KILLYBEGS,a seaport and market town of county Donegal, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on the north coast on Donegal Bay, the terminus of the Donegal railway. Pop. (1901), 607. It derives some importance from its fine land-locked harbour, which, affording accommodation to large vessels, is used as a naval station, and is the centre of an important fishery. There is a large pier for the fishing vessels. The manufacture of carpets occupies a part of the population, employing both male and female labour—the productions being known as Donegal carpets. There are slight remains of a castle and ancient church; and a mineral spring is still used. The town received a charter from James I., and was a parliamentary borough, returning two members, until the Union.
KILLYLEAGH,a small seaport and market town of county Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, on the western shore of Strangford Lough. Pop. (1901), 1410. Linen manufacture is the principal industry, and agricultural produce is exported. Killyleagh was an important stronghold in early times, and the modern castle preserves the towers of the old building. Sir John de Courcy erected this among many other fortresses in the neighbourhood; it was besieged by Shane O’Neill (1567), destroyed by Monk (1648), and subsequently rebuilt. The town was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the Irish parliament.
KILMAINE, CHARLES EDWARD(1751-1799), French general, was born at Dublin on the 19th of October 1751. At the age of eleven he went with his father, whose surname was Jennings, to France, where he changed his name to Kilmaine, after a village in Mayo. He entered the French army as an officer in a dragoon regiment in 1774, and afterwards served as a volunteer in the Navy (1778), during which period he was engaged in the fighting in Senegal. From 1780 to 1783 he took part in the War of American Independence under Rochambeau, rejoining the army on his return to France. In 1791, as a retired captain, he took the civic oath and was recalled to active service, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1792, and colonel, brigadier-general, and lieutenant-general in 1793. In this last capacity he distinguished himself in the wars on the northern and eastern frontiers. But he became an object of suspicion on account of his foreign birth and his relations with England. He was suspended on the 4th of August 1793, and was not recalled to active service till 1795. He then took part in the Italian campaigns of 1796 and 1797, and was made commandant of Lombardy. He afterwards received the command of the cavalry in Bonaparte’s “army of England,” of which, during the absence of Desaix, he was temporarily commander-in-chief (1798). He died on the 15th of December 1799.
See J. G. Alger,Englishmen in the French Revolution(1889); Eugène Fieffé,Histoire des troupes étrangères au service de France(1854); Etienne Charavay,Correspondance de Carnot, tome iii.
See J. G. Alger,Englishmen in the French Revolution(1889); Eugène Fieffé,Histoire des troupes étrangères au service de France(1854); Etienne Charavay,Correspondance de Carnot, tome iii.
KILMALLOCK,a market town of county Limerick, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 124¼ m. S.W. of Dublin by the Great Southern & Western main line. Pop. (1901), 1206. It commands a natural route (now followed by the railway) through the hills to the south and south-west, and is a site of great historical interest. It received a charter in the reign of Edward III., at which time it was walled and fortified, and entered by four gates, two of which remain. It was a military post of importance in Elizabeth’s reign, but its fortifications were for the most part demolished by order of Cromwell. Two castellated mansions are still to be seen. The church of St Peter and St Paul belonged to a former abbey, and has a tower at the north-west corner which is a converted round tower. The Dominican Abbey, of the 13th century, has Early English remains of great beauty and a tomb to Edmund, the last of the White Knights, a branch of the family of Desmond intimately connected with Kilmallock, who received their title from Edward III. at the battle of Halidon Hill. The foundation of Kilmallock, however, is attributed to the Geraldines, who had several towns in this vicinity. Eight miles from the town is Lough Gur, near which are numerous stone circles and other remains. Kilmallock returned two members to the Irish parliament.
KILMARNOCK,a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire, Scotland, on Kilmarnock Water, a tributary of the Irvine, 24 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 35,091. Among the chief buildings are the town hall, court-house, corn-exchange (with the Albert Tower, 110 ft. high), observatory, academy, corporation art gallery, institute (containing a free library and a museum), Kay schools, School of Science and Art, Athenaeum, theatre, infirmary, Agricultural Hall, and Philosophical Institution. The grounds of Kilmarnock House, presented to the town in 1893, were laid out as a public park. In Kay Park (48¾ acres), purchased from the duke of Portland for £9000, stands the Burns Memorial, consisting of two storeys and a tower, and containing a museum in which have been placed many important MSS. of the poet and the McKie library of Burns’s books. The marble statue of the poet, by W. G. Stevenson, stands on a terrace on the southern face. A Reformers’ monument was unveiled in Kay Park in 1885. Kilmarnock rose into importance in the 17th century by its production of striped woollen “Kilmarnock cowls” and broad blue bonnets, and afterwards acquired a great name for its Brussels, Turkey and Scottish carpets. Tweeds, blankets, shawls, tartans, lace curtains, cottons and winceys are also produced. The boot and shoe trade is prosperous, and there are extensive engineering and hydraulic machinery works. But the iron industry is prominent, the town being situated in the midst of a rich mineral region. Here, too, are the workshops of the Glasgow & South-Western railway company. Kilmarnock is famous for its dairy produce, and every October holds the largest cheese-show in Scotland. The neighbourhood abounds in freestone and coal. The burgh, which is governed by a provost and council, unites with Dumbarton, Port Glasgow, Renfrew and Rutherglen in returning one member to parliament. Alexander Smith, the poet (1830-1867), whose father was a lace-pattern designer, and Sir James Shaw (1764-1843), lord mayor of London in 1806, to whom a statue was erected in the town in 1848, were natives of Kilmarnock. It dates from the 15th century, and in 1591 was made a burgh of barony under the Boyds, the ruling house of the district. The last Boyd who bore the title of Lord Kilmarnock was beheaded on Tower Hill, London, in 1746, for his share in the Jacobite rising. The first edition of Robert Burns’s poems was published here in 1786.
