Chapter 10

Fordimethyl ketoneor acetone, seeAcetone.Diethyl ketone, (C2H5)2·CO, is a pleasant-smelling liquid boiling at 102.7° C. With concentrated nitric acid it forms dinitroethane, and it is oxidized by chromic acid to acetic and propionic acids.Methylnonylketone, CH3·CO·C9H19, is the chief constituent of oil of rue, which also containsmethylheptylketone, CH3·CO·C7H15, a liquid of boiling-point 85-90° C. (7 mm.), which yields normal caprylic acid on oxidation with hypobromites.Mesityl oxide, (CH3)2C:CH·CO·CH3, is an aromatic smelling liquid of boiling point 129.5-130° C. It is insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in alcohol. On heating with dilute sulphuric acid it yields acetone, but with the concentrated acid it gives mesitylene, C9H12. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetic acid and hydroxyisobutyric acid (A. Pinner,Ber., 1882, 15, p. 591). It forms hydroxyhydrocollidine when heated with acetamide and anhydrous zinc chloride (F. Canzoneri and G. Spica,Gazz. chim. Ital., 1884, 14, p. 349).Phorone, (CH3)2C:CH·CO·CH:C(CH3)2, forms yellow crystals which melt at 28° C. and boil at 197.2° C. When heated with phosphorus pentoxide it yields acetone, water and some pseudo-cumene. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids, while potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetone, carbon dioxide and oxalic acid.

Mesityl oxide, (CH3)2C:CH·CO·CH3, is an aromatic smelling liquid of boiling point 129.5-130° C. It is insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in alcohol. On heating with dilute sulphuric acid it yields acetone, but with the concentrated acid it gives mesitylene, C9H12. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetic acid and hydroxyisobutyric acid (A. Pinner,Ber., 1882, 15, p. 591). It forms hydroxyhydrocollidine when heated with acetamide and anhydrous zinc chloride (F. Canzoneri and G. Spica,Gazz. chim. Ital., 1884, 14, p. 349).Phorone, (CH3)2C:CH·CO·CH:C(CH3)2, forms yellow crystals which melt at 28° C. and boil at 197.2° C. When heated with phosphorus pentoxide it yields acetone, water and some pseudo-cumene. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids, while potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetone, carbon dioxide and oxalic acid.

Diketones.—The diketones contain two carbonyl groups, and are distinguished as α or 1.2 diketones, β or 1.3 diketones, γ or 1.4 diketones, &c., according as they contain the groupings -CO·CO-, -CO·CH2·CO-, -CO·CH2·CH2·CO-, &c.

The α-diketones may be prepared by boiling the product of the action of alkaline bisulphites on isonitrosoketones with 15% sulphuric acid (H. v. Pechmann,Ber., 1887, 20, p. 3112; 1889, 22, p. 2115), CH3·CO·C:(N·OH)·CH3→ CH3·CO·C:(NHSO3)·CH3→ CH3·CO·CO·CH3; or by the action of isoamyl nitrite on the isonitrosoketones (O. Manasse,Ber., 1888, 21, p. 2177), C2H5·CO·C = (NOH)·CH3+11C5HONO = C2H5·CO·CO·CH3+ C5H11OH + N2O. They condense with orthodiamines to form quinoxalines (O. Hinsberg,Ann., 1887, 237, p. 327), and with ammonia and aldehydes to form imidazoles.Diacetyl, CH3·CO·CO·CH3, is a yellowish green liquid, which boils at 87-88°C., and possesses a pungent smell. It combines with sodium bisulphite and with hydrocyanic acid. Dilute alkalis convert it into paraxyloquinone.The β-diketones form characteristic copper salts, and in alcoholic solution they combine with semicarbazide to form products which on boiling with ammoniacal silver nitrate solution give pyrazoles (T. Posner,Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3975); with hydroxylamine they form isoxazoles, and with phenylhydrazine pyrazoles.Acetyl acetone, CH3·CO·CH2·CO·CH3, may be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on acetyl chloride, or by condensing ethyl acetate with acetone in the presence of sodium (L. Claisen). It is a liquid of boiling point 136° C. It condenses readily with aniline to give αγ-dimethyl quinoline.The γ-diketones are characterized by the readiness with which they yield furfurane, pyrrol and thiophene derivatives, the furfurane derivatives being formed by heating the ketones with a dehydrating agent, the thiophenes by heating with phosphorus pentasulphide, and the pyrrols by the action of alcoholic ammonia or amines.Acetonyl acetone, CH3·CO·CH2·CH2·CO·CH3, a liquid boiling at 194° C., may be obtained by condensing sodium aceto-acetate with mono-chloracetone (C. Paal,Ber., 1885, 18, p. 59),CH3COCH2Cl + Na·CH·COCH3(COOR)→ CH3CO·CH2·CH·COCH3(COOR)→ CH3CO·CH2·CH2·COCH3;or by the hydrolysis of diaceto-succinic ester, prepared by the action of iodine on sodium aceto-acetate (L. Knorr,Ber., 1889, 22, pp. 169, 2100).1.5 diketones have been prepared by L. Claisen by condensing ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters and similar compounds with β-ketonic esters and with 1.3 diketones. The ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters are prepared by condensing aceto-acetic ester with ortho-formic ester in the presence of acetic anhydride (German patents 77354, 79087, 79863). The 1.5 diketones of this type, when heated with aqueous ammonia, form pyridine derivatives. Those in which the keto groups are in combination with phenyl residues give pyridine derivatives on treatment with hydroxylamine, thus benzamarone, C6H5CH[CH(C6H5)·CO·C6H5], gives pentaphenylpyridine, NC5(C6H5)5. On the general reactions of the 1.5 diketones, see E. Knoevenagel (Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25 et seq.) and H. Stobbe (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1445).Many cyclic ketones are known, and in most respects they resemble the ordinary aliphatic ketones (seePolymethylenes;Terpenes).

