peintres hollandais modernes(1893); Dumas,Illustrated Biographies of Modern Artists(1882-1884); J. de Meester, in Max Rooses’Dutch Painters of the Nineteenth Century(1898); Jozef Israëls,Spain: the Story of a Journey(1900).

ISSACHAR(a Hebrew name meaning apparently “there is a hire,” or “reward”), Jacob’s ninth “son,” his fifth by Leah; also the name of a tribe of Israel. Slightly differing explanations of the reference in the name are given in Gen. xxx. 16 (J) and v. 18 (E).1The territory of the tribe (Joshua xix. 17-23) lay to the south of that allotted to Zebulun, Naphtali, Asher and Dan, and included the whole of the great plain of Esdraelon, and the hills to the east of it, the boundary in that direction extending from Tabor to the Jordan, apparently along the deep gorge of Wadi el Bīreh. In the rich territory of Issachar, traversed by the great commercial highway from the Mediterranean and Egypt to Bethshean and the Jordan, were several important towns which remained in the hands of the Canaanites for some time (Judges i. 27), separating the tribe from Manasseh. Although Issachar is mentioned as having taken some part in the war of freedom under Deborah (Judges v. 15), it is impossible to misunderstand the reference to its tributary condition in the blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 14 seq.), or the fact that the name of this tribe is omitted from the list given in Judges i. of those who bestirred themselves against the earlier inhabitants of the country. In the “blessing upon Zebulun and Issachar” in Deut. xxxiii. 18 seq., reference is made to its agricultural life in terms suggesting that along with its younger, but more successful “brother,” it was the guardian of a sacred mountain (Carmel, Tabor?) visited periodically for sacrificial feasts.

1On the origin of the name, see the article by H. W. Hogg,Ency. Bib.col. 2290; E. Meyer,Israeliten, p. 536 seq.

ISSEDONES,an ancient people of Central Asia at the end of the trade route leading north-east from Scythia (q.v.), described by Herodotus (iv. 26). The position of their country is fixed as the Tarym basin by the more precise indications of Ptolemy, who tells how a Syrian merchant penetrated as far as Issedon. They had their wives in common and were accustomed to slay the old people, eat their flesh and make cups of their skulls. Such usages survived among Tibetan tribes and make it likely that the Issedones were of Tibetan race. Some of the Issedones seem to have invaded the country of the Massagetae to the west, and similar customs are assigned to a section of these.

(E. H. M.)

ISSERLEIN, ISRAEL(d. 1460), German Talmudist. His fame attracted many students to Neustadt, and his profound learning did much to revive the study of the original Rabbinic authorities. After the publication of the Code of Joseph Qaro (q.v.) the decisions of Isserlein in legal matters were added in notes to that code by Moses Isserles. His chief works wereTerumath ha-Deshēn(354 decisions) andPeasqim u-kethaḥim(267 decisions) largely on points of the marriage law.

ISSERLES, MOSES BEN ISRAEL(c.1520-1572), known asRemā, was born at Cracow and died there in 1572. He wrote commentaries on theZohar, the “Bible of the Kabbalists,” but is best known as the critic and expander of theShulḥan Aruchof Joseph Qaro (Caro)(q.v.). His chief halakhic (legal) works wereDarke MoshēandMappāh. Qaro, a Sephardic (Spanish) Jew, in his Code neglected Ashkenazic (German) customs. These deficiencies Isserles supplied, and the notes of Remā are now included in all editions of Qaro’s Code.

ISSOIRE,a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, on the Couze, near its junction with the Allier, 22 m. S.S.E. of Clermont-Ferrand on the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway to Nîmes. Pop. (1906) 5274. Issoire is situated in the fertile plain of Limagne. The streets in the older part of the town are narrow and crooked, but in the newer part there are several fine tree-shaded promenades, while a handsome boulevard encircles the town. The church of St Paul or St Austremoine built on the site of an older chapel raised over the tomb of St Austremoine (Stremonius) affords an excellent specimen of the Romanesque architecture of Auvergne. Issoire is the seat of a sub-prefect; its public institutions include tribunals of first instance and commerce and a communal college. Brewing, wool-carding and the manufacture of passementerie, candles, straw hats and woollen goods are carried on. There is trade in lentils and other agricultural products, in fruit and in wine.

Issoire (Iciodurum) is said to have been founded by the Arverni, and in Roman times rose to some reputation for its schools. In the 5th century the Christian community established there by Stremonius in the 3rd century was overthrown by the fury of the Vandals. During the religious wars of the Reformation, Issoire suffered very severely. Merle, the leader of the Protestants, captured the town in 1574, and treated the inhabitants with great cruelty. The Roman Catholics retook it in 1577, and the ferocity of their retaliation may be inferred from the inscription “Ici fut Issoire” carved on a pillar which was raised on the site of the town. In the contest between the Leaguers and Henry IV., Issoire sustained further sieges, and never wholly regained its early prosperity.

ISSOUDUN,a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Indre, on the right bank of the Théols, 17 m. N.E. of Châteauroux by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,566. Among the interesting buildings are the church of St Cyr, combining various architectural styles, with a fine porch and window, and the chapel of the Hôtel Dieu of the early 16th century. Of the fortifications with which the town was formerly surrounded, a town-gate of the 16th century and the White Tower, a lofty cylindrical building of the reign of Philip Augustus, survive. Issoudun is the seat of a sub-prefecture, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures and a communal college. The industries, of which the most important is leather-dressing, also include malting and brewing and the manufacture of bristles for brushes and parchment. Trade is in grain, live-stock, leather and wine.

Issoudun, in LatinExoldunumorUxellodunum, existed in and before Roman times. In 1195 it was stoutly and successfully defended by the partizans of Richard Cœur-de-Lion against Philip Augustus, king of France. It has suffered severely from fires. A very destructive one in 1651 was the result of an attack on the town in the war of Fronde; Louis XIV. rewarded its fidelity to him during that struggle by the grant of several privileges.

ISSYK-KUL,also calledTuz-Kul, and by the MongolsTemurtu-nor, a lake of Central Asia, lying in a deep basin (5400 ft. above sea-level), between the Kunghei Ala-tau and the Terskei Ala-tau, westward continuations of the Tian-shan mountains, and extending from 76° 10′ to 78° 20′ E. The length from W.S.W. to E.N.E. is 115 m. and the breadth 38 m., the area being estimated at 2230 sq. m. The name is Kirghiz for “warm lake,” and, like the Chinese synonym She-hai, has reference to the fact that the lake is never entirely frozen over. On the south the Terskei Ala-tau do not come down so close to the shore as the mountains on the north, but leave a strip 5 to 13 m. broad. The margins of the lake are overgrown with reeds. The water is brackish. Fish are remarkably abundant, the principal species being carp.

It was by the route beside this lake that the tribes (e.g.Yue-chi) driven from China by the Huns found their way into the Aralo-Caspian basin in the end of the 2nd century. The Ussuns or Uzuns settled on the lake and built the town of Chi-gu, which still existed in the 5th century. It is to Hsüan-tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, that we are indebted for the first account of Issyk-kul based on personal observation. In the beginning of the 14th century Nestorian Christians reached the lake and founded a monastery on the northern shore, indicated on the Catalan map of 1374. It was not till 1856 that the Russians made acquaintance with the district.

ISTAHBANÁT,a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars. The district, which is very fertile, extends for nearly 50 m. east and west along the southern shore of the Bakhtegán lake and produces much grain, cotton, good tobacco and excellent fruit, particularly pomegranates and grapes, walnuts and figs. The town is situated in the midst of a plain 12 m. from the eastern corner of the lake and about 100 m. S.E. of Shiraz, and has a population of about 10,000. It occupies the site of the ancient city of Ij, the capital of the old province of Shabánkáreh, which was captured and partly destroyed by Mubariz ed-din, the founder of the Muzaffarid dynasty, in 1355. When rebuilt it became known by its present name. Of the old period a ruined mosque and two colleges remain; other mosques and colleges are of recent construction. At the entrance of the town stands a noble chinar (oriental plane), measuring 45 ft. in circumference at 2 ft. from the ground.

ISTHMUS(Gr.ἰσθμός, neck), a narrow neck of land connecting two larger portions of land that are otherwise separated by the sea.