KILMAURS,a town in the Cunningham division of Ayrshire, Scotland, on the Carmel, 21½ m. S. by W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 1803. Once noted for its cutlery, the chief industries now are shoe and bonnet factories, and there are iron and coal mines in the neighbourhood. The parish church dates from 1170, and was dedicated either to the Virgin or to a Scottish saint of the 9th century called Maure. It was enlarged in 1403 and in great part rebuilt in 1888. Adjoining it is the burial-place of the earls of Glencairn, the leading personages in the district during several centuries, some of whom bore the style of Lord Kilmaurs. Their family name was Cunningham, adopted probably from the manor which they acquired in the 12th century. The town was made a burgh of barony in 1527 by the earl of that date. Burns’s patron, the thirteenth earl, on whose death the poet wrote his touching “Lament,” sold the Kllmaurs estate in 1786 to the marchioness of Titchfield.
KILN(O.E.cylene, from the Lat.culina, a kitchen, cooking-stove), a place for burning, baking or drying. Kilns may be divided into two classes—those in which the materials come into actual contact with the flames, and those in which the furnace is beneath or surrounding the oven. Lime-kilns are of the first class, and brick-kilns, pottery-kilns, &c., of the second, which also includes places for merely drying materials, such as hop-kilns, usually called “oasts” or “oast-houses.”
KILPATRICK, NEW,orEAST,also calledBearsden, a town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 5½ m. N.W. of Glasgow by road, with a station on the North British railway company’s branch line from Glasgow to Milngavie. Pop. (1901), 2705. The town is largely inhabited by business men from Glasgow. The public buildings include the Shaw convalescent home, Buchanan, Retreat, house of refuge for girls, library, and St Peter’s College, a fine structure, presented to the Roman Catholic Church in 1892 by the archbishop of Glasgow. There is some coal-mining, and lime is manufactured. Remains of the Wall of Antoninus are close to the town. At Garscube and Garscadden, both within 1½ m. of New Kilpatrick, are extensive iron-works, and at the former place coal is mined and stone quarried.
KILPATRICK, OLD,a town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the right bank of the Clyde, 10½ m. N.W. of Glasgow by rail, with stations on the North British and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), 1533. It is traditionally the birthplace of St Patrick,whose father is said to have acted there as a Roman magistrate. Roman remains occur in the district, and the Wall of Antoninus ran through the parish. To the north, occupying an area of about 6 m. from east to west and 5 m. from north to south run the Kilpatrick Hills, of which the highest points are Duncomb and Fynloch Hill (each 1313 ft.).
KILRUSH,a seaport and watering-place of county Clare, Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, on the north shore of the Shannon estuary 45 m. below Limerick. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4179. It is the terminus of a branch of the West Clare railway. The only seaport of importance in the county, it has a considerable export trade in peat fuel, extensive fisheries, and flagstone quarries; while general fairs, horse fairs and annual agricultural shows are held. The inner harbour admits only small vessels, but there is a good pier a mile south of the town. Off the harbour lies Scattery Island (Inis Cathaigh), where St Senan (d. 544) founded a monastery. There are the remains of his oratory and house and of seven rude churches or chapels, together with a round tower and a holy well still in repute. The island also received the epithet of Holy, and was a favourite burial-ground until modern times.
KILSYTH,a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the Kelvin, 13 m. N.N.E. of Glasgow by the North British railway, and close to the Forth and Clyde canal. Pop. (1901), 7292. The principal buildings are the town and public halls, and the academy. The chief industries are coal-mining and iron-works; there are also manufactures of paper and cotton, besides quarrying of whinstone and sandstone. There are considerable remains of the Wall of Antoninus south of the town, and to the north the ruins of the old castle. Kilsyth dates from the middle of the 17th century and became a burgh of barony in 1826. It was the scene of Montrose’s defeat of the Covenanters on the 15th of August 1645. The town was the centre of remarkable religious revivals in 1742-3 and 1839, the latter conducted by William Chalmers Burns (1815-1868), the missionary to China.
KILT,properly the short loose skirt or petticoat, reaching to the knees and usually made of tartan, forming part of the dress of a Scottish Highlander (seeCostume). The word means that which is “girded or tucked up,” and is apparently of Scandinavian origin, cf. Danishkilte, to tuck up. The early kilt was not a separate garment but was merely the lower part of the plaid, in which the Highlander wrapped himself, hanging down in folds below the belt.
KILWA(Quiloa), a seaport of German East Africa, about 200 m. S. of Zanzibar. There are two Kilwas, one on the mainland—Kilwa Kivinje; the other, the ancient city, on an island—Kilwa Kisiwani. Kilwa Kivinje, on the northern side of Kilwa Bay, is regularly laid out, the houses in the European quarter being large and substantial. The government house and barracks are fortified and are surrounded by fine public gardens. The adjacent country is fertile and thickly populated, and the trade of the port is considerable. Much of it is in the hands of Banyans. Kilwa is a starting-point for caravans to Lake Nyasa. Pop. about 5000. Most of the inhabitants are Swahili.
Kilwa Kisiwani, 18 m. to the south of the modern town, possesses a deep harbour sheltered from all winds by projecting coral reefs. The island on which it is built is separated from the mainland by a shallow and narrow channel. The ruins of the city include massive walls and bastions, remains of a palace and of two large mosques, of which the domed roofs are in fair preservation, besides several Arab forts. The new quarter contains a customs house and a few Arab buildings. Pop. about 600. On the island of Songa Manara, at the southern end of Kilwa Bay, hidden in dense vegetation, are the ruins of another city, unknown to history. Fragments of palaces and mosques in carved limestone exist, and on the beach are the remains of a lighthouse. Chinese coins and pieces of porcelain have been found on the sea-shore, washed up from the reefs.
The sultanate of Kilwa is reputed to have been founded aboutA.D.975 by Ali ibn Ḥasan, a Persian prince from Shiraz, upon the site of the ancient Greek colony of Rhapta. The new state, at first confined to the town of Kilwa, extended its influence along the coast from Zanzibar to Sofala, and the city came to be regarded as the capital of the Zenj “empire” (seeZanzibar: “Sultanate”). An Arab chronicle gives a list of over forty sovereigns who reigned at Kilwa in a period of five hundred years (cf. A. M. H. J. Stokvis,Manuel d’histoire, Leiden, 1888, i. 558). Pedro Alvares Cabral, the Portuguese navigator, was the first European to visit it. His fleet, on its way to India, anchored in Kilwa Bay in 1500. Kilwa was then a large and wealthy city, possessing, it is stated, three hundred mosques. In 1502 Kilwa submitted to Vasco da Gama, but the sultan neglecting to pay the tribute imposed upon him, the city in 1505 was occupied by the Portuguese. They built a fort there; the first erected by them on the east coast of Africa. Fighting ensued between the Arabs and the Portuguese, the city was destroyed; and in 1512 the Portuguese, whose ranks had been decimated by fever, temporarily abandoned the place. Subsequently Kilwa became one of the chief centres of the slave trade. Towards the end of the 17th century it fell under the dominion of the imams of Muscat, and on the separation in 1856 of their Arabian and African possessions became subject to the sultan of Zanzibar. With the rest of the southern part of the sultan’s continental dominions Kilwa was acquired by Germany in 1890 (seeAfrica, § 5; andGerman East Africa).