The β-diketones form characteristic copper salts, and in alcoholic solution they combine with semicarbazide to form products which on boiling with ammoniacal silver nitrate solution give pyrazoles (T. Posner,Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3975); with hydroxylamine they form isoxazoles, and with phenylhydrazine pyrazoles.Acetyl acetone, CH3·CO·CH2·CO·CH3, may be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on acetyl chloride, or by condensing ethyl acetate with acetone in the presence of sodium (L. Claisen). It is a liquid of boiling point 136° C. It condenses readily with aniline to give αγ-dimethyl quinoline.

The γ-diketones are characterized by the readiness with which they yield furfurane, pyrrol and thiophene derivatives, the furfurane derivatives being formed by heating the ketones with a dehydrating agent, the thiophenes by heating with phosphorus pentasulphide, and the pyrrols by the action of alcoholic ammonia or amines.Acetonyl acetone, CH3·CO·CH2·CH2·CO·CH3, a liquid boiling at 194° C., may be obtained by condensing sodium aceto-acetate with mono-chloracetone (C. Paal,Ber., 1885, 18, p. 59),

or by the hydrolysis of diaceto-succinic ester, prepared by the action of iodine on sodium aceto-acetate (L. Knorr,Ber., 1889, 22, pp. 169, 2100).

1.5 diketones have been prepared by L. Claisen by condensing ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters and similar compounds with β-ketonic esters and with 1.3 diketones. The ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters are prepared by condensing aceto-acetic ester with ortho-formic ester in the presence of acetic anhydride (German patents 77354, 79087, 79863). The 1.5 diketones of this type, when heated with aqueous ammonia, form pyridine derivatives. Those in which the keto groups are in combination with phenyl residues give pyridine derivatives on treatment with hydroxylamine, thus benzamarone, C6H5CH[CH(C6H5)·CO·C6H5], gives pentaphenylpyridine, NC5(C6H5)5. On the general reactions of the 1.5 diketones, see E. Knoevenagel (Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25 et seq.) and H. Stobbe (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1445).

Many cyclic ketones are known, and in most respects they resemble the ordinary aliphatic ketones (seePolymethylenes;Terpenes).