ISTRIA(Ger.Istrien), a margraviate and crownland of Austria, bounded N. by the Triestine territory, Görz and Gradisca, and Carniola, E. by Croatia and S. and W. by the Adriatic; area 1908 sq. m. It comprises the peninsula of the same name (area 1545 sq. m.), which stretches into the Adriatic Sea between the Gulf of Trieste and the Gulf of Quarnero, and the islands of Veglia, Cherso, Lussino and others. The coast line of Istria extends for 267 m., including Trieste, and presents many good bays and harbours. Besides the great Gulf of Trieste, the coast is indented on the W. by the bays of Muggia, Capodistria, Pirano, Porto Quieto and Pola, and on the E. by those of Medolino, Arsa, Fianona and Volosca. A great portion of Istria belongs to the Karst region, and is occupied by the so-called Istrian plateau, flanked on the north and east by high mountains, which attain in the Monte Maggiore an altitude of 4573 ft. In the south and west the surface gradually slopes down in undulating terraces towards the Adriatic. The Quieto in the west and the Arsa in the east, neither navigable, are the principal streams. The climate of Istria, although it varies with the varieties of surface, is on the whole warm and dry. The coasts are exposed to the prevailing winds, namely theSiroccofrom the south-south-east, and theBorafrom the north-east. Of the total area 33.21% is occupied by forests, 32.09% by pastures, 11.2% by arable land, 9.5% by vineyards, 7.21% by meadows and 3.26% by gardens. The principal agricultural products are wheat, maize, rye, oats and fruit, namely olives, figs and melons. Viticulture is well developed, and the best sorts of wine are produced near Capodistria, Muggia, Isola, Parenzo and Dignano, while well-known red wines are made near Refosco and Terrano. The oil of Istria was already famous in Roman times. Cattle-breedingis another great source of revenue, and the exploitation of the forests gives beech and oak timber (good for shipbuilding), gall-nuts, oak-bark and cork. Fishing, the recovery of salt from the sea-water, and shipbuilding constitute the other principal occupations of the population. Istria had in 1900 a population of 344,173, equivalent to 180 inhabitants per square mile. Two-thirds of the population were Slavs and the remainder Italians, while nearly the whole of the inhabitants (99.6%) were Roman Catholics, under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of three bishops. The local Diet, which meets at Parenzo, and of which the three bishops are membersex-officio, is composed of 33 members, and Istria sends 5 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the province is divided into 6 districts and an autonomous municipality, Rovigno (pop. 10,205). Other important places are Pola (45,052), Capodistria (10,711), Pinguente (15,827), Albona (10,968), Isola (7500), Parenzo (9962), Dignano (9684), Castua (17,988), Pirano (13,339) and Mitterburg (16,056).

The modern Istria occupies the same position as the ancient Istria or Histria, known to the Romans as the abode of a fierce tribe of Illyrian pirates. It owed its name to an old belief that the Danube (Ister, in Greek) discharged some of its water by an arm entering the Adriatic in that region. The Istrians, protected by the difficult navigation of their rocky coasts, were only subdued by the Romans in 177B.C.after two wars. Under Augustus the greater part of the peninsula was added to Italy, and, when the seat of empire was removed to Ravenna, Istria reaped many benefits from the proximity of the capital. After the fall of the Western empire it was pillaged by the Longobardi and the Goths; it was annexed to the Frankish kingdom by Pippin in 789; and about the middle of the 10th century it fell into the hands of the dukes of Carinthia. Fortune after that, however, led it successively through the hands of the dukes of Meran, the duke of Bavaria and the patriarch of Aquileia, to the republic of Venice. Under this rule it remained till the peace of Campo Formio in 1797, when Austria acquired it, and added it to the north-eastern part which had fallen to her share so early as 1374. By the peace of Pressburg, Austria was in 1805 compelled to cede Istria to France, and the department of Istria was formed; but in 1813 Austria again seized it, and has retained it ever since.

See T. G. Jackson,Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria(Oxford, 1887).

ISYLLUS,a Greek poet, whose name was rediscovered in the course of excavations on the site of the temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus. An inscription was found engraved on stone, consisting of 72 lines of verse (trochaic tetrameters, hexameters, ionics), mainly in the Doric dialect. It is preceded by two lines of prose stating that the author was Isyllus, an Epidaurian, and that it was dedicated to Asclepius and Apollo of Malea. It contains a few political remarks, showing general sympathy with an aristocratic form of government; a self-congratulatory notice of the resolution, passed at the poet’s instigation, to arrange a solemn procession in honour of the two gods; a paean (no doubt for use in the procession), chiefly occupied with the genealogical relations of Apollo and Asclepius; a poem of thanks for the assistance rendered to Sparta by Asclepius against Philip, when he led an army against Sparta to put down the monarchy. The offer of assistance was made by the god himself to the youthful poet, who had entered the Asclepieum to pray for recovery from illness, and communicated the good news to the Spartans. The Philip referred to is identified with (a) Philip II. of Macedon, who invaded Peloponnesus after the battle of Chaeronea in 338, or (b) with Philip III., who undertook a similar campaign in 218.

Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, who characterizes Isyllus as a “poetaster without talent and a farcical politician,” has written an elaborate treatise on him (Kiessling and Möllendorff,Philosophische Untersuchungen, Heft 9, 1886), containing the text with notes, and essays on the political condition of Peloponnesus and the cult of Asclepius. The inscription was first edited by P. Kavvadias (1885), and by J. F. Baunack inStudien auf dem Gebiete der griechischen und der arischen Sprachen(1886).

ITACOLUMITE,the name given to a variety of porous yellow sandstone or quartzose schist, which occurs at Itacolumi, in the southern portion of Minas Geraes, Brazil. This rock is of interest for two reasons; it is believed to be the source of the diamonds which are found in great numbers in the district, and it is the best and most widely known example of a flexible sandstone. Itacolumite is yellow or pale-brown, and splits readily into thin flat slabs. It is a member of a metamorphic series, being accompanied by clay-slate, mica schist, hornblende schist and various types of ferriferous schists. In many places itacolumite is really a coarse grit or fine conglomerate. Other quartzites occur in the district, and there is some doubt whether the diamantiferous sandstones are always itacolumites and also as to the exact manner in which the presence of diamond in these rocks is to be accounted for. Some authorities hold that the diamond has been formed in certain quartz veins which traverse the itacolumite. It is clear, however, that the diamonds are found only in those streams which contain the detritus of this rock.

On the split faces of the slabs, scales of greenish mica are visible, but in other respects the rock seems to be remarkably pure. If a piece which is a foot or two long and half an inch thick be supported at its ends it will gradually bend by its own weight. If it then be turned over it will straighten and bend in the opposite direction. Flakes a millimetre or two thick can be bent between the fingers and are said to give out a creaking sound. It should be noted that specimens showing this property form only a small part of the whole mass of the rock. Flexible rocks have also been reported and described from North and South Carolina, Georgia, Delhi, and from the north of England (Durham). They are mostly sandstones or quartzites, but the Durham rock is a variety of the magnesian limestone of that district.Some discussion has taken place regarding the cause of the flexibility. At one time it was ascribed to the presence of thin scales of mica which were believed to permit a certain amount of motion between adjacent grains of quartz. More probably, however it is due to the porous character of the rock together with the interlocking junctions between the sand grains. The porosity allows interstitial movement, while the hinge-like joints by which the particles are connected hold them together in spite of the displacement. These features are dependent to some extent on weathering, as the rocks contain perishable constituents which are removed and leave open cavities in their place, while at the same time additional silica may have been deposited on the quartz grains fitting their irregular surfaces more perfectly together. Most of the known flexible rocks are also fine-grained; in some cases they are said to lose their flexibility after being dried for some time, probably because of the hardening of some interstitial substance, but many specimens kept in a dry atmosphere for years retain this property in a high degree.

Some discussion has taken place regarding the cause of the flexibility. At one time it was ascribed to the presence of thin scales of mica which were believed to permit a certain amount of motion between adjacent grains of quartz. More probably, however it is due to the porous character of the rock together with the interlocking junctions between the sand grains. The porosity allows interstitial movement, while the hinge-like joints by which the particles are connected hold them together in spite of the displacement. These features are dependent to some extent on weathering, as the rocks contain perishable constituents which are removed and leave open cavities in their place, while at the same time additional silica may have been deposited on the quartz grains fitting their irregular surfaces more perfectly together. Most of the known flexible rocks are also fine-grained; in some cases they are said to lose their flexibility after being dried for some time, probably because of the hardening of some interstitial substance, but many specimens kept in a dry atmosphere for years retain this property in a high degree.

(J. S. F.)

ITAGAKI, TAISUKE,Count(1837- ), Japanese statesman, was born in Tosa in 1837. He distinguished himself originally as one of the soldier politicians who contributed so much to the overthrow of feudalism and the restoration of the administrative power to the throne. After taking a prominent part in subduing the resistance offered by a section of theshogun’sfeudatories to those changes, he received cabinet rank in the newly organized system. But in 1873 he resigned his portfolio as a protest against the ministry’s resolve to refrain from warlike action against Korea. This incident inspired Itagaki with an apprehension that the country was about to pass under the yoke of a bureaucratic government. He became thenceforth a warm advocate of constitutional systems, though at the outset he does not seem to have contemplated anything like a popular assembly in the English sense of the term, his ideas being limited to the enfranchisement of thesamuraiclass. Failing to obtain currency for his radical propaganda, he retired to his native province, and there established a school (theRisshi-sha) for teaching the principles of government by the people, thus earning for himself the epithet of “the Rousseau of Japan.” His example found imitators. Not only did pupils flock to Tosa from many quarters, attracted alike by the novelty of Itagaki’s doctrines, by his eloquence and by his transparent sincerity, but also similar schools sprang up among the former vassals of other fiefs, who saw themselves excluded from the government. In 1875 no less than seven of these schools sent deputies to hold a convention in Osaka, and for a moment an appeal to force seemed possible. But the statesmen in power were not less favourable to constitutional institutions than the members of theAikoku Kō-tō(public party of patriots), as Itagaki and his followers called themselves. A conference attended by Kido, Okubo, Inouye, Ito, Itagaki and othersentered into an agreement by which they pledged themselves to the principle of a constitutional monarchy and a legislative assembly. Itagaki now accepted office once more. Finding, however, that his colleagues in the administration favoured a much more leisurely rate of progress than he himself advocated, he once more retired into private life (1876) and renewed his liberal propagandism. It is in the nature of such movements to develop violent phases, and the leaders of theAikoku-sha(patriotic association), as the agitators now called themselves, not infrequently showed disregard for the preservation of peace and order. Itagaki made the mistake of memorializing the government at the moment when its very existence was imperilled by the Satsuma rebellion (1877), and this evident disposition to take advantage of a great public peril went far to alienate the sympathies of the cabinet. Recourse was had to legislation in restraint of free speech and public meeting. But repression served only to provoke opposition. Throughout 1879 and 1880 Itagaki’s followers evinced no little skill in employing the weapons of local association, public meetings and platform tours, and in November 1881 the first genuine political party was formed in Japan under the name ofJiyū-tō, with Itagaki for declared leader. A year later the emperor announced that a parliamentary system should be inaugurated in 1891, and Itagaki’s task might be said to have been accomplished. Thenceforth he devoted himself to consolidating his party. In the spring of 1882, he was stabbed by a fanatic during the reception given in the public park at Gifu. The words he addressed to his would-be assassin were: “Itagaki may perish, but liberty will survive.” Once afterwards (1898) he held office as minister of home affairs, and in 1900 he stepped down from the leadership of theJiyū-tōin order that the latter might form the nucleus of theSeiyū-kaiorganized by Count Ito. Itagaki was raised to the nobility with the title of “count” in 1887. From the year 1900 he retired into private life, devoting himself to the solution of socialistic problems. His countrymen justly ascribe to him the fame of having been the first to organize and lead a political party in Japan.