The sultanate of Kilwa is reputed to have been founded aboutA.D.975 by Ali ibn Ḥasan, a Persian prince from Shiraz, upon the site of the ancient Greek colony of Rhapta. The new state, at first confined to the town of Kilwa, extended its influence along the coast from Zanzibar to Sofala, and the city came to be regarded as the capital of the Zenj “empire” (seeZanzibar: “Sultanate”). An Arab chronicle gives a list of over forty sovereigns who reigned at Kilwa in a period of five hundred years (cf. A. M. H. J. Stokvis,Manuel d’histoire, Leiden, 1888, i. 558). Pedro Alvares Cabral, the Portuguese navigator, was the first European to visit it. His fleet, on its way to India, anchored in Kilwa Bay in 1500. Kilwa was then a large and wealthy city, possessing, it is stated, three hundred mosques. In 1502 Kilwa submitted to Vasco da Gama, but the sultan neglecting to pay the tribute imposed upon him, the city in 1505 was occupied by the Portuguese. They built a fort there; the first erected by them on the east coast of Africa. Fighting ensued between the Arabs and the Portuguese, the city was destroyed; and in 1512 the Portuguese, whose ranks had been decimated by fever, temporarily abandoned the place. Subsequently Kilwa became one of the chief centres of the slave trade. Towards the end of the 17th century it fell under the dominion of the imams of Muscat, and on the separation in 1856 of their Arabian and African possessions became subject to the sultan of Zanzibar. With the rest of the southern part of the sultan’s continental dominions Kilwa was acquired by Germany in 1890 (seeAfrica, § 5; andGerman East Africa).
KILWARDBY, ROBERT(d. 1279), archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal, studied at the university of Paris, where he soon became famous as a teacher of grammar and logic. Afterwards joining the order of St Dominic and turning his attention to theology, he was chosen provincial prior of his order in England in 1261, and in October 1272 Pope Gregory X. terminated a dispute over the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury by appointing Kilwardby. Although the new archbishop crowned Edward I. and his queen Eleanor in August 1274, he took little part in business of state, but was energetic in discharging the spiritual duties of his office. He was charitable to the poor, and showed liberality to the Dominicans. In 1278 Pope Nicholas III. made him cardinal-bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina; he resigned his archbishopric and left England, carrying with him the registers and other valuable property belonging to the see of Canterbury. He died in Italy on the 11th of September 1279. Kilwardby was the first member of a mendicant order to attain a high position in the English Church. Among his numerous writings, which became very popular among students, areDe ortu scientiarum,De tempore,De Universali, and some commentaries on Aristotle.
See N. Trevet,Annales sex regum Angliae, edited by T. Hog (London, 1845); W. F. Hook,Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, vol. iii. (London, 1860-1876); J. Quétif and J. Échard,Scriptores ordinis Predicatorum(Paris, 1719-1721).
See N. Trevet,Annales sex regum Angliae, edited by T. Hog (London, 1845); W. F. Hook,Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, vol. iii. (London, 1860-1876); J. Quétif and J. Échard,Scriptores ordinis Predicatorum(Paris, 1719-1721).
KILWINNING,a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire, Scotland, on the right bank of the Garnock, 24 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway, and 26¾ m. by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4440. The chief buildings include the public library, the Masonic hall and the district hospital. The centre of interest, however, is the ruined abbey, originally one of the richest in Scotland. Founded about 1140 by Hugh de Morville, lord of Cunninghame, for Tyronensian monks of the Benedictine order, it was dedicated to St Winnin, who lived on the spot in the 8th century and has given his name to the town. This beautiful specimen of Early English architecture was partly destroyed in 1561, and its lands were granted to the earl of Eglinton and others. Kilwinning is the traditional birthplace of Scottish freemasonry, the lodge, believed to have been founded by the foreign architects and masons who came to build the abbey, being regarded as the mother lodge in Scotland. The royal company of archers of Kilwinning—dating, it is said, as far back as 1488—meet every July to shoot at the popinjay. The industry in weaving shawls and lighter fabrics has died out; and the large iron, coal and fire-clay works at Eglinton, and worsted spinning, employ most of the inhabitants. About a mile from Kilwinning is Eglinton Castle, the seat of the earls of Eglinton, built in 1798 in the English castellated style.