KETTELER, WILHELM EMMANUEL,Baron von(1811-1877), German theologian and politician, was born at Harkotten, in Bavaria, on the 25th of December 1811. He studied theology at Göttingen, Berlin, Heidelberg and Munich, and was ordained priest in 1844. He resolved to consecrate his life to maintaining the cause of the freedom of the Church from the control of the State. This brought him into collision with the civil power, an attitude which he maintained throughout a stormy and eventful life. Ketteler was rather a man of action than a scholar, and he first distinguished himself as one of the deputies of the Frankfort National Assembly, a position to which he was elected in 1848, and in which he soon became noted for his decision, foresight, energy and eloquence. In 1850 he was made bishop of Mainz, by order of the Vatican, in preference to the celebrated Professor Leopold Schmidt, of Giessen, whose Liberal sentiments were not agreeable to the Papal party. When elected, Ketteler refused to allow the students of theology in his diocese to attend lectures at Giessen, and ultimately founded an opposition seminary in the diocese of Mainz itself. He also founded orders of School Brothers and School Sisters, to work in the various educational agencies he had called into existence, and he laboured to institute orphanages and rescue homes. In 1858 he threw down the gauntlet against the State in his pamphlet on the rights of the Catholic Church in Germany. In 1863 he adopted Lassalle’s Socialistic views, and published hisDie Arbeitfrage und das Christenthum. When the question of papal infallibility arose, he opposed the promulgation of the dogma on the ground that such promulgation was inopportune. But he was not resolute in his opposition. The opponents of the dogma complained at the very outset that he was wavering, half converted by his hosts, the members of the German College at Rome, and further influenced by his own misgivings. He soon deserted his anti-Infallibilist colleagues, and submitted to the decrees in August 1870. He was the warmest opponent of the State in theKulturkampfprovoked by Prince Bismarck after the publication of the Vatican decrees, and was largely instrumental in compelling that statesman to retract the pledge he had rashly given, never to “go to Canossa.” To such an extent did Bishop von Ketteler carry his opposition, that in 1874 he forbade his clergy to take part in celebrating the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and declared the Rhine to be a “Catholic river.” He died at Burghausen, Upper Bavaria, on the 13th of July 1877.

(J. J. L.*)

KETTERING,a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 72 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1891), 19,454; (1901), 28,653. The church of SS Peter and Paul, mainly Perpendicular, has a lofty and ornate tower and spire. The chief manufactures are boots, shoes, brushes, stays, clothing and agricultural implements. There are iron-works in the immediate neighbourhood. The privilege of market was granted in 1227 by a charter of Henry III.

KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED(1817-1894), English county court judge, was born at Birmingham on the 9th of January 1817. His family had for some time been connected with the glass-staining business. In 1845 he was called to the bar, and in 1859 he was made judge of the Worcestershire county courts, becoming also a bencher of the Middle Temple (1882). He acted as arbitrator in several important strikes, and besides being the first president of the Midland iron trade wages board, he was largely responsible for the formation of similar boards in other staple trades. His name thus became identified with the organization of a system of arbitration between employers and employed, and in 1880 he was knighted for his services in this capacity. In 1851 he married; one of his sons subsequently became a London police magistrate. Kettle died on the 6th of October 1894 at Wolverhampton.

KETTLEDRUM1(Fr.timbales; Ger.Pauken; Ital.timpani; Sp.timbal), the only kind of drum (q.v.) having a definite musical pitch. The kettledrum consists of a hemispherical pan of copper, brass or silver, over which a piece of vellum is stretched tightly by means of screws working on an iron ring, which fits closely round the head of the drum. In the bottom of the pan is a small vent-hole, which prevents the head being rent by the concussion of air. The vellum head may thus be slackened or tightened at will to produce any one of the notes within its compass of half an octave. Each kettledrum gives but one note at a time, and as it takes some little time to alter all the screws, two or three kettledrums, sometimes more, each tuned to a different note, are used in an orchestra or band. For centuries kettledrums have been made and used in Europe in pairs, one large and one small; the relative proportions of the two instruments being well defined and invariable. Even when eight pairs of drums, all tuned to different notes, are used, as by Berlioz in his “Grand Requiem,” there are still but the two sizes of drums to produce all the notes. Various mechanisms have been tried with the object of facilitating the change of pitch, but the simple old-fashioned model is still the most frequently used in England. Two sticks, of which there are several kinds, are employed to play the kettledrum; the best of these are made of whalebone for elasticity, and have a small wooden knob at one end, covered with a thin piece of fine sponge. Others have the button covered with felt or india-rubber. The kettledrum is struck at about a quarter of the diameter from the ring.