ITALIAN LANGUAGE.1The Italian language is the language of culture in the whole of the present kingdom of Italy, in some parts of Switzerland (the canton of Ticino and part of the Grisons), in some parts of the Austrian territory (the districts of Trent and Görz, Istria along with Trieste, and the Dalmatian coast), and in the islands of Corsica2and Malta. In the Ionian Islands, likewise, in the maritime cities of the Levant, in Egypt, and more particularly in Tunis, this literary language is extensively maintained through the numerous Italian colonies and the ancient traditions of trade.

The Italian language has its native seat and living source in Middle Italy, or more precisely Tuscany and indeed Florence. For real linguistic unity is far from existing in Italy; in some respects the variety is less, in others more observable than in other countries which equally boast a political and literary unity. Thus, for example, Italy affords no linguistic contrast so violent as that presented by Great Britain with its English dialects alongside of the Celtic dialects of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, or by France with the French dialects alongside of the Celtic dialects of Brittany, not to speak of the Basque of the Pyrenees and other heterogeneous elements. The presence of not a few Slavs stretching into the district of Udine (Friuli), of Albanian, Greek and Slav settlers in the southern provinces, with the Catalans of Alghero (Sardinia, v.Arch. glott.ix. 261 et seq.), a few Germans at Monte Rosa and in some corners of Venetia, and a remnant or two of other comparatively modern immigrations is not sufficient to produce any such strong contrast in the conditions of the national speech. But, on the other hand, the Neo-Latin dialects which live on side by side in Italy differ from each other much more markedly than, for example, the English dialects or the Spanish; and it must be added that, in Upper Italy especially, the familiar use of the dialects is tenaciously retained even by the most cultivated classes of the population.

In the present rapid sketch of the forms of speech which occur in modern Italy, before considering the Tuscan or Italianpar excellence, the language which has come to be the noble organ of modern national culture, it will be convenient to discuss (A) dialects connected in a greater or less degree with Neo-Latin systems that are not peculiar to Italy;3(B) dialects which are detached from the true and proper Italian system, but form no integral part of any foreign Neo-Latin system; and (C) dialects which diverge more or less from the true Italian and Tuscan type, but which at the same time can be conjoined with the Tuscan as forming part of a special system of Neo-Latin dialects.

A.Dialects which depend in a greater or less degree on Neo-Latin systems not peculiar to Italy.