KIMBERLEY, JOHN WODEHOUSE,1st Earl of(1826-1902), English statesman, was born on the 7th of January 1826, being the eldest son of the Hon. Henry Wodehouse and grandson of the 2nd Baron Wodehouse (the barony dating from 1797), whom he succeeded in 1846. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first-class degree inclassics in 1847; in the same year married Lady Florence Fitzgibbon (d. 1895), daughter of the last earl of Clare. He was by inheritance a Liberal in politics, and in 1852-1856 and 1859-1861 he was under secretary of state for foreign affairs in Lord Aberdeen’s and Lord Palmerston’s ministries. In the interval (1856-1858) he had been envoy-extraordinary to Russia; and in 1863 he was sent on a special mission to Copenhagen on the forlorn hope of finding a peaceful solution of the Schleswig-Holstein question. The mission was a failure, but probably nothing else was possible. In 1864 he became under secretary for India, but towards the end of the year was made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. In that capacity he had to grapple with the first manifestations of Fenianism, and in recognition of his vigour and success he was created (1866) earl of Kimberley. In July 1866 he vacated his office with the fall of Lord Russell’s ministry, but in 1868 he became Lord Privy Seal in Mr Gladstone’s cabinet, and in July 1870 was transferred from that post to be secretary of state for the colonies. It was the moment of the great diamond discoveries in South Africa, and the new town of Kimberley was named after the colonial secretary of the day. After an interval of opposition from 1874 to 1880, Lord Kimberley returned to the Colonial Office in Mr Gladstone’s next ministry; but at the end of 1882 he exchanged this office first for that of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and then for the secretaryship of state for India, a post he retained during the remainder of Mr Gladstone’s tenure of power (1882-1886, 1892-1894), though in 1892-1894 he combined with it that of the lord presidency of the council. In Lord Rosebery’s cabinet (1894-1895) he was foreign secretary. Lord Kimberley was an admirable departmental chief, but it is difficult to associate his own personality with any ministerial act during his occupation of all these posts. He was at the colonial office when responsible government was granted to Cape Colony, when British Columbia was added to the Dominion of Canada, and during the Boer War of 1880-81, with its conclusion at Majuba; and he was foreign secretary when the misunderstanding arose with Germany over the proposed lease of territory from the Congo Free State for the Cape to Cairo route. He was essentially a loyal Gladstonian party man. His moderation, common sense, and patriotism had their influence, nevertheless, on his colleagues. As leader of the Liberal party in the House of Lords he acted with undeviating dignity; and in opposition he was a courteous antagonist and a critic of weight and experience. He took considerable interest in education, and after being for many years a member of the senate of London University, he became its chancellor in 1899. He died in London on the 8th of April 1902, being succeeded in the earldom by his eldest and only surviving son, Lord Wodehouse (b. 1848).
KIMBERLEY,a town of the Cape province, South Africa, the centre of the Griqualand West diamond industry, 647 m. N.E. of Cape Town and 310 m. S.W. of Johannesburg by rail. Pop. (1904), 34,331, of whom 13,556 were whites. The town is built on the bare veld midway between the Modder and Vaal Rivers and is 4012 ft. above the sea. Having grown out of camps formed round the diamond mines, its plan is very irregular and in striking contrast with the rectangular outline common to South African towns. Grouped round market square are the law courts, with a fine clock tower, the post and telegraph offices and the town-hall. The public library and the hospital are in Du Toits Pan Road. In the district of Newton, laid out during the siege of 1899-1900, a monument to those who fell during the operations has been erected where four roads meet. Siege Avenue, in the suburb of Kenilworth, 250 ft. wide, a mile and a quarter long, and planted with 16 rows of trees, was also laid out during the siege. In the public gardens are statues of Queen Victoria and Cecil Rhodes. The diamond mines form, however, the chief attraction of the town (seeDiamond). Of these the Kimberley is within a few minutes’ walk of market square. The De Beers mine is one mile east of the Kimberley mine. The other principal mines, Bultfontein, Du Toits Pan and Wesselton, are still farther distant from the town. Barbed wire fencing surrounds the mines, which cover about 180 acres.
The Kaffirs who work in the mines are housed in large compounds. Wire netting is spread over these enclosures, and every precaution taken to prevent the illicit disposal of diamonds. Ample provision is made for the comfort of the inmates, who in addition to food and lodging earn from 17s. to 24s. a week. Most of the white workmen employed live at Kenilworth, laid out by the De Beers company as a “model village.” Beaconsfield, near Du Toits Pan Mine, is also dependent on the diamond industry.
Kimberley was founded in 1870 by diggers who discovered diamonds on the farms of Du Toits Pan and Bultfontein. In 1871 richer diamonds were found on the neighbouring farm of Vooruitzight at places named De Beers and Colesberg Kopje. There were at first three distinct mining camps, one at Du Toits Pan, another at De Beers (called De Beers Rush or Old De Beers) and the third at the Colesberg Kopje (called De Beers New Rush, or New Rush simply). The Colesberg Kopje mine was in July 1873 renamed Kimberley in honour of the then secretary of state for the colonies, the 1st earl of Kimberley, by whose direction the mines were—in 1871—taken under the protection of Great Britain. Kimberley was also chosen as the name of the town into which the mining camps developed. Doubt having arisen as to the rights of the crown to the minerals on Vooruitzight farm, litigation ensued, ending in the purchase of the farm by the state for £100,000 in 1875. In 1880 the town was incorporated in Cape Colony (seeGriqualand). In 1874 a great part of the population left for the newly discovered gold diggings in the Lydenburg district of the Transvaal, but others took their place. Among those early attracted to Kimberley were Cecil Rhodes and “Barney” Barnato, who in time came to represent two groups of financiers controlling the mines. The amalgamation of their interests in 1889—when the De Beers group purchased the Kimberley mine for £5,338,650—put the whole diamond production of the Kimberley fields in the hands of one company, the De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., so named after the former owners of the farms on which are situated the chief mines. Kimberley in consequence became largely dependent on the good-will of the De Beers corporation, the town having practically no industries other than diamond mining. Horse-breeding is carried on to a limited extent. The value of the annual output of diamonds averages about £4,500,000. The importance of the industry led to the building of a railway from Cape Town, opened in 1885. On the outbreak of war between the British and the Boers in 1899 Kimberley was invested by a Boer force. The siege began on the 12th of October and lasted until the 15th of February 1900, when the town was relieved by General Sir John French. Among the besieged was Cecil Rhodes, who placed the resources of the De Beers company at the disposal of the defenders. In 1906 the town was put in direct railway communication with Johannesburg, and in 1908 the completion of the line from Bloemfontein gave Natal direct access to Kimberley, which thus became an important railway centre.
KIMERIDGIAN,in geology, the basal division of the Upper Oolites in the Jurassic system. The name is derived from the hamlet of Kimeridge or Kimmeridge near the coast of Dorsetshire, England. It appears to have been first suggested by T. Webster in 1812; in 1818, in the form Kimeridge Clay, it was used by Buckland. From the Dorsetshire coast, where it is splendidly exposed in the fine cliffs from St Alban’s Head to Gad Cliff, it follows the line of Jurassic outcrop through Wiltshire, where there is a broad expanse between Westbury and Devizes, as far as Yorkshire, there it appears in the vale of Pickering and on the coast in Filey Bay. It generally occupied broad valleys, of which the vale of Aylesbury may be taken as typical. Good exposures occur at Seend, Calne, Swindon, Wootton Bassett, Faringdon, Abingdon, Culham, Shotover Hill, Brill, Ely and Market Rasen. Traces of the formation are found as far north as the east coast of Cromarty and Sutherland at Eathie and Helmsdale.