The compass of kettledrums collectively is not much more than an octave, between; the larger instruments, which it is inadvisable to tune below F, take any one of the following notes:—and the smaller are tuned to one of the notes completing the chromatic and enharmonic scale from. These limits comprise all the notes of artistic value that can be obtained from kettledrums. When there are but two drums—the term “drum” used by musicians always denotes the kettledrum—they are generally tuned to the tonic and dominant or to the tonic and subdominant, these notes entering into the composition of most of the harmonies of the key. Formerly the kettledrums used to be treated as transposing instruments, the notation, as for the horn, being in C, the key to which the kettledrums were to be tuned being indicated in the score. Now composers write the real notes.The tone of a good kettledrum is sonorous, rich, and of great power. When noise rather than music is required uncovered sticks are used. The drums may be muffled orcoveredby placing a piece of cloth or silk over the vellum to damp the sound, a device which produces a lugubrious, mysterious effect and is indicated in the score by the wordstimpani coperti,timpani con sordini,timbalescouvertes,gedämpfte Pauken. Besides the beautiful effects obtained by means of delicate gradations of tone, numerous rhythmical figures may be executed on one, two or more notes. German drummers who wererenowned during the 17th and 18th centuries, borrowing the terms from the trumpets with which the kettledrums were long associated, recognized the following beats:—Single tonguing(Einfache Zungen)Double tonguing(Doppel oder gerissene Zungen)Legato tonguing(Tragende Zungen)Whole double-tonguing(Ganze Doppel-Zungen)Double cross-beat2(Doppel Kreuzschläge)The roll(Wirbel)The double roll(Doppel Wirbel)It is generally stated that Beethoven was the first to treat the kettledrum as a solo instrument, but inDido, an opera by C. Graupner performed at the Hamburg Opera House in 1707, there is a short solo for the kettledrum.3The tuning of the kettledrum is an operation requiring time, even when the screw-heads, as is now usual, are T-shaped; to expedite the change, therefore, efforts have been made in all countries to invent some mechanism which would enable the performer to tune the drum to a fixed note by a single movement. The first mechanical kettledrums date from the beginning of the 19th century. In Holland a system was invented by J. C. N. Stumpff4; in France by Labbaye in 1827; in Germany Einbigler patented a system in Frankfort-on-Main in 18365; in England Cornelius Ward in 1837; in Italy C. A. Boracchi of Monza in 1839.6The drawback in most of these systems is the complicated nature of the mechanism, which soon gets out of order, and, being very cumbersome and heavy, it renders the instrument more or less of a fixture. Potter’s kettledrum with instantaneous system of tuning, the best known at the present day in England, and used in some military bands with entire success, is a complete contrast to the above. There is practically no mechanism; the system is simple, ingenious, and neither adds to the weight nor to the bulk of the instrument. There are no screws round the head of Potter’s kettledrum; an invisible system of cords in the interior, regulated by screws and rods in the form of a Maltese cross, is worked from the outside by a small handle connected to a dial, on the face of which are twenty-eight numbered notches. By means of these the performer is able to tune the drum instantly to any note within the compass by remembering the numbers which correspond to each note and pointing the indicator to it on the face of the dial. Should the cords become slightly stretched, flattening the pitch, causing the representative numbers to change, the performer need only give his indicator an extra turn to bring his instrument back to pitch, each note having several notches at its service. The internal mechanism, being of an elastic nature, has no detrimental effect on the tone but tends to increase its volume and improve its quality.

The compass of kettledrums collectively is not much more than an octave, between; the larger instruments, which it is inadvisable to tune below F, take any one of the following notes:—

and the smaller are tuned to one of the notes completing the chromatic and enharmonic scale from. These limits comprise all the notes of artistic value that can be obtained from kettledrums. When there are but two drums—the term “drum” used by musicians always denotes the kettledrum—they are generally tuned to the tonic and dominant or to the tonic and subdominant, these notes entering into the composition of most of the harmonies of the key. Formerly the kettledrums used to be treated as transposing instruments, the notation, as for the horn, being in C, the key to which the kettledrums were to be tuned being indicated in the score. Now composers write the real notes.

The tone of a good kettledrum is sonorous, rich, and of great power. When noise rather than music is required uncovered sticks are used. The drums may be muffled orcoveredby placing a piece of cloth or silk over the vellum to damp the sound, a device which produces a lugubrious, mysterious effect and is indicated in the score by the wordstimpani coperti,timpani con sordini,timbalescouvertes,gedämpfte Pauken. Besides the beautiful effects obtained by means of delicate gradations of tone, numerous rhythmical figures may be executed on one, two or more notes. German drummers who wererenowned during the 17th and 18th centuries, borrowing the terms from the trumpets with which the kettledrums were long associated, recognized the following beats:—

Single tonguing(Einfache Zungen)

Double tonguing(Doppel oder gerissene Zungen)

Legato tonguing(Tragende Zungen)

Whole double-tonguing(Ganze Doppel-Zungen)

Double cross-beat2(Doppel Kreuzschläge)

The roll(Wirbel)

The double roll(Doppel Wirbel)

It is generally stated that Beethoven was the first to treat the kettledrum as a solo instrument, but inDido, an opera by C. Graupner performed at the Hamburg Opera House in 1707, there is a short solo for the kettledrum.3