1.Franco-Provençal and Provençal Dialects.—(a)Franco-Provençal(see Ascoli,Arch. glott.iii. 61-120; Suchier, inGrundriss der romanischen Philologie, 2nd ed., i. 755, &c.; Nigra,Arch. glott.iii. 1 sqq.; Salvioni,Rendic. istit. lomb., s. ii. vol. xxxvii. 1043 sqq.; Cerlogne,Dictionnaire du patois valdôtain(Aosta, 1907). These occupy at the present time very limited areas at the extreme north-west of the kingdom of Italy. The system stretches from the borders of Savoy and Valais into the upper basin of the Dora Baltea and into the head-valleys of the Orco, of the northern Stura, and of the Dora Riparia. As this portion is cut off by the Alps from the rest of the system, the type is badly preserved; in the valleys of the Stura and the Dora Riparia, indeed, it is passing away and everywhere yielding to the Piedmontese. The most salient characteristic of the Franco-Provençal is the phonetic phenomenon by which the Latina, whether as an accented or as an unaccented final, is reduced to a thin vowel (ḛ,i) when it follows a sound which is or has been palatal, but on the contrary is kept intact when it follows a sound of another sort. The following are examples from the Italian side of these Alps:Aosta:travaljí, Fr. travailler;zarźí, Fr. charger;enteruźí, Fr. interroger;zḛvra, Fr. chèvre;zir, Fr. cher;gljáçḛ, Fr. glace;vázze, Fr. vache; alongside ofsa, Fr. sel;maṅ, Fr. main;epóusa, Fr. épouse;erba, Fr. herbe.Val. Soana:taljér, Fr. tailler;coćí-sse, Fr. se coucher;ćiṅ, Fr. chien;ćívra, Fr. chèvre;vaćći, Fr. vache;mánģi, Fr. manche; alongside ofalár, Fr. aller;porta, Fr. porté;amára, Fr. amère;néva, Fr. neuve.Chiamorio(Val di Lanzo):la spranssi dla vendeta, sperantia de illa vindicta.Viù:pansci, pancia.Usseglio:la müragli, muraille. A morphological characteristic is the preservation of that paradigm which is legitimately traced back to the Latin pluperfect indicative, although possibly it may arise from a fusion of this pluperfect with the imperfect subjunctive (amaram, amarem, alongside of habueram, haberem), having in Franco-Provençal as well as in Provençal and in the continental Italian dialects in which it will be met with further on (C. 3,b; cf. B. 2) the function of the conditional.Val Soana:portáro,portáre,portáret;portáront;Aosta:ávre= Prov.agra, haberet (seeArch.iii. 31n). The finaltin the third persons of this paradigm in the Val Soana dialect is, or was, constant in the whole conjugation, and becomes in its turn a particular characteristic in this section of the Franco-Provençal.Val Soana:éret, Lat. erat;sejt, sit;pórtet,portávet;portǫnt,portávǫnt;Chiamorio:jéret, erat;ant dit, habent dictum;èjssount fêt, habuissent factum;Viu:che s’mínget, Ital. che si mangi:Gravere(Val di Susa):at pensá, ha pensato;avát, habebat;Giaglione(sources of the Dora Riparia);maciávont, mangiavano.—From the valleys, where, as has just been said, the type is disappearing, a few examples of what is still genuine Franco-Provençal may be subjoined:Ćivreri(the name of a mountain between the Stura and the Dora Riparia), which, according to the regular course of evolution, presupposes a LatinCapraria(cf.maneri, maniera, even in the Chiamorio dialect);ćarastí(ciarastì), carestia, in the Viu dialect; andćintá, cantare, in that of Usseglio. FromChiamorio,li téns, i tempi, andchejches birbes, alcune (qualche) birbe, are worthy of mention on account of thefinals. [In this connexion should also be mentioned the Franco-Provençal colonies of Transalpine origin, Faeto and Celle, in Apulia (v.Morosi,Archivio glottologico, xii. 33-75), the linguistic relations of which are clearly shown by such examples astalíj, Ital. tagliare;bañíj, Ital. bagnare; side by side withćantǡ, Ital. cantare;luǡ, Ital. levare.](b)Provençal(seeLa Letturai. 716-717,Romanische Forschungenxxiii. 525-539).—Farther south, but still in the same western extremity of Piedmont, phenomena continuous with those of the Maritime Alps supply the means of passing from the Franco-Provençal to the Provençal proper, precisely as the same transition takes place beyond the Cottian Alps in Dauphiné almost in the same latitude. On the Italian side of the Cottian and the Maritime Alps the Franco-Provençal and the Provençal are connected with each other by the continuity of the phenomenonć(a pure explosive) from the Latincbeforea. AtOulx(sources of the Dora Riparia), which seems, however, to have a rather mixed dialect, there also occurs the important Franco-Provençal phenomenon of the surd interdental (Englishthinthief) instead of the surd sibilant (for exampleithí= Fr. ici). At the same timeagü= avuto, takes us to the Provençal. [If, in addition to the Provençal characteristic of whichagǘis an example, we consider those characteristics also Provençal, such as theoforafinal unaccented, the preservation of the Latin diphthongau,pbetween vowels preserved asb, we shall find that they occur, together or separately, in all the Alpine varieties of Piedmont, from the upper valleys of the Dora Riparia and Clusone to the Colle di Tenda. Thus atFenestrelle(upper valley of the Clusone):agü,vengü, Ital. venuto;pauc, Lat.paucu, Ital. poco;aribá(Lat.rīpa), Ital. arrivare;trubá, Ital. trovare;ciabrin, Ital. capretto; atOulx(source of the Dora Riparia):agü,vengü;üno gran famino è venüo, Ital. una gran fame è venuta; atGiaglione:auvou, Ital. odo (Lat.audio);arribá,resebü, Ital. ricevuto (Lat.recipere); atOncino(source of the Po):agü,vengü;ero en campagno, Ital. “era in campagna”;donavo, Ital. dava;paure, Lat.pauper, Ital. povero;trubá,ciabrí; atSanpeyre(valley of the Varaita):agü,volgü, Ital. voluto;pressioso, Ital. preziosa;fasio, Ital. faceva;trobar; atAcceglio(valley of the Macra):venghess, Ital. venisse;virro, Ital. ghiera;chesto allegrio, Ital. questa allegria;ero, Ital. era;trobá; atCastelmagno(valley of the Grana):gü,vengü;rabbio, Ital. rabbia;trubar; atVinadio(valley of the southern Stura);agü,beigü, Ital. bevuto;cadëno, Ital. catena;mangģo, Ital. manica;ćanto, Ital. canta;pau,auvì, Ital. udito;šabe, Ital. sapete;trobar; atValdieriandRoaschia(valley of the Gesso):purgü, Ital. potuto;pjagü, Ital. piaciuto;corrogǘ, Ital. corso;pau;arribá,ciabri; atLimone(Colle di Tenda):agü,vengü;saber, Ital. sapere;arübá,trubava. Provençal also, though of a character rather Transalpine (like that of Dauphiné) than native, are the dialects of the Vaudois population above Pinerolo (v.Morosi,Arch. glott.xi. 309-416), and their colonies of Guardia in Calabria (ib.xi. 381-393) and of Neu-Hengstett and Pinache-Serres in Württemberg (ib.xi. 393-398). The Vaudois literary language, in which is written theNobla Leyczon, has, however, no direct connexion with any of the spoken dialects; it is a literary language, and is connected with literary Provençal, the language of thetroubadours; see W. Foerster,Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen(1888) Nos. 20-21.]2.Ladin Dialects(Ascoli,Arch. glott.i., iv. 342 sqq., vii. 406 sqq.; Gartner,Rätoromanische Grammatik(Heilbronn, 1883), and inGrundriss der romanischen Philologie, 2nd ed., i. 608 sqq.; Salvioni,Arch. glott.xvi. 219 sqq.).—The purest of the Ladin dialects occur on the northern versant of the Alps in the Grisons (Switzerland), and they form the western section of the system. To this section also belongs both politically and in the matter of dialect the valley of Münster (Monastero); it sends its waters to the Adige, and might indeed consequently be geographically considered Italian, but it slopes towards the north. In the central section of the Ladin zone there are two other valleys which likewise drain into tributaries of the Adige, but are also turned towards the north,—the valleys of the Gardena and Gadera, in which occurs the purest Ladin now extant in the central section. The valleys of Münster, the Gardena and the Gadera may thus be regarded as inter-Alpine, and the question may be left open whether or not they should be included even geographically in Italy. There remain, however, within what are strictly Italian limits, the valleys of the Noce, the Avisio, the Cordevole, and the Boite, and the upper basin of the Piave (Comelico), in which are preserved Ladin dialects, more or less pure, belonging to the central section of the Ladin zone or belt. To Italy belongs, further, the whole eastern section of the zone composed of the Friulian territories. It is by far the most populous, containing about 500,000 inhabitants. The Friulian region is bounded on the north by the Carnic Alps, south by the Adriatic, and west by the eastern rim of the upper basin of the Piave and the Livenza; while on the east it stretches into the eastern versant of the basin of the Isonzo, and, further the ancient dialect of Trieste was itself Ladin (Arch. glott.x. 447 et seq.). The Ladin element is further found in greater or less degree throughout an altogether Cis-Alpine “amphizone,” which begins at the western slopes of Monte Rosa, and is to be noticed more particularly in the upper valley of the Ticino and the upper valley of the Liro and of the Mera on the Lombardy versant, and in the Val Fiorentina and central Cadore on the Venetian versant. The Ladin element is clearly observable in the most ancient examples of the dialects of the Venetian estuary (Arch.i. 448-473). The main characteristics by which the Ladin type is determined may be summarized as follows: (1) the guttural of the formulaec+aandg+apasses into a palatal; (2) thelof the formulaepl,cl, &c., is preserved; (3) thesof the ancient terminations is preserved; (4) the accentedein position breaks into a diphthong; (5) the accentedoin position breaks into a diphthong; (6) the form of the diphthong which comes from short accentedoor from theoof position isue(whenceüe,ö); (7) long accentedeand short accentedibreak into a diphthong, the purest form of which is soundedei; (8) the accentedatends, within certain limits, to change intoe, especially if preceded by a palatal sound; (9) the long accenteduis represented byü. These characteristics are all foreign to true and genuine Italian.Ćárn, carne;spelunća, spelunca;clefs, claves;fuormas, formae;infiern, infernu;ördi, hordeu;möd, modu;plain, plenu;pail, pilu;quael, quale;pür, puru—may be taken as examples from the Upper Engadine (western section of the zone). The following are examples from the central and eastern sections on the Italian versant:—a. Central Section.—Basin of the Noce: examples of the dialect of Fondo:ćavél, capillu;pesćadór, piscatore;pluévia, pluvia (plovia);pluma(dial. of Val de Rumo:plövia,plümo);vécla, vetula;ćántes, cantas. The dialects of this basin are disappearing.—Basin of the Avisio: examples of the dialect of the Val di Fassa:ćarn, carne;ćéžer, cadere (cad-jere);váća, vacca;fórća, furca;gléžia(géžia), ecclesia;oeglje(oeje), oculi;ćans, canes;rámes, rami;teila, tela;néif, nive;coessa, coxa. The dialects of this basin which are farther west than Fassa are gradually being merged in the Veneto-Tridentine dialects.—Basin of the Cordevole: here the district of Livinal-Lungo (Buchenstein) is Austrian politically, and that of Rocca d’ Agordo and Laste is Italian. Examples of the dialect of Livinal-Lungo:ćarié, Ital. caricare;ćanté, cantatus;ógle, oculu;ćans, canes;ćavéis, capilli;viérm, verme;fŭóc, focu;avéĭ, habere;néi, nive.—Basin of the Boite: here the district of Ampezzo (Heiden) is politically Austrian, that of Oltrechiusa Italian. Examples of the dialect of Ampezzo arećasa, casa;ćandéra, candela;fórćes, furcae, pl.;séntes, sentis. It is a decadent form.—Upper Basin of the Piave: dialect of the Comelico:ćésa, casa;ćen(can), cane;ćaljé, caligariu;bos, boves;noevo, novu;loego, locu.b. Eastern Section or Friulian Region.—Here there still exists a flourishing “Ladinity,” but at the same time it tends towards Italian, particularly in the want both of theefromáand of theü(and consequently of theö). Examples of the Udine variety:ćarr, carro;ćavál, caballu;ćastiél, castellu;fórće, furca;clar, claru;glaç, glacie;plan, planu;colors, colores;lungs, longi, pl.;dévis, debes;vidiél, vitello;fiéste, festa;puéss, possum;cuétt, coctu;uárdi, hordeu.—The most ancient specimens of the Friulian dialect belong to the 14th century (seeArch.iv. 188 sqq.).

(b)Provençal(seeLa Letturai. 716-717,Romanische Forschungenxxiii. 525-539).—Farther south, but still in the same western extremity of Piedmont, phenomena continuous with those of the Maritime Alps supply the means of passing from the Franco-Provençal to the Provençal proper, precisely as the same transition takes place beyond the Cottian Alps in Dauphiné almost in the same latitude. On the Italian side of the Cottian and the Maritime Alps the Franco-Provençal and the Provençal are connected with each other by the continuity of the phenomenonć(a pure explosive) from the Latincbeforea. AtOulx(sources of the Dora Riparia), which seems, however, to have a rather mixed dialect, there also occurs the important Franco-Provençal phenomenon of the surd interdental (Englishthinthief) instead of the surd sibilant (for exampleithí= Fr. ici). At the same timeagü= avuto, takes us to the Provençal. [If, in addition to the Provençal characteristic of whichagǘis an example, we consider those characteristics also Provençal, such as theoforafinal unaccented, the preservation of the Latin diphthongau,pbetween vowels preserved asb, we shall find that they occur, together or separately, in all the Alpine varieties of Piedmont, from the upper valleys of the Dora Riparia and Clusone to the Colle di Tenda. Thus atFenestrelle(upper valley of the Clusone):agü,vengü, Ital. venuto;pauc, Lat.paucu, Ital. poco;aribá(Lat.rīpa), Ital. arrivare;trubá, Ital. trovare;ciabrin, Ital. capretto; atOulx(source of the Dora Riparia):agü,vengü;üno gran famino è venüo, Ital. una gran fame è venuta; atGiaglione:auvou, Ital. odo (Lat.audio);arribá,resebü, Ital. ricevuto (Lat.recipere); atOncino(source of the Po):agü,vengü;ero en campagno, Ital. “era in campagna”;donavo, Ital. dava;paure, Lat.pauper, Ital. povero;trubá,ciabrí; atSanpeyre(valley of the Varaita):agü,volgü, Ital. voluto;pressioso, Ital. preziosa;fasio, Ital. faceva;trobar; atAcceglio(valley of the Macra):venghess, Ital. venisse;virro, Ital. ghiera;chesto allegrio, Ital. questa allegria;ero, Ital. era;trobá; atCastelmagno(valley of the Grana):gü,vengü;rabbio, Ital. rabbia;trubar; atVinadio(valley of the southern Stura);agü,beigü, Ital. bevuto;cadëno, Ital. catena;mangģo, Ital. manica;ćanto, Ital. canta;pau,auvì, Ital. udito;šabe, Ital. sapete;trobar; atValdieriandRoaschia(valley of the Gesso):purgü, Ital. potuto;pjagü, Ital. piaciuto;corrogǘ, Ital. corso;pau;arribá,ciabri; atLimone(Colle di Tenda):agü,vengü;saber, Ital. sapere;arübá,trubava. Provençal also, though of a character rather Transalpine (like that of Dauphiné) than native, are the dialects of the Vaudois population above Pinerolo (v.Morosi,Arch. glott.xi. 309-416), and their colonies of Guardia in Calabria (ib.xi. 381-393) and of Neu-Hengstett and Pinache-Serres in Württemberg (ib.xi. 393-398). The Vaudois literary language, in which is written theNobla Leyczon, has, however, no direct connexion with any of the spoken dialects; it is a literary language, and is connected with literary Provençal, the language of thetroubadours; see W. Foerster,Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen(1888) Nos. 20-21.]