In England the Kimeridgian is usually divisible into an Upper Series, 600-650 ft. in the south, dark bituminous shales, papershales and clays with layers and nodules of cement-stones and septaria. These beds merge gradually into the overlying Portlandian formation. The Lower Series, with a maximum thickness of 400 ft., consists of clays and dark shales with septaria, cement-stones and calcareous “doggers.” These lithological characters are very persistent. The Upper Kimeridgian is distinguished as the zone ofPerisphincles biplex, with the sub-zone ofDiscina latissimain the higher portions.Cardioceras alternansis the zonal ammonite characteristic of the lower division, with the sub-zone ofOstrea deltoideain the lower portion.Exogyra virgulais common in the upper part of the lower division, and the lower part of the Upper Kimeridgian. A large number of ammonites are peculiar to this formation, includingReineckia eudoxus,R. Thurmanni,Aspidoceras longispinus, &c. Large dinosaurian reptiles are abundant,Cetiosaurus,Gigantosaurus,Megalosaurus, also plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs; crocodilian and chelonian remains are also found.Protocardia striatula,Thracia depressa,Belemnites abreviatus,B. Blainvillei,Lingula ovalis,Rhynchonella inconstansandExogyra nanaare characteristic fossils. Alum has been obtained from the Kimeridge Clay, and the cement-stones have been employed in Purbeck; coprolites are found in small quantities. Bricks, tiles, flower-pots, &c., are made from the clay at Swindon, Gillingham, Brill, Ely, Horncastle, and other places. The so-called “Kimeridge coal” is a highly bituminous shale capable of being used as fuel, which has been worked on the cliff at Little Kimeridge.The “Kimeridgien” of continental geologists is usually made to contain the three sub-divisions of A. Oppel and W. Waagen, viz.:—KimeridgienUpper(Virgulian)withExogyra virgulaMiddle(Pteroceran)withPteroceras oceaniLower(Astartian)withAstarte supracorallina;but the upper portion of this continental Kimeridgian is equivalent to some of the British Portlandian; while most of the Astartian corresponds to the Corallian. A. de Lapparent now recognizes only the Virgulian and Pteroceran in the Kimeridgien. Clays and marls with occasional limestones and sandstones represent the Kimeridgien of most of northern Europe, including Russia. In Swabia and some other parts of Germany the curious ruiniform marbleFelsenkalkoccurs on this horizon, and most of the Kimeridgien of southern Europe, including the Alps, is calcareous. Representatives of the formation occur in Caucasia, Algeria, Abyssinia, Madagascar; in South America with volcanic rocks, and possibly in California (Maripan beds), Alaska and King Charles’s Land.See “Jurassic Rocks of Britain,” vols. v. and i.,Memoirs of the Geological Survey(vol. v. contains references to literature up to 1895).
In England the Kimeridgian is usually divisible into an Upper Series, 600-650 ft. in the south, dark bituminous shales, papershales and clays with layers and nodules of cement-stones and septaria. These beds merge gradually into the overlying Portlandian formation. The Lower Series, with a maximum thickness of 400 ft., consists of clays and dark shales with septaria, cement-stones and calcareous “doggers.” These lithological characters are very persistent. The Upper Kimeridgian is distinguished as the zone ofPerisphincles biplex, with the sub-zone ofDiscina latissimain the higher portions.Cardioceras alternansis the zonal ammonite characteristic of the lower division, with the sub-zone ofOstrea deltoideain the lower portion.Exogyra virgulais common in the upper part of the lower division, and the lower part of the Upper Kimeridgian. A large number of ammonites are peculiar to this formation, includingReineckia eudoxus,R. Thurmanni,Aspidoceras longispinus, &c. Large dinosaurian reptiles are abundant,Cetiosaurus,Gigantosaurus,Megalosaurus, also plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs; crocodilian and chelonian remains are also found.Protocardia striatula,Thracia depressa,Belemnites abreviatus,B. Blainvillei,Lingula ovalis,Rhynchonella inconstansandExogyra nanaare characteristic fossils. Alum has been obtained from the Kimeridge Clay, and the cement-stones have been employed in Purbeck; coprolites are found in small quantities. Bricks, tiles, flower-pots, &c., are made from the clay at Swindon, Gillingham, Brill, Ely, Horncastle, and other places. The so-called “Kimeridge coal” is a highly bituminous shale capable of being used as fuel, which has been worked on the cliff at Little Kimeridge.
The “Kimeridgien” of continental geologists is usually made to contain the three sub-divisions of A. Oppel and W. Waagen, viz.:—
but the upper portion of this continental Kimeridgian is equivalent to some of the British Portlandian; while most of the Astartian corresponds to the Corallian. A. de Lapparent now recognizes only the Virgulian and Pteroceran in the Kimeridgien. Clays and marls with occasional limestones and sandstones represent the Kimeridgien of most of northern Europe, including Russia. In Swabia and some other parts of Germany the curious ruiniform marbleFelsenkalkoccurs on this horizon, and most of the Kimeridgien of southern Europe, including the Alps, is calcareous. Representatives of the formation occur in Caucasia, Algeria, Abyssinia, Madagascar; in South America with volcanic rocks, and possibly in California (Maripan beds), Alaska and King Charles’s Land.
See “Jurassic Rocks of Britain,” vols. v. and i.,Memoirs of the Geological Survey(vol. v. contains references to literature up to 1895).
(J. A. H.)
ḲIMḤI,orQimḥi, the family name of three Jewish grammarians and biblical scholars who worked at Narbonne in the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th, and exercised great influence on the study of the Hebrew language. The name, as is shown by manuscript testimony, was also pronouncedḲamḥiand further mention is made of the French surname Petit.