The tuning of the kettledrum is an operation requiring time, even when the screw-heads, as is now usual, are T-shaped; to expedite the change, therefore, efforts have been made in all countries to invent some mechanism which would enable the performer to tune the drum to a fixed note by a single movement. The first mechanical kettledrums date from the beginning of the 19th century. In Holland a system was invented by J. C. N. Stumpff4; in France by Labbaye in 1827; in Germany Einbigler patented a system in Frankfort-on-Main in 18365; in England Cornelius Ward in 1837; in Italy C. A. Boracchi of Monza in 1839.6

The drawback in most of these systems is the complicated nature of the mechanism, which soon gets out of order, and, being very cumbersome and heavy, it renders the instrument more or less of a fixture. Potter’s kettledrum with instantaneous system of tuning, the best known at the present day in England, and used in some military bands with entire success, is a complete contrast to the above. There is practically no mechanism; the system is simple, ingenious, and neither adds to the weight nor to the bulk of the instrument. There are no screws round the head of Potter’s kettledrum; an invisible system of cords in the interior, regulated by screws and rods in the form of a Maltese cross, is worked from the outside by a small handle connected to a dial, on the face of which are twenty-eight numbered notches. By means of these the performer is able to tune the drum instantly to any note within the compass by remembering the numbers which correspond to each note and pointing the indicator to it on the face of the dial. Should the cords become slightly stretched, flattening the pitch, causing the representative numbers to change, the performer need only give his indicator an extra turn to bring his instrument back to pitch, each note having several notches at its service. The internal mechanism, being of an elastic nature, has no detrimental effect on the tone but tends to increase its volume and improve its quality.

The origin of the kettledrum is remote and must be sought in the East. Its distinctive characteristic is a hemispherical or convex vessel, closed by means of a single parchment or skin drawn tightly over the aperture, whereas other drums consist of a cylinder, having one end or both covered by the parchment, as in the side-drum and tambourine respectively. The Romans were acquainted with the kettledrum, including it among thetympana; thetympanum leve, like a sieve, was the tambourine used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybele.7The comparatively heavy tympanum of bronze mentioned by Catullus was probably the small kettledrum which appears in pairs on monuments of the middle ages.8Pliny9states that half pearls having one side round and the other flat were calledtympania. If the nametympania(Gr.τύμπανον, fromτύπτειν, to strike) was given to pearls of a certain shape because they resembled the kettledrum, this argues that the instrument was well known among the Romans. It is doubtful, however, if it was adopted by them as a military instrument, since it is not mentioned by Vegetius,10who defines very clearly the duties of the service instrumentsbuccina,tuba,cornuandlituus.

The Greeks also knew the kettledrum, but as a warlike instrument of barbarians. Plutarch11mentions that the Parthians, in order to frighten their enemies, in offering battle used not the horn ortuba, but hollow vessels covered with a skin, on which they beat, making a terrifying noise with these tympana. Whether the kettledrum penetrated into western Europe before the fall of the Roman Empire and continued to be included during the middle ages among the tympana has not been definitely ascertained. Isidore of Seville gives a somewhat vague description of tympanum, conveying the impression that his information has been obtained second-hand: “Tympanum est pellis vel corium ligno ex una parte extentum. Est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem cribri. Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est. Unde, et margaritum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia ad virgulam percutitur.”12It is clear that in this passage Isidore is referring to Pliny.

The names given during the middle ages to the kettledrum are derived from the East. We haveattambalorattabalin Spain,from the Persiantambal, whence is derived the modern Frenchtimbales;nacaire,naquaireornakeres(English spelling), from the Arabicnakkarahornoqqārich(Bengali,nāgarā), and the GermanPauke, M.H.G.BûkeorPûke, which is probably derived frombyk, the Assyrian name of the instrument.

A line in the chronicles of Joinville definitely establishes the identity of thenakeresas a kind of drum: “Lor il fist sonner les tabours que l’on appellenacaires.” The nacaire is among the instruments mentioned by Froissart as having been used on the occasion of Edward III.’s triumphal entry into Calais in 1347: “trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies, muses.”13Chaucer mentions them in the description of the tournament in theKnight’s Tale(line 2514):—

“Pipes, trompes,nakeresand clarionnes,That in the bataille blowen blody sonnes.”

“Pipes, trompes,nakeresand clarionnes,

That in the bataille blowen blody sonnes.”