2.Ladin Dialects(Ascoli,Arch. glott.i., iv. 342 sqq., vii. 406 sqq.; Gartner,Rätoromanische Grammatik(Heilbronn, 1883), and inGrundriss der romanischen Philologie, 2nd ed., i. 608 sqq.; Salvioni,Arch. glott.xvi. 219 sqq.).—The purest of the Ladin dialects occur on the northern versant of the Alps in the Grisons (Switzerland), and they form the western section of the system. To this section also belongs both politically and in the matter of dialect the valley of Münster (Monastero); it sends its waters to the Adige, and might indeed consequently be geographically considered Italian, but it slopes towards the north. In the central section of the Ladin zone there are two other valleys which likewise drain into tributaries of the Adige, but are also turned towards the north,—the valleys of the Gardena and Gadera, in which occurs the purest Ladin now extant in the central section. The valleys of Münster, the Gardena and the Gadera may thus be regarded as inter-Alpine, and the question may be left open whether or not they should be included even geographically in Italy. There remain, however, within what are strictly Italian limits, the valleys of the Noce, the Avisio, the Cordevole, and the Boite, and the upper basin of the Piave (Comelico), in which are preserved Ladin dialects, more or less pure, belonging to the central section of the Ladin zone or belt. To Italy belongs, further, the whole eastern section of the zone composed of the Friulian territories. It is by far the most populous, containing about 500,000 inhabitants. The Friulian region is bounded on the north by the Carnic Alps, south by the Adriatic, and west by the eastern rim of the upper basin of the Piave and the Livenza; while on the east it stretches into the eastern versant of the basin of the Isonzo, and, further the ancient dialect of Trieste was itself Ladin (Arch. glott.x. 447 et seq.). The Ladin element is further found in greater or less degree throughout an altogether Cis-Alpine “amphizone,” which begins at the western slopes of Monte Rosa, and is to be noticed more particularly in the upper valley of the Ticino and the upper valley of the Liro and of the Mera on the Lombardy versant, and in the Val Fiorentina and central Cadore on the Venetian versant. The Ladin element is clearly observable in the most ancient examples of the dialects of the Venetian estuary (Arch.i. 448-473). The main characteristics by which the Ladin type is determined may be summarized as follows: (1) the guttural of the formulaec+aandg+apasses into a palatal; (2) thelof the formulaepl,cl, &c., is preserved; (3) thesof the ancient terminations is preserved; (4) the accentedein position breaks into a diphthong; (5) the accentedoin position breaks into a diphthong; (6) the form of the diphthong which comes from short accentedoor from theoof position isue(whenceüe,ö); (7) long accentedeand short accentedibreak into a diphthong, the purest form of which is soundedei; (8) the accentedatends, within certain limits, to change intoe, especially if preceded by a palatal sound; (9) the long accenteduis represented byü. These characteristics are all foreign to true and genuine Italian.Ćárn, carne;spelunća, spelunca;clefs, claves;fuormas, formae;infiern, infernu;ördi, hordeu;möd, modu;plain, plenu;pail, pilu;quael, quale;pür, puru—may be taken as examples from the Upper Engadine (western section of the zone). The following are examples from the central and eastern sections on the Italian versant:—

a. Central Section.—Basin of the Noce: examples of the dialect of Fondo:ćavél, capillu;pesćadór, piscatore;pluévia, pluvia (plovia);pluma(dial. of Val de Rumo:plövia,plümo);vécla, vetula;ćántes, cantas. The dialects of this basin are disappearing.—Basin of the Avisio: examples of the dialect of the Val di Fassa:ćarn, carne;ćéžer, cadere (cad-jere);váća, vacca;fórća, furca;gléžia(géžia), ecclesia;oeglje(oeje), oculi;ćans, canes;rámes, rami;teila, tela;néif, nive;coessa, coxa. The dialects of this basin which are farther west than Fassa are gradually being merged in the Veneto-Tridentine dialects.—Basin of the Cordevole: here the district of Livinal-Lungo (Buchenstein) is Austrian politically, and that of Rocca d’ Agordo and Laste is Italian. Examples of the dialect of Livinal-Lungo:ćarié, Ital. caricare;ćanté, cantatus;ógle, oculu;ćans, canes;ćavéis, capilli;viérm, verme;fŭóc, focu;avéĭ, habere;néi, nive.—Basin of the Boite: here the district of Ampezzo (Heiden) is politically Austrian, that of Oltrechiusa Italian. Examples of the dialect of Ampezzo arećasa, casa;ćandéra, candela;fórćes, furcae, pl.;séntes, sentis. It is a decadent form.—Upper Basin of the Piave: dialect of the Comelico:ćésa, casa;ćen(can), cane;ćaljé, caligariu;bos, boves;noevo, novu;loego, locu.

b. Eastern Section or Friulian Region.—Here there still exists a flourishing “Ladinity,” but at the same time it tends towards Italian, particularly in the want both of theefromáand of theü(and consequently of theö). Examples of the Udine variety:ćarr, carro;ćavál, caballu;ćastiél, castellu;fórće, furca;clar, claru;glaç, glacie;plan, planu;colors, colores;lungs, longi, pl.;dévis, debes;vidiél, vitello;fiéste, festa;puéss, possum;cuétt, coctu;uárdi, hordeu.—The most ancient specimens of the Friulian dialect belong to the 14th century (seeArch.iv. 188 sqq.).

B.Dialects which are detached from the true and proper Italian system, but form no integral part of any foreign Neo-Latin system.