Joseph Ḳimḥiwas a native of southern Spain, and settled in Provence, where he was one of the first to set forth in the Hebrew language the results of Hebraic philology as expounded by the Spanish Jews in their Arabic treatises. He was acquainted moreover with Latin grammar, under the influence of which he resorted to the innovation of dividing the Hebrew vowels into five long vowels and five short, previous grammarians having simply spoken of seven vowels without distinction of quantity. His grammatical textbook,Sefer Ha-Zikkaron, “Book of Remembrance” (ed. W. Bacher, Berlin, 1888), was marked by methodical comprehensiveness, and introduced into the theory of the verbs a new classification of the stems which has been retained by later scholars. In the far more ampleSefer Ha-Galuy, “Book of Demonstration” (ed. Matthews, Berlin, 1887), Joseph Ḳimḥi attacks the philological work of the greatest French Talmud scholar of that day, R. Jacob Tam, who espoused the antiquated system of Menaḥem b. Saruq, and this he supplements by an independent critique of Menaḥem. This work is a mine of varied exegetical and philological details. He also wrote commentaries—the majority of which are lost—on a great number of the scriptural books. Those on Proverbs and Job have been published. He composed an apologetic work under the titleSefer Ha-Berith(“Book of the Bond”), a fragment of which is extant, and translated into Hebrew the ethico-philosophical work of Baḥya ibn Paquda (“Duties of the Heart”). In his commentaries he also made contributions to the comparative philology of Hebrew and Arabic.
Moses Ḳimḥiwas the author of a Hebrew grammar, known—after the first three words—asMahalak Shebile Ha-daat, or briefly asMahalak. It is an elementary introduction to the study of Hebrew, the first of its kind, in which only the most indispensable definitions and rules have a place, the remainder being almost wholly occupied by paradigms. Moses Ḳimḥi was the first who made the verbpaqadha model for conjugation, and the first also who introduced the now usual sequence in the enumeration of stem-forms. His handbook was of great historical importance as in the first half of the 16th century it became the favourite manual for the study of Hebrew among non-Judaic scholars (1st ed., Pesaro, 1508). Elias Levita (q.v.) wrote Hebrew explanations, and Sebastian Münster translated it into Latin. Moses Ḳimḥi also composed commentaries to the biblical books; those on Proverbs, Ezra and Nehemiah are in the great rabbinical bibles falsely ascribed to Abraham ibn Ezra.
David Ḳimḥi(c.1160-1235), also known asRedaq(= R. David Ḳimḥi), eclipsed the fame both of his father and his brother. From the writings of the former he quotes a great number of explanations, some of which are known only from this source. Hismagnum opusis theSefer Miklol, “Book of Completeness.” This falls into two divisions: the grammar, to which the title of the whole,Miklol, is usually applied (first printed in Constantinople, 1532-1534, then, with the notes of Elias Levita, at Venice, 1545), and the lexicon,Sefer Hashorashim, “Book of Roots,” which was first printed in Italy before 1480, then at Naples in 1490, and at Venice in 1546 with the annotations of Elias. The model and the principal source for this work of David Ḳimḥi’s was the book of R. Jonah (Abulwalid), which was cast in a similar bipartite form; and it was chiefly due to Ḳimḥi’s grammar and lexicon that, while the contents of Abulwalid’s works were common knowledge, they themselves remained in oblivion for centuries. In spite of this dependence on his predecessors his work shows originality, especially in the arrangement of his material. In the grammar he combined the paradigmatic method of his brother Moses with the procedure of the older scholars who devoted a close attention to details. In his dictionary, again, he recast the lexicological materials independently, and enriched lexicography itself, especially by his numerous etymological explanations. Under the titleEṭ Sofer, “Pen of the Writer” (Lyk, 1864), David Ḳimḥi composed a sort of grammatical compendium as a guide to the correct punctuation of the biblical manuscripts; it consists, for the most part, of extracts from theMiklol. After the completion of his great work he began to write commentaries on portions of the Scriptures. The first was on Chronicles, then followed one on the Psalms, and finally his exegetical masterpiece—the commentary on the prophets. His annotations on the Psalms are especially interesting for the polemical excursuses directed against the Christian interpretation. He was also responsible for a commentary on Genesis (ed. A. Günsburg, Pressburg, 1842), in which he followed Moses Maimonides in explaining biblical narratives as visions. He was an enthusiastic adherent of Maimonides, and, though far advanced in years, took an active part in the battle which raged in southern France and Spain round his philosophico-religious writings. The popularity of his biblical exegesis is demonstrated by the fact that the first printed texts of the Hebrew Bible were accompanied by his commentary: the Psalms 1477, perhaps at Bologna; the early Prophets, 1485, Soncino; the later Prophets, ibid. 1486.
His commentaries have been frequently reprinted, many of them in Latin translations. A new edition of that on the Psalms was begun by Schiller-Szinessy (First Book of Psalms, Cambridge, 1883). Abr. Geiger wrote of the three excursuses Ḳimḥis in the Hebrew periodicalOẓar Neḥmad(vol. ii., 1857 = A. Geiger,Gesammelte Schriften, v. 1-47). See further theJewish Encyclopedia.
His commentaries have been frequently reprinted, many of them in Latin translations. A new edition of that on the Psalms was begun by Schiller-Szinessy (First Book of Psalms, Cambridge, 1883). Abr. Geiger wrote of the three excursuses Ḳimḥis in the Hebrew periodicalOẓar Neḥmad(vol. ii., 1857 = A. Geiger,Gesammelte Schriften, v. 1-47). See further theJewish Encyclopedia.
(W. Ba.)
KIN(O.E.cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du.kunne, Dan. and Swed.kön, Gothkuni, tribe; the Teutonic base iskunya; the equivalent Aryan rootgan-to beget, produce, is seen in Gr.γένος, Lat.genus, cf. “kind”), a collective word for persons related by blood, as descended from a common ancestor. In law, the term “next of kin” is applied to the person or persons who, as being in the nearest degree of blood relationship to a person dying intestate, share according todegree in his personal estate (seeIntestacy, andInheritance). “Kin” is frequently associated with “kith” in the phrase “kith and kin,” now used as an emphasized form of “kin” for family relatives. It properly means one’s “country and kin,” or one’s “friends and kin.” Kith (O.E.cyððeandcyð, native land, acquaintances) comes from the stem ofcunnan, to know, and thus means the land or people one knows familiarly.