The earliest European illustration showing kettledrums is the scene depicting Pharaoh’s banquet in the fine illuminated MS. book of Genesis of the 5th or 6th century, preserved in Vienna. There are two pairs of shallow metal bowls on a table, on which a woman is performing with two sticks, as an accompaniment to the double pipes.14As a companion illumination may be cited the picture of an Eastern banquet given in a 14th century MS. at the British Museum (Add. MS. 27,695), illuminated by a skilled Genoese. The potentate is enjoying the music of various instruments, among which are two kettledrums strapped to the back of a Nubian slave. This was the earlier manner of using the instrument before it became inseparably associated with the trumpet, sharing its position as the service instrument of the cavalry. Jost Amman15gives a picture of a pair of kettledrums with banners being played by an armed knight on horseback.

As in the case of the trumpet, the use of the kettledrum was placed under great restrictions in Germany and France and to some extent in England, but it was used in churches with the trumpet.16No French or German regiment was allowed kettledrums unless they had been captured from the enemy, and thetimbalieror theHeerpaukeron parade, in reviews and marches generally, rode at the head of the squadron; in battle his position was in the wings. In England, before the Restoration, only the Guards were allowed kettledrums, but after the accession of James II. every regiment of horse was provided with them.17Before the Royal Regiment of Artillery was established, the master-general of ordnance was responsible for the raising of trains of artillery. Among his retinue in time of war were a trumpeter and kettledrummer. The kettledrums were mounted on a chariot drawn by six white horses. They appeared in the field for the first time in a train of artillery during the Irish rebellion of 1689, and the charges for ordnanceinclude the item, “large kettledrums mounted on a carriage with cloaths marked I.R. and cost £158, 9s.”18A model of the kettledrums with their carriage which accompanied the duke of Marlborough to Holland in 1702 is preserved in the Rotunda Museum at Woolwich. The kettledrums accompanied the Royal Artillery train in the Vigo expedition and during the campaign in Flanders in 1748. Macbean19states that they were mounted on a triumphal car ornamented and gilt, bearing the ordnance flag and drawn by six white horses. The position of the car on march was in front of the flag gun, and in camp in front of the quarters of the duke of Cumberland with the artillery guns packed round them. The kettledrummer had by order “to mount the kettledrum carriage every night half an hour before the sun sett and beat till gun fireing.” In 1759 the kettledrums ceased to form part of the establishment of the Royal Artillery, and they were deposited, together with their carriage, in the Tower, at the same time as a pair captured at Malplaquet in 1709. These Tower drums were frequently borrowed by Handel for performances of his oratorios.

The kettledrums still form part of the bands of the Life Guards and other cavalry regiments.

(K. S.)

1From “drum” and “kettle,” a covered metal vessel for boiling water or other liquid; the O.E. word iscetel, cf. Du.ketel, Ger.Kessel, borrowed from Lat.catillus, dim. ofcatinus, bowl.2This rhythmical use of kettledrums was characteristic of the military instrument of percussion, rather than the musical member of the orchestra. During the middle ages and until the end of the 18th century, the two different notes obtainable from the pair of kettledrums were probably used more as a means of marking and varying the rhythm than as musical notes entering into the composition of the harmonies. The kettledrums, in fact, approximated to the side drums in technique. The contrast between the purely rhythmical use of kettledrums, given above, and the more modern musical use is well exemplified by the well-known solo for four kettledrums in Meyerbeer’sRobert le Diable, beginning thus—3See Wilhelm Kleefeld,Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper(1678-1738);Internationale Musikgesellschaft, Sammelband i. 2, p. 278 (Leipzig, 1899).4See J. Georges Kastner,Méthode complète et raisonnée de timbales(Paris), p. 19, where several of the early mechanical kettledrums are described and illustrated.5See Gustav Schilling’sEncyklopädie der gesammten musikal. Wissenschaften(Stuttgart, 1840), vol. v., art. “Pauke.”6SeeManuale pel Timpanista(Milan, 1842), where Boracchi describes and illustrates his invention.7Catullus, lxiii. 8-10; Claud.De cons. Stilich.iii. 365; Lucret. ii. 618; Virg.Aen.ix. 619, &c.8John Carter,Specimens of Ancient Sculpture, bas-relief from seats of choir of Worcester cathedral and of collegiate church of St Katherine near the Tower of London (plates, vol. i. following p. 53 and vol. ii. following p. 22).9Nat. Hist.ix. 35, 23.10De re militari, ii. 22; iii. 5, &c.11Crassus, xxiii. 10. See also Justin xli. 2, and Polydorus, lib. 1, cap. xv.12See Isidore of Seville,Etymologiarum, lib. iii. cap. 21, 141; Migne,Patr. curs. completus, lxxxii. 167.13Panthéon littéraire(Paris, 1837), J. A. Buchon, vol. i. cap. 322, p. 273.14Reproduced by Franz Wickhoff, “Die Wiener Genesis,” supplement to the 15th and 16th volumes of theJahrb. d. kunsthistorischen Sammlungen d. allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses(Vienna, 1895); see frontispiece in colours and plate illustration XXXIV.15Artliche u. kunstreiche Figuren zu der Reutterey(Frankfort-on-Main, 1584).16See Michael Praetorius,Syntagma MusicumandMonatshefte f. Musikgeschichte, Jahrgang x. 51.17See Georges Kastner,op. cit., pp. 10 and 11; Johann Ernst Altenburg,Versuch einer Anleitung z. heroisch-musikalischen Trompeter u. Paukerkunst(Halle, 1795), p. 128; and H. G. Farmer,Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Bandp. 23, note 1 (London, 1904).18Miller’sArtillery Regimental History; see also H. G. Farmer,op. cit., p. 22; illustration 1702, p. 26.19Memoirs of the Royal Artillery.