1. Here first of all is the extensive system of the dialects usually calledGallo-Italian, although that designation cannot be considered sufficiently distinctive, since it would be equally applicable to the Franco-Provençal (A. 1) and the Ladin (A. 2). The system is subdivided into four great groups—(a) theLigurian, (b) thePiedmontese, (c) theLombardand (d) theEmilian—the name furnishing on the whole sufficient indication of the localization and limits.—These groups, considered more particularly in their more pronounced varieties, differ greatly from each other; and, in regard to the Ligurian, it was even denied that it belongs to this system at all (seeArch.ii. III sqq.).—Characteristic of the Piedmontese, the Lombard and the Emilian is the continual elision of the unaccented final vowels excepta(e.g.Turineseöj, oculu; Milanesevǫç, voce; Bolognesevîd, Ital. vite), but the Ligurian does not keep them company (e.g.Genoeseöģģu, oculu;vǫže, voce). In the Piedmontese and Emilian there is further a tendency to eliminate the protonic vowels—a tendency much more pronounced in the second of these groups than in the first (e.g.Pied,dné, danaro;vśin, vicino;fnôć, finocchio; Bolognesećprà, disperato). This phenomenon involves in large measure that of the prothesis ofa; as,e.g.in Piedmontese and Emilianarmor, rumore; Emilianalvär, levare, &c. U for the long accented Latinuandöfor the short accented Latino(and even within certain limits the short Latinóof position) are common to the Piedmontese, the Ligurian, the Lombard and the northernmost section of the Emilian:e.g., Turinese, Milanese and Piacentinedür, and Genoesedüu, duro; Turinese and Genoesemöve, Parmigianemöver, and Milanesemöf, muovere; Piedmontesedörm, dorme; Milanesevölta, volta.Eifor the long accented Latineand for the short accented Latiniis common to the Piedmontese and the Ligurian, and even extends over a large part of Emilia:e.g.Turinese and Genoeseavéi, habere, Bologneseavéir; Turinese and Genoesebeive, bibere, Bologneseneiv, neve. In Emilia and part of Piedmonteioccurs also in the formulaeĕn,ent,emp;e.g.Bolognese and Modenesebeiṅ,solaméint. In connexion with these examples, there is also the Bolognesefeiṅ, Ital. fine, representing the series in whicheis derived from anífollowed byn, a phenomenon which occurs, to a greater or less extent throughout the Emilian dialects; in themalso is found, parallel with theḛifromḛ, theoufromǫ: Bologneseudóur, Ital. odore;famóus, Ital. famoso;lóuv, lŭpu. The system shows a repugnance throughout toiefor the short accented Latine(as it occurs in Italianpiede, &c.); in other words, this diphthong has died out, but in various fashions; Piedmontese and Lombarddeç, dieci; Genoesedēže(in some corners of Liguria, however, occursdieže); Bolognesediç, old Bolognese,diese. The greater part of the phenomena indicated above have “Gallic” counterparts too evident to require to be specially pointed out. One of the most important traces of Gallic or Celtic reaction is the reduction of the Latin accentedaintoe(ä, &c.), of which phenomenon, however, no certain indications have as yet been found in the Ligurian group. On the other hand it remains, in the case of very many of the Piedmontese dialects, in theéof the infinitives of the first conjugation:porté, portare, &c.; and numerous vestiges of it are still found in Lombardy (e.g.in Bassa Brianza:andae, andato;guardae, guardato;sae, sale; seeArch.i. 296-298, 536). Emilia also preserves it in very extensive use: Modeneseandér, andare;arivéda, arrivata;peç, pace; Faenzanparlé, parlare and parlato;parléda, parlata;ches, caso; &c. The phenomenon, in company with other Gallo-Italian and more specially Emilian characteristics extends to the valley of the Metauro, and even passes to the opposite side of the Apennines, spreading on both banks of the head stream of the Tiber and through the valley of the Chiane: hence the typesartrovér, ritrovare,portéto, portato, &c., of the Perugian and Aretine dialects (seeinfraC. 3,b). In the phenomenon ofápassing intoe(as indeed, the Gallo-Italic evolution of other Latin vowels) special distinctions would require to be drawn between bases in which a (not standing in position) precedes a non-nasal consonant (e.g.amáto), and those which have a before a nasal: and in the latter case there would be a non-positional subdivision (e.g.fáme, páne) and a positional one (e.g.quánto, amándo, cámpo); seeArch.i. 293 sqq. This leads us to the nasals, a category of sounds comprising other Gallo-Italic characteristics. There occurs more or less widely, throughout all the sections of the system, and in different gradations, that “velar” nasal in the end of a syllable (paṅ, maṅ; ćáṅta, moṅt)4which may be weakened into a simple nasalizing of a vowel (pā, &c.) or even grow completely inaudible (Bergamesepa, pane;padrú, padrone;tep, tempo;met, mente;mut, monte;pût, ponte;púća, punta,i.e.“puncta”), where Celtic and especially Irish analogies and even the frequent use oftfornt, &c., in ancient Umbrian orthography occur to the mind. Then we have the faucal n by which the Ligurian and the Piedmontese (laṅa lüṅa, &c.) are connected with the group which we call Franco-Provençal (A. 1).—We pass on to the “Gallic” resolution of the nexus ct (e.g.facto, fajto, fajtjo.fait, fać; tecto, tejto, tejtjo,teit, teć) which invariably occurs in the Piedmontese, the Ligurian and the Lombard: Pied,fáit, Lig.fajtu, faetu, Lombardfac; Pied.téit, Lig.téitu, Lom.tec; &c. Here it is to be observed that besides the Celtic analogy the Umbrian also helps us (adveitu= ad-vecto; &c.). The Piedmontese and Ligurian come close to each other, more especially by a curious resolution of the secondary hiatus (Gen.réiže, Piedm.réjs=*ra-íce, Ital. radice) by the regular dropping of the d both primary and secondary, a phenomenon common in French (as Piedmontese and Ligurianríe, ridere; Piedmontesepué, potare; Genoesenaeghe= náighe. nátiche, &c.). The Lombard type, or more correctly the type which has become the dominant one in Lombardy (Arch.i. 305-306, 310-311), is more sparing in this respect; and still more so is the Emilian. In the Piedmontese and in the Alpine dialects of Lombardy is also found that other purely Gallic resolution of the guttural between two vowels by which we have the typesbrája,mánia, over against the Ligurianbrága, mánega, braca, manica. Among the phonetic phenomena peculiar to the Ligurian is a continual reduction (as also in Lombardy and part of Piedmont) oflbetween vowels intorand the subsequent dropping of thisrat the end of words in the modern Genoese; just as happens also with the primaryr: thusdū= durúr = dolore, &c. Characteristic of the Ligurian, but not without analogies in Upper Italy even (Arch., ii. 157-158, ix. 209, 255), is the resolution ofpj, bj, fjintoć, ģ, š: ćü, più, plus;raģģa, rabbia, rabies;šû, fiore. Finally, the soundsšandžhave a very wide range in Ligurian (Arch.ii. 158-159), but are, however, etymologically, of different origin from the soundsšandžin Lombard. The reduction ofsintohoccurs in the Bergamo dialects:hira, sera;groh, grosso;cahtél, castello (see also B.2).—A general phenomenon in Gallo-Italic phonetics which also comes to have an inflexional importance is that by which the unaccented finalihas an influence on the accented vowel. This enters into a series of phenomena which even extends into southern Italy; but in the Gallo-Italic there are particular resolutions which agree well with the general connexions of this system. [We may briefly recall the following forms in the plural and 2nd person singular: old Piedmontesedrayppl. ofdrap, Ital. drappo;man, meyn, Ital. mano, -i;long, loyng, Ital. lungo, -ghi; Genoese,káṅ, kḛṅ, Ital. cane, -i;buṅ, buíṅ, Ital. buono, -i; Bolognese,fär, fîr, Ital. ferro, -i;peir, pîr, Ital. pero, -i.zôp, zûp, Ital. zoppo, -i;louv, lûv, Ital. lupo, -i;vedd, vî, Ital. io vedo, tu vedi;vojj, vû, Ital. io voglio, tu vuoi; Milanesequȩst, quist, Ital. questo, -i, and, in the Alps of Lombardy,pal, pȩl, Ital. palo, -i;rȩd, rid, Ital. rete, -i;cor, cör, Ital. cuore, -i;ǫrs, ürs, Ital. orso, -i;law, lȩw, Ital. io lavo, tu lavi;mȩt, mit, Ital. io metto, tu metti;mow möw, Ital. io muovo, tu muovi;cǫr, cür, Ital. io corro, tu corri. [Vicentinepomo, pumi, Ital. pomo, -i;pero, piéri = *píri, Ital. pero, -i; v.Arch.i. 540-541; ix. 235 et seq., xiv. 329-330].—Among morphological peculiarities the first place may be given to the Bolognesesipa(seppa), because, thanks to Dante and others, it has acquired great literary celebrity. It really signifies “sia” (sim, sit), and is an analogical form fashioned onaepa, a legitimate continuation of the corresponding forms of the other auxiliary (habeam, habeat), which is still heard inch’me aepa purtae, ch’lu aepa purtae, ch’io abbia portato, ch’egli abbia portato. Next may be noted the 3rd person singular in-pof the perfect ofesseand of the first conjugation in the Forlì dialect (fop, fu;mandép, mandò; &c.). This also must be analogical, and due to a legitimateep, ebbe (seeArch.ii. 401; and comparefobbe, fu, in the dialect of Camerino, in the province of Macerata, as well as the Spanish analogy oftuve estuveformed afterhube). Characteristic of the Lombard dialect is the ending-iin the 1st person sing. pres. indic. (mi a porti, Ital. io porto); and of Piedmontese, the-éjça, as indicating the subjunctive imperfect (portȩjça, Ital. portassi) the origin of which is to be sought in imperfects of the typestaésse, faéssereduced normally tostéjç-, féjç-. Lastly, in the domain of syntax, may be added the tendency to repeat the pronoun (e.g.ti te cántetof the Milanese, which really istu tu cántas-tu, equivalent merely to “cantas”), a tendency at work in the Emilian and Lombard, but more particularly pronounced in the Piedmontese. With this the corresponding tendency of the Celtic languages has been more than once and with justice compared; here it may be added that the Milanesenün, apparently a single form for “noi,” is really a compound or reduplication in the manner of theni-ni, its exact counterpart in the Celtic tongues. [From Lombardy, or more precisely, from the Lombardo-Alpine region extending from the western slopes of Monte Rosa to the St Gotthard, are derived the Gallo-Italian dialects, now largely, though not all to the same extent, Sicilianized, from the Sicilian communes of Sanfratello, Piazza-Armerina, Nicosia, Aidone, Novara and Sperlinga (v.Arch. glott.viii. 304-316, 406-422, xiv. 436-452;Romania, xxviii. 409-420;Memorie dell’ Istituto lombardo, xxi. 255 et seq.). The dialects of Gombitelli and Sillano in the Tuscan Apennines are connected with Emilia (Arch. glott.xii. 309-354). And from Liguria come those of Carloforte in Sardinia, as also those of Monaco, and of Mons, Escragnolles and Biot in the French departments of Var and Alpes Maritimes (Revue de linguistique, xiii. 308)]. The literary records for this group go back as far as the 12th century, if we are right in considering as Piedmontese the Gallo-Italian Sermons published and annotated by Foerster (Romanische Studien, iv. 1-92). But the documents published by A. Gaudenzi (Dial. di Bologna, 168-172) are certainly Piedmontese, or more precisely Canavese, and seem to belong to the 13th century. The Chieri texts date from 1321 (Miscellanea di filol. e linguistica, 345-355), and to the 14th century also belongs theGrisostomo(Arch. glott.vii. 1-120), which represents the old Piedmontese dialect of Pavia (Bollett. della Soc. pav. di Storia Patria, ii. 193 et seq.). The oldest Ligurian texts, if we except the “contrasto” in two languages of Rambaud de Vaqueiras (12th centuryv.Crescini,Manualetto provenzale, 2nd ed., 287-291), belong to the first decades of the 14th century (Arch. glott.xiv. 22 et seq., ii. 161-312, x. 109-140, viii. 1-97). Emilia has manuscripts going back to the first or second half of the 13th century, theParlamentiof Guido Fava (see Gaudenzi,op. cit.127-160) and theRegola dei servipublished by G. Ferraro (Leghorn, 1875). An important Emilian text, published only in part, is the Mantuan version of theDe proprietatibus rerumof Bartol. Anglico, made by Vivaldo Belcalzer in the early years of the 14th century (v.Cian.Giorn. stor. della letteratura italiana, supplement, No. 5, and cf.Rendiconti Istituto Lombardo, series ii. vol. xxxv. p. 957 et seq.). For Modena also there are numerous documents, starting from 1327. For western Lombardy the most ancient texts (13th century, second half) are the poetical compositions of Bonvesin de la Riva and Pietro da Bescapè, which have reached us only in the 14th-century copies. For eastern Lombardy we have, preserved in Venetian or Tuscan versions, and in MSS. of a later date, the works of Gerardo Patecchio, who lived at Cremona in the first half of the 13th century. Bergamasc literature is plentiful, but not before the 14th century (v. Studi medievali, i. 281-292;Giorn. stor. della lett. ital.xlvi. 351 et seq.).2.Sardinian Dialects.5—These are three—the Logudorese orcentral, the Campidanese or southern and the Gallurese or northern. The third certainly indicates a Sardinian basis, but is strangely disturbed by the intrusion of other elements, among which the Southern Corsican (Sartene) is by far the most copious. The other two are homogeneous, and have great affinity with each other; the Logudorese comes more particularly under consideration here.—The pure Sardinian vocalism has this peculiarity that each accented vowel of the Latin appears to be retained without alteration. Consequently there are no diphthongs representing simple Latin vowels; nor does the rule hold good which is true for so great a proportion of the Romance languages, that the representatives of theḗand theíon the one hand and those of theṓand theṹon the other are normally coincident. Henceplenu(ē);deghe, decem (ĕ);binu, vino (ī);pilu(ĭ);flore(ō);roda, rota (ŏ);duru(ū);nughe, nuce (ŭ). The unaccented vowels keep their ground well, as has already been seen in the case of the finals by the examples adduced.—Thesandtof the ancient termination are preserved, though not constantly:tres,onus,passados annos,plantas,faghes, facis,tenemus;mulghet,mulghent.—The formulaece,ci,ge,gimay be represented byche(ke), &c.; but this appearance of special antiquity is really illusory (seeArch.ii. 143-144). The nexuscl, &c., may be maintained in the beginning of words (claru,plus); but if they are in the body of the word they usually undergo resolutions which, closely related though they be to those of Italian, sometimes bring about very singular results (e.g.ušare, which by the intermediate formsuscare,usjareleads back tousclare=ustlare=ustulare).Nźis the representative ofnj(testimónźu, &c.); andljis reduced toźalone (e.g.méźus, melius; Campidanesemellus). Forlla frequent substitute isḍḍ:massīḍḍa, maxilla, &c. Quite characteristic is the continual labialization of the formulaequa,gua,cu,gu, &c.;e.g.ebba, equa;sambene, sanguine (seeArch.ii. 143). The dropping of the primaryd(roere, rodere, &c.) but not of the secondary (finidu,sanidade,maduru) is frequent. Characteristic also is the Logudorese prothesis ofibefore the initialsfollowed by a consonant (iscamnu,istella,ispada), like the prothesis ofein Spain and in France (seeArch.iii. 447 sqq.).—In the order of the present discussion it is in connexion with this territory that we are for the first time led to consider those phonetic changes in words of which the cause is merely syntactical of transitory, and chiefly those passing accidents which occur to the initial consonant through the historically legitimate or the merely analogical action of the final sound that precedes it. The general explanation of such phenomena reduces itself to this, that, given the intimate syntactic relation of two words, the initial consonant of the second retains or modifies its character as it would retain or modify it if the two words were one. The Celtic languages are especially distinguished by this peculiarity; and among the dialects of Upper Italy the Bergamasc offers a clear example. This dialect is accustomed to drop thev, whether primary or secondary, between vowels in the individual vocables (caá, cavare;fáa, fava, &c.), but to preserve it if it is preceded by a consonant (serva, &c.).—And similarly in syntactic combination we have, for example,de i, di vino; butol vi, il vino. Insular, southern and central Italy furnish a large number of such phenomena; for Sardinia we shall simply cite a single class, which is at once obvious and easily explained, viz. that represented bysu oe, il bove, alongside ofsos boes, i. buoi (cf.bíere, bibere;erba).—The article is derived fromipseinstead of fromille:su sos,sa sas,—again a geographical anticipation of Spain, which in the Catalan of the Balearic islands still preserves the article fromipse.—A special connexion with Spain exists besides in thenominetype of inflexion, which is constant among the Sardinians (Span.nomne, &c., whencenombre, &c.),nomen,nomene,rámine, aeramine,legumene, &c. (seeArch.ii. 429 sqq.).—Especially noteworthy in the conjugation of the verb is the paradigmcantére,cantéres, &c.,timére,timéres, &c., precisely in the sense of the imperfect subjunctive (cf. A. 1; cf. C. 3b). Next comes the analogical and almost corrupt diffusion of the -siof the ancient strong perfects (such asposi,rosi) by whichcantesi,timesi(cantavi, timui),dolfesi, dolui, are reached. Proof of the use and even the abuse of the strong perfects is afforded, however, by the participles and the infinitives of the category to which belong the following examples:ténnidu, tenuto;párfidu, parso;bálfidu, valso;ténnere,bálere, &c. (Arch.ii. 432-433). The future, finally, shows the unagglutinated periphrasis:hapo a mandigare(ho a mangiare = manger-ó); as indeed the unagglutinated forms of the future and the conditional occur in ancient vernacular texts of other Italian districts. [The Campidanese manuscript, in Greek characters, published by Blancard and Wescher (Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes, xxxv. 256-257), goes back as far as the last years of the 11th century. Next come the Cagliari MSS. published by Solmi (Le Carte volgari dell’ Archivio arcivescovile di Cagliari, Florence, 1905; cf. Guarnerio inStudi romanzi, fascicolo iv. 189 et seq.), the most ancient of which in its original form dates from 1114-1120. For Logoduro, theCondaghe di S. Pietro di Silchi(§§ xii.-xiii.), published by G. Bonazzi (Sassari-Cagliari, 1900; cf. Meyer-Lübke,Zur Kenntnis des Altlogudoresischen, Vienna, 1902), is of the highest importance.][3.Vegliote(Veglioto).—Perhaps we may not be considered to be departing from Ascoli’s original plan if we insert here as a third member of the groupBthe neo-Latin dialect which found its last refuge in the island of Veglia (Gulf of Quarnero), where it came definitively to an end in 1898. The Vegliote dialect is the last remnant of a language which some long time ago extended from thence along the Dalmatian coast, whence it gained the name ofDalmatico, a language which should be carefully distinguished from the Venetian dialect spoken to this day in the towns of the Dalmatian littoral. Its character reminds us in many ways of Rumanian, and of that type of Romano-Balkan dialect which is represented by the Latin elements of Albanian, but to a certain extent also, and especially with regard to the vowel sounds, of the south-eastern dialects of Italy, while it has also affinities with Friuli, Istria and Venetia. These characteristics taken altogether seem to suggest thatDalmaticodiffers as much as does Sardinian from the purely Italian type. It rejects the -s, it is true, retaining instead the nominative form in the plural; but here these facts are no longer a criterion, since in this point Italian and Rumanian are in agreement. A tendency which we have already noted, and shall have further cause to note hereafter, and which connects in a striking way the Vegliote and Abruzzo-Apulian dialects, consists in reducing the accented vowels to diphthongs: examples of this are: spuota, Ital. spada;buarka, Ital. barca;fiar, Ital. fȩrro;nuat, Ital. notte;kataina, Ital. catḛna;paira, Ital. pḛro; Lat.pĭru;jaura, Ital. ǫra;nauk, Ital. noce; Lat.nŭce;ortaika, Ital. ortica;joiva, Ital. uova. Other vowel phenomena should also be noted, for example those exemplified inprut, Ital. prato;dik, Ital. dieci, Lat.dĕcem;luk, Ital. luogo, Lat.lŏcu;krask, Ital. crḛscere;cenk, Ital. cinque, Lat.quīnque;buka, Ital. bocca, Lat.bčca. With regard to the consonants, we should first notice the invariable persistence of the explosive surds (as in Rumanian and the southern dialects) for which several of the words just cited will serve as examples, with the addition ofkuosa, Ital. casa;praiza, Ital. presa;struota, Ital. strada;rosuota, Ital. rugiada;latri, Ital. ladro;raipa, Ital. riva. Thecin the formulace, whether primary or secondary, is represented byk:kaina, Ital. cena;kanaisa, Ital. cinigia;akait, Ital. aceto;plakár, Ital. piacere;dik, Ital. dieci;mukna, Ital. macina;dotko, Ital. dodici; and similarly thegin the formulageis represented by the corresponding guttural:ghelút, Ital. gelato;jongár, Ital. giungere;plungre, Ital. piangere, &c. On the contrary, the guttural of the primitive formulacūbecomesć(ćol, Ital. culo); this phenomenon is also noteworthy as seeming to justify the inference that theūwas pronouncedü.Ptis preserved, as in Rumanian (sapto, Lat.septem), and often, again as in Rumanian,ctis also reduced topt(guapto, Lat.octo). As to morphology, a characteristic point is the preservation of the Lat.cantavero, Ital. avrò cantato, in the function of a simple future.Cantaverumalso occurs as a conditional. For Vegliote and Dalmatico in general, see M. G. Bartoli’s fundamental work,Das Dalmatische(2 vols., Vienna, 1906), andZeitschrift für roman. Philologie, xxxii. 1 sqq.; Merlo,Rivista di filologia e d’istruzione class, xxxv. 472 sqq. A short document written about 1280 in the Dalmatic dialect of Ragusa is to be found inArcheografo Triestino, new series, vol. i. pp. 85-86.]