The suffix -kin, chiefly surviving in English surnames, seems to have been early used as a diminutive ending to certain Christian names in Flanders and Holland. The termination is represented by the diminutive -chenin German, as inKindchen,Häuschen, &c. Many English words, such as “pumpkin,” “firkin,” seem to have no diminutive significance, and may have been assimilated from earlier forms,e.g.“pumpkin” from “pumpion.”
The suffix -kin, chiefly surviving in English surnames, seems to have been early used as a diminutive ending to certain Christian names in Flanders and Holland. The termination is represented by the diminutive -chenin German, as inKindchen,Häuschen, &c. Many English words, such as “pumpkin,” “firkin,” seem to have no diminutive significance, and may have been assimilated from earlier forms,e.g.“pumpkin” from “pumpion.”
KINCARDINESHIRE,orThe Mearns, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded E. by the North Sea, S. and S.W. by Forfarshire, and N.W. and N. by Aberdeenshire. Area, 243,974 acres, or 381 sq. m. In the west and north-west the Grampians are the predominant feature. The highest of their peaks is Mount Battock (2555 ft.), where the counties of Aberdeen, Forfar and Kincardine meet, but there are a score of hills exceeding 1500 ft. in height. In the extreme north, on the confines of Aberdeenshire, the Hill of Fare, famous for its sheep walks, attains an altitude of 1545 ft. In the north the county slopes from the Grampians to the picturesque and finely-wooded valley of the Dee, and in the south it falls to the Howe (Hollow) of the Mearns, which is a continuation north-eastwards of Strathmore. The principal rivers are Bervie Water (20 m. long), flowing south-eastwards to the North Sea; the Water of Feugh (20 m.) taking a north-easterly direction and falling into the Dee at Banchory, and forming near its mouth a beautiful cascade; the Dye (15 m.) rising in Mount Battock and ending its course in the Feugh; Luther Water (14 m.) springing not far from the castle of Drumtochty and meandering pleasantly to its junction with the North Esk; the Cowie (13 m.) and the Carron (8½ m.) entering the sea at Stonehaven. The Dee and North Esk serve as boundary streams during part of their course, the one of Aberdeenshire, the other of Forfarshire. Loch Loirston, in the parish of Nigg, and Loch Lumgair, in Dunnottar parish, both small, are the only lakes in the shire. Of the glens Glen Dye in the north centre of the county is remarkable for its beauty, and the small Den Fenella, to the south-east of Laurencekirk, contains a picturesque waterfall. Its name perpetuates the memory of Fenella, daughter of a thane of Angus, who was slain here after betraying Kenneth II. to his enemies, who (according to local tradition) made away with him in Kincardine Castle. Excepting in the vicinity of St Cyrus, the coast from below Johnshaven to Girdle Ness presents a bold front of rugged cliffs, with an average height of from 100 to 250 ft., interrupted only by occasional creeks and bays, as at Johnshaven, Gourdon, Bervie, Stonehaven, Portlethen, Findon, Cove and Nigg.
Geology.—The great fault which traverses Scotland from shore to shore passes through this county from Craigeven Bay, about a mile north of Stonehaven, by Fenella Hill to Edzell. On the northern side of this line are the old crystalline schists of the Dalradian group; on the southern side Old Red Sandstone occupies all the remaining space. Good exposures of the schists are seen, repeatedly folded, in the cliffs between Aberdeen and Stonehaven. They consist of a lower series of greenish slates and a higher, more micaceous and schistose series with grits; bands of limestone occur in these rocks near Bunchory. Besides the numerous minor flexures the schists are bent into a broad synclinal fold which crosses the county, its axis lying in a south-westerly-north-easterly direction. Rising through the schists are several granite masses, the largest being that forming the high ground around Mt Battock; south of the Dee are several smaller masses, some of which have been extensively quarried. The lower part of the Old Red Sandstone consists of flags, red sandstones and purple clays in great thickness; these are followed by coarse conglomerates, well seen in the cliff at Dunnottar Castle, with ashy grits and some thin sheets of diabase. The diabase forms the Bruxie and Leys Hills and some minor elevations. Above the volcanic series more red sandstones, conglomerates and marls appear. The Old Red Sandstone is folded synclinally in a direction continuing the vale of Strathmore; south of this is an anticline, as may be seen on the coast between St Cyrus and Kinneff. Glacial striae on the higher ground and débris on the lower ground show that the direction taken by the ice flow was south-eastward on the hills but as the shore was approached it gradually took on an easterly and finally a northerly direction.Climate and Agriculture.—The climate is healthy, but often cold, owing to the exposure to east winds. The average temperature for the year is 45° F., for July 58°, and for January 37°. The average annual rainfall is 34 in. Much of the Grampian territory is occupied by grouse moors, but the land by the Dee, in the Howe and along the coast, is scientifically farmed and yields well. The soil of the Howe is richer and stronger than that in the Dee valley, but the most fertile region is along the coast, where the soil is generally deep loam resting on clay, although in some places it is poor and thin, or stiff and cold. Oats are the principal crop, wheat is not largely grown, but the demands of the distillers maintain a very considerable acreage under barley. Rather more than one-tenth of the total area is under wood. Turnips form the main green crop, but potatoes are extensively raised. A little more than half the holdings consist of 50 acres and under. Great attention is paid to livestock. Shorthorns are the most common breed, but the principal home-bred stock is a cross between shorthorned and polled, though there are many valuable herds of pure polled. Cattle-feeding is carried on according to the most advanced methods. Blackfaced sheep are chiefly kept on the hill runs, Cheviots or a cross with Leicesters being usually found on the lowland farms. Most of the horses are employed in connexion with the cultivation of the soil, but several good strains, including Clydesdales, are retained for stock purposes. Pigs are also reared in considerable numbers.Other Industries.—Apart from agriculture, the principal industry is the fishing, of which Stonehaven is the centre. The coast being dangerous and the harbours difficult in rough weather, the fishermen often run great risks. The village of Findon (pron.Finnan) has given its name to the well-known smoked haddocks, which were first cured in this way at that hamlet. The salmon fisheries of the sea and the rivers yield a substantial annual return. Manufactures are of little more than local importance. Woollens are made at Stonehaven, and at Bervie, Laurencekirk and a few other places flax-spinning and weaving are carried on. There are also some distilleries, breweries and tanneries. Stonehaven, Gourdon and Johnshaven are the chief ports for seaborne trade.The Deeside railway runs through the portion of the county on the northern bank of the Dee. The Caledonian and North British railways run to Aberdeen via Laurencekirk to Stonehaven, using the same metals, and there is a branch line of the N.B.R. from Montrose to Bervie. There are also coaches between Blairs and Aberdeen, Bervie and Stonehaven, Fettercairn and Edzell, Banchory and Birse, and other points.