1From “drum” and “kettle,” a covered metal vessel for boiling water or other liquid; the O.E. word iscetel, cf. Du.ketel, Ger.Kessel, borrowed from Lat.catillus, dim. ofcatinus, bowl.

2This rhythmical use of kettledrums was characteristic of the military instrument of percussion, rather than the musical member of the orchestra. During the middle ages and until the end of the 18th century, the two different notes obtainable from the pair of kettledrums were probably used more as a means of marking and varying the rhythm than as musical notes entering into the composition of the harmonies. The kettledrums, in fact, approximated to the side drums in technique. The contrast between the purely rhythmical use of kettledrums, given above, and the more modern musical use is well exemplified by the well-known solo for four kettledrums in Meyerbeer’sRobert le Diable, beginning thus—

3See Wilhelm Kleefeld,Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper(1678-1738);Internationale Musikgesellschaft, Sammelband i. 2, p. 278 (Leipzig, 1899).

4See J. Georges Kastner,Méthode complète et raisonnée de timbales(Paris), p. 19, where several of the early mechanical kettledrums are described and illustrated.

5See Gustav Schilling’sEncyklopädie der gesammten musikal. Wissenschaften(Stuttgart, 1840), vol. v., art. “Pauke.”

6SeeManuale pel Timpanista(Milan, 1842), where Boracchi describes and illustrates his invention.

7Catullus, lxiii. 8-10; Claud.De cons. Stilich.iii. 365; Lucret. ii. 618; Virg.Aen.ix. 619, &c.

8John Carter,Specimens of Ancient Sculpture, bas-relief from seats of choir of Worcester cathedral and of collegiate church of St Katherine near the Tower of London (plates, vol. i. following p. 53 and vol. ii. following p. 22).

9Nat. Hist.ix. 35, 23.

10De re militari, ii. 22; iii. 5, &c.

11Crassus, xxiii. 10. See also Justin xli. 2, and Polydorus, lib. 1, cap. xv.

12See Isidore of Seville,Etymologiarum, lib. iii. cap. 21, 141; Migne,Patr. curs. completus, lxxxii. 167.

13Panthéon littéraire(Paris, 1837), J. A. Buchon, vol. i. cap. 322, p. 273.

14Reproduced by Franz Wickhoff, “Die Wiener Genesis,” supplement to the 15th and 16th volumes of theJahrb. d. kunsthistorischen Sammlungen d. allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses(Vienna, 1895); see frontispiece in colours and plate illustration XXXIV.

15Artliche u. kunstreiche Figuren zu der Reutterey(Frankfort-on-Main, 1584).

16See Michael Praetorius,Syntagma MusicumandMonatshefte f. Musikgeschichte, Jahrgang x. 51.

17See Georges Kastner,op. cit., pp. 10 and 11; Johann Ernst Altenburg,Versuch einer Anleitung z. heroisch-musikalischen Trompeter u. Paukerkunst(Halle, 1795), p. 128; and H. G. Farmer,Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Bandp. 23, note 1 (London, 1904).

18Miller’sArtillery Regimental History; see also H. G. Farmer,op. cit., p. 22; illustration 1702, p. 26.

19Memoirs of the Royal Artillery.