2.Sardinian Dialects.5—These are three—the Logudorese orcentral, the Campidanese or southern and the Gallurese or northern. The third certainly indicates a Sardinian basis, but is strangely disturbed by the intrusion of other elements, among which the Southern Corsican (Sartene) is by far the most copious. The other two are homogeneous, and have great affinity with each other; the Logudorese comes more particularly under consideration here.—The pure Sardinian vocalism has this peculiarity that each accented vowel of the Latin appears to be retained without alteration. Consequently there are no diphthongs representing simple Latin vowels; nor does the rule hold good which is true for so great a proportion of the Romance languages, that the representatives of theḗand theíon the one hand and those of theṓand theṹon the other are normally coincident. Henceplenu(ē);deghe, decem (ĕ);binu, vino (ī);pilu(ĭ);flore(ō);roda, rota (ŏ);duru(ū);nughe, nuce (ŭ). The unaccented vowels keep their ground well, as has already been seen in the case of the finals by the examples adduced.—Thesandtof the ancient termination are preserved, though not constantly:tres,onus,passados annos,plantas,faghes, facis,tenemus;mulghet,mulghent.—The formulaece,ci,ge,gimay be represented byche(ke), &c.; but this appearance of special antiquity is really illusory (seeArch.ii. 143-144). The nexuscl, &c., may be maintained in the beginning of words (claru,plus); but if they are in the body of the word they usually undergo resolutions which, closely related though they be to those of Italian, sometimes bring about very singular results (e.g.ušare, which by the intermediate formsuscare,usjareleads back tousclare=ustlare=ustulare).Nźis the representative ofnj(testimónźu, &c.); andljis reduced toźalone (e.g.méźus, melius; Campidanesemellus). Forlla frequent substitute isḍḍ:massīḍḍa, maxilla, &c. Quite characteristic is the continual labialization of the formulaequa,gua,cu,gu, &c.;e.g.ebba, equa;sambene, sanguine (seeArch.ii. 143). The dropping of the primaryd(roere, rodere, &c.) but not of the secondary (finidu,sanidade,maduru) is frequent. Characteristic also is the Logudorese prothesis ofibefore the initialsfollowed by a consonant (iscamnu,istella,ispada), like the prothesis ofein Spain and in France (seeArch.iii. 447 sqq.).—In the order of the present discussion it is in connexion with this territory that we are for the first time led to consider those phonetic changes in words of which the cause is merely syntactical of transitory, and chiefly those passing accidents which occur to the initial consonant through the historically legitimate or the merely analogical action of the final sound that precedes it. The general explanation of such phenomena reduces itself to this, that, given the intimate syntactic relation of two words, the initial consonant of the second retains or modifies its character as it would retain or modify it if the two words were one. The Celtic languages are especially distinguished by this peculiarity; and among the dialects of Upper Italy the Bergamasc offers a clear example. This dialect is accustomed to drop thev, whether primary or secondary, between vowels in the individual vocables (caá, cavare;fáa, fava, &c.), but to preserve it if it is preceded by a consonant (serva, &c.).—And similarly in syntactic combination we have, for example,de i, di vino; butol vi, il vino. Insular, southern and central Italy furnish a large number of such phenomena; for Sardinia we shall simply cite a single class, which is at once obvious and easily explained, viz. that represented bysu oe, il bove, alongside ofsos boes, i. buoi (cf.bíere, bibere;erba).—The article is derived fromipseinstead of fromille:su sos,sa sas,—again a geographical anticipation of Spain, which in the Catalan of the Balearic islands still preserves the article fromipse.—A special connexion with Spain exists besides in thenominetype of inflexion, which is constant among the Sardinians (Span.nomne, &c., whencenombre, &c.),nomen,nomene,rámine, aeramine,legumene, &c. (seeArch.ii. 429 sqq.).—Especially noteworthy in the conjugation of the verb is the paradigmcantére,cantéres, &c.,timére,timéres, &c., precisely in the sense of the imperfect subjunctive (cf. A. 1; cf. C. 3b). Next comes the analogical and almost corrupt diffusion of the -siof the ancient strong perfects (such asposi,rosi) by whichcantesi,timesi(cantavi, timui),dolfesi, dolui, are reached. Proof of the use and even the abuse of the strong perfects is afforded, however, by the participles and the infinitives of the category to which belong the following examples:ténnidu, tenuto;párfidu, parso;bálfidu, valso;ténnere,bálere, &c. (Arch.ii. 432-433). The future, finally, shows the unagglutinated periphrasis:hapo a mandigare(ho a mangiare = manger-ó); as indeed the unagglutinated forms of the future and the conditional occur in ancient vernacular texts of other Italian districts. [The Campidanese manuscript, in Greek characters, published by Blancard and Wescher (Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes, xxxv. 256-257), goes back as far as the last years of the 11th century. Next come the Cagliari MSS. published by Solmi (Le Carte volgari dell’ Archivio arcivescovile di Cagliari, Florence, 1905; cf. Guarnerio inStudi romanzi, fascicolo iv. 189 et seq.), the most ancient of which in its original form dates from 1114-1120. For Logoduro, theCondaghe di S. Pietro di Silchi(§§ xii.-xiii.), published by G. Bonazzi (Sassari-Cagliari, 1900; cf. Meyer-Lübke,Zur Kenntnis des Altlogudoresischen, Vienna, 1902), is of the highest importance.]