Geology.—The great fault which traverses Scotland from shore to shore passes through this county from Craigeven Bay, about a mile north of Stonehaven, by Fenella Hill to Edzell. On the northern side of this line are the old crystalline schists of the Dalradian group; on the southern side Old Red Sandstone occupies all the remaining space. Good exposures of the schists are seen, repeatedly folded, in the cliffs between Aberdeen and Stonehaven. They consist of a lower series of greenish slates and a higher, more micaceous and schistose series with grits; bands of limestone occur in these rocks near Bunchory. Besides the numerous minor flexures the schists are bent into a broad synclinal fold which crosses the county, its axis lying in a south-westerly-north-easterly direction. Rising through the schists are several granite masses, the largest being that forming the high ground around Mt Battock; south of the Dee are several smaller masses, some of which have been extensively quarried. The lower part of the Old Red Sandstone consists of flags, red sandstones and purple clays in great thickness; these are followed by coarse conglomerates, well seen in the cliff at Dunnottar Castle, with ashy grits and some thin sheets of diabase. The diabase forms the Bruxie and Leys Hills and some minor elevations. Above the volcanic series more red sandstones, conglomerates and marls appear. The Old Red Sandstone is folded synclinally in a direction continuing the vale of Strathmore; south of this is an anticline, as may be seen on the coast between St Cyrus and Kinneff. Glacial striae on the higher ground and débris on the lower ground show that the direction taken by the ice flow was south-eastward on the hills but as the shore was approached it gradually took on an easterly and finally a northerly direction.
Climate and Agriculture.—The climate is healthy, but often cold, owing to the exposure to east winds. The average temperature for the year is 45° F., for July 58°, and for January 37°. The average annual rainfall is 34 in. Much of the Grampian territory is occupied by grouse moors, but the land by the Dee, in the Howe and along the coast, is scientifically farmed and yields well. The soil of the Howe is richer and stronger than that in the Dee valley, but the most fertile region is along the coast, where the soil is generally deep loam resting on clay, although in some places it is poor and thin, or stiff and cold. Oats are the principal crop, wheat is not largely grown, but the demands of the distillers maintain a very considerable acreage under barley. Rather more than one-tenth of the total area is under wood. Turnips form the main green crop, but potatoes are extensively raised. A little more than half the holdings consist of 50 acres and under. Great attention is paid to livestock. Shorthorns are the most common breed, but the principal home-bred stock is a cross between shorthorned and polled, though there are many valuable herds of pure polled. Cattle-feeding is carried on according to the most advanced methods. Blackfaced sheep are chiefly kept on the hill runs, Cheviots or a cross with Leicesters being usually found on the lowland farms. Most of the horses are employed in connexion with the cultivation of the soil, but several good strains, including Clydesdales, are retained for stock purposes. Pigs are also reared in considerable numbers.
Other Industries.—Apart from agriculture, the principal industry is the fishing, of which Stonehaven is the centre. The coast being dangerous and the harbours difficult in rough weather, the fishermen often run great risks. The village of Findon (pron.Finnan) has given its name to the well-known smoked haddocks, which were first cured in this way at that hamlet. The salmon fisheries of the sea and the rivers yield a substantial annual return. Manufactures are of little more than local importance. Woollens are made at Stonehaven, and at Bervie, Laurencekirk and a few other places flax-spinning and weaving are carried on. There are also some distilleries, breweries and tanneries. Stonehaven, Gourdon and Johnshaven are the chief ports for seaborne trade.
The Deeside railway runs through the portion of the county on the northern bank of the Dee. The Caledonian and North British railways run to Aberdeen via Laurencekirk to Stonehaven, using the same metals, and there is a branch line of the N.B.R. from Montrose to Bervie. There are also coaches between Blairs and Aberdeen, Bervie and Stonehaven, Fettercairn and Edzell, Banchory and Birse, and other points.
Population and Government.—The population was 35,492 in 1891, and 40,923 in 1901, when 103 persons spoke Gaelic and English. The chief town is Stonehaven (pop. in 1901, 4577) with Laurencekirk (1512) and Banchory (1475), but part of the city of Aberdeen, with a population of 9386, is within the county. The county returns one member to parliament, and Bervie, the only royal burgh, belongs to the Montrose group of parliamentary burghs. Kincardine is united in one sheriffdom with the shires of Aberdeen and Banff, and one of the Aberdeen sheriffs-substitute sits at Stonehaven. The county is under school-board jurisdiction. The academy at Stonehaven and a few of the public schools earn grants for higher education. The county council hands over the “residue” grant to the county secondary education committee, which expends it in technical education grants. At Blairs, in the north-east of the shire near the Dee, is a Roman Catholic college for the training of young men for the priesthood.
History.—The annals of Kincardineshire as a whole are almost blank. The county belonged of old to the district of Pictavia and apparently was overrun for a brief period by the Romans. In the parish of Fetteresso are the remains of the camp of Raedykes, in which, according to tradition, the Caledonians under Galgacus were lodged before their battle with Agricola. It is also alleged that in the same district Malcolm I. was killed (954) whilst endeavouring to reduce the unruly tribes of this region. Mearns, the alternative name for the county, is believed to have been derived from Mernia, a Scottish king, to whom the land was granted, and whose brother, Angus, had obtained the adjoining shire of Forfar. The antiquities consist mostly of stone circles, cairns, tumuli, standing stones and a structure in the parish of Dunnottar vaguely known as a “Picts’ kiln.” By an extraordinary reversion of fortune the town which gave the shire its name has practically vanished. It stood about 2 m. N.E. of Fettercairn, and by the end of the 16th century had declined to a mere hamlet, being represented now only bythe ruins of the royal castle and an ancient burial-ground. The Bruces, earls of Elgin, also bear the title of earl of Kincardine.