KEUPER,in geology the third or uppermost subdivision of the Triassic system. The name is a local miners’ term of German origin; it corresponds to the Frenchmarnes irisées. The formation is well exposed in Swabia, Franconia, Alsace and Lorraine and Luxemburg; it extends from Basel on the east side of the Rhine into Hanover, and northwards it spreads into Sweden and through England into Scotland and north-east Ireland; it appears flanking the central plateau of France and in the Pyrenees and Sardinia. In the German region it is usual to divide the Keuper into three groups, theRhaeticor upper Keuper, the middle,Hauptkeuperorgypskeuper, and the lower,KohlenkeuperorLettenkohle. In Germany the lower division consists mainly of grey clays andschieferlettenwith white, grey and brightly coloured sandstone and dolomitic limestone. The upper part of this division is often a grey dolomite known as the Grenz dolomite; the impure coal beds—Lettenkohle—are aggregated towards the base. The middle division is thicker than either of the others (at Göttingen, 450 metres); it consists of a marly series below, grey, red and green marls with gypsum and dolomite—this is thegypskeuperin its restricted sense. The higher part of the series is sandy, hence called theSteinmergel; it is comparatively free from gypsum. To this division belong the Myophoria beds (M. Raibliana) with galena in places; the Estheria beds (E. laxitesta); the Schelfsandstein, used as a building-stone; the Lehrberg and Berg-gyps beds; Semionotus beds (S. Bergeri) with building-stone of Coburg; and the Burgand Stubensandstein. The salt, which is associated with gypsum, is exploited in south Germany at Dreuze, Pettoncourt, Vie in Lorraine and Wimpfen on the Neckar. A ½-metre coal is found on this horizon in the Erzgebirge, and another, 2 metres thick, has been mined in Upper Silesia. The upper Keuper, Rhaetic orAvicula contortazone in Germany is mainly sandy with dark grey shales and marls; it is seldom more than 25 metres thick. The sandstones are used for building purposes at Bayreuth, Culmbach and Bamberg. In Swabia and the Wesergebirge are several “bone-beds,” thicker than those in the middle Keuper, which contain a rich assemblage of fossil remains of fish, reptiles and the mammalian teeth ofMicrolestes antiquusandTriglyptus Fraasi. The name Rhaetic is derived from the Rhaetic Alps where the beds are well developed; they occur also in central France, the Pyrenees and England. In S. Tirol and the Judicarian Mountains the Rhaetic is represented by the Kössener beds. In the Alpine region the presence of coral beds gives rise to the so-called “Lithodendron Kalk.”

In Great Britain the Keuper contains the following sub-divisions:Rhaetic or Penarth beds, grey, red and green marls, black shales and so-called “white lias” (10-150 ft.).Upper Keuper marl, red and grey marls and shales with gypsum and rock salt (800-3000 ft.).Lower Keuper sandstone, marls and thin sandstones at the top, red and white sandstones (including the so-called “waterstones”) below, with breccias and conglomerates at the base (150-250 ft.). The basal or “dolomitic conglomerate” is a shore or scree breccia derived from local materials; it is well developed in the Mendip district. The rock-salt beds vary from 1 in. to 100 ft. in thickness; they are extensively worked (mined and pumped) in Cheshire, Middlesbrough and Antrim. The Keuper covers a large area in the midlands and around the flanks of the Pennine range; it reaches southward to the Devonshire coast, eastward into Yorkshire and north-westward into north Ireland and south Scotland. As in Germany, there are one or more “bone beds” in the English Rhaetic with a similar assemblage of fossils. In the “white lias” the upper hard limestone is known as the “sun bed” or “Jew stone”; at the base is the Cotham or landscape marble.

Representatives of the Rhaetic are found in south Sweden, where the lower portion contains workable coals, in the Himalayas, Japan, Tibet, Burma, eastern Siberia and in Spitzbergen. The upper portion of the Karroo beds of South Africa and part of the Otapiri series of New Zealand are probably of Rhaetic age.

The Keuper is not rich in fossils; the principal plants are cypress-like conifers (Walchia,Voltzia) and a few calamites with such forms asEquisetum arenaceumandPterophyllum Jaegeri,Avicula contorta,Protocardium rhaeticum,Terebratula gregaria,Myophoria costata,M. GoldfassiandLingula tenuessima,Anoplophoria letticamay be mentioned among the invertebrates. Fishes includeCeratodus,HybodusandLepidotus. Labyrinthodonts represented by the footprints of Cheirotherium and the bones ofLabyrinthodon,MastodonsaurusandCapitosaurus. Among the reptiles areHyperodapedon,Palaeosaurus,Zanclodon,NothosaurusandBelodon.Microlestes, the earliest known mammalian genus, has already been mentioned.See also the articleTriassic System.