[3.Vegliote(Veglioto).—Perhaps we may not be considered to be departing from Ascoli’s original plan if we insert here as a third member of the groupBthe neo-Latin dialect which found its last refuge in the island of Veglia (Gulf of Quarnero), where it came definitively to an end in 1898. The Vegliote dialect is the last remnant of a language which some long time ago extended from thence along the Dalmatian coast, whence it gained the name ofDalmatico, a language which should be carefully distinguished from the Venetian dialect spoken to this day in the towns of the Dalmatian littoral. Its character reminds us in many ways of Rumanian, and of that type of Romano-Balkan dialect which is represented by the Latin elements of Albanian, but to a certain extent also, and especially with regard to the vowel sounds, of the south-eastern dialects of Italy, while it has also affinities with Friuli, Istria and Venetia. These characteristics taken altogether seem to suggest thatDalmaticodiffers as much as does Sardinian from the purely Italian type. It rejects the -s, it is true, retaining instead the nominative form in the plural; but here these facts are no longer a criterion, since in this point Italian and Rumanian are in agreement. A tendency which we have already noted, and shall have further cause to note hereafter, and which connects in a striking way the Vegliote and Abruzzo-Apulian dialects, consists in reducing the accented vowels to diphthongs: examples of this are: spuota, Ital. spada;buarka, Ital. barca;fiar, Ital. fȩrro;nuat, Ital. notte;kataina, Ital. catḛna;paira, Ital. pḛro; Lat.pĭru;jaura, Ital. ǫra;nauk, Ital. noce; Lat.nŭce;ortaika, Ital. ortica;joiva, Ital. uova. Other vowel phenomena should also be noted, for example those exemplified inprut, Ital. prato;dik, Ital. dieci, Lat.dĕcem;luk, Ital. luogo, Lat.lŏcu;krask, Ital. crḛscere;cenk, Ital. cinque, Lat.quīnque;buka, Ital. bocca, Lat.bčca. With regard to the consonants, we should first notice the invariable persistence of the explosive surds (as in Rumanian and the southern dialects) for which several of the words just cited will serve as examples, with the addition ofkuosa, Ital. casa;praiza, Ital. presa;struota, Ital. strada;rosuota, Ital. rugiada;latri, Ital. ladro;raipa, Ital. riva. Thecin the formulace, whether primary or secondary, is represented byk:kaina, Ital. cena;kanaisa, Ital. cinigia;akait, Ital. aceto;plakár, Ital. piacere;dik, Ital. dieci;mukna, Ital. macina;dotko, Ital. dodici; and similarly thegin the formulageis represented by the corresponding guttural:ghelút, Ital. gelato;jongár, Ital. giungere;plungre, Ital. piangere, &c. On the contrary, the guttural of the primitive formulacūbecomesć(ćol, Ital. culo); this phenomenon is also noteworthy as seeming to justify the inference that theūwas pronouncedü.Ptis preserved, as in Rumanian (sapto, Lat.septem), and often, again as in Rumanian,ctis also reduced topt(guapto, Lat.octo). As to morphology, a characteristic point is the preservation of the Lat.cantavero, Ital. avrò cantato, in the function of a simple future.Cantaverumalso occurs as a conditional. For Vegliote and Dalmatico in general, see M. G. Bartoli’s fundamental work,Das Dalmatische(2 vols., Vienna, 1906), andZeitschrift für roman. Philologie, xxxii. 1 sqq.; Merlo,Rivista di filologia e d’istruzione class, xxxv. 472 sqq. A short document written about 1280 in the Dalmatic dialect of Ragusa is to be found inArcheografo Triestino, new series, vol. i. pp. 85-86.]

C.Dialects which diverge more or less from the genuine Italian or Tuscan type, but which at the same time can be conjoined with the Tuscan as forming part of a special system of Neo-Latin dialects.

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