Chapter 13

He wrote, besides the Discourses,Déclaration pour prise d’armes et la défense de Sedan et Jamets(1588);Observations sur l’histoire de Guicciardini(2 vols., 1592); and notes onPlutarch’s Lives. HisCorrespondancewas published in 1854. SeeLa Vie de François, seigneur de La Noue, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661); Brantôme’sVies des Capitaines français; C.Vincens’Les Héros de la Réforme. Fr. de La Noue(1875); and Hauser,François de La Noue(Paris, 1892).

LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE,1st Marquess of(1737-1805), British statesman, better known under his earlier title of earl of Shelburne, was born at Dublin on the 20th of May 1737. He was a descendant of the lords of Kerry (dating from 1181), and his grandfather Thomas Fitzmaurice, who was created earl of Kerry (1723), married the daughter of Sir William Petty (q.v.). On the death without issue of Sir William Petty’s sons, the first earls of Shelburne, the estates passed to his nephew John Fitzmaurice (advanced in 1753 to the earldom of Shelburne), who in 1751 took the additional name of Petty. His son William spent his childhood “in the remotest parts of the south of Ireland,” and, according to his own account, when he entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1755, he had both “everything to learn and everything to unlearn.” From a tutor whom he describes as “narrow-minded” he received advantageous guidance in his studies, but he attributes his improvement in manners and in knowledge of the world chiefly to the fact that, as was his “fate through life,” he fell in “with clever but unpopular connexions.” Shortly after leaving the university he served in Wolfe’s regiment during the Seven Years’ War, and so distinguished himself at Minden and Kloster-Kampen that he was raised to the rank of colonel and appointed aide-de-camp to the king (1760). Being thus brought into near communication with Lord Bute, he was in 1761 employed by that nobleman to negotiate for the support of Henry Fox, Lord Holland. He was returned to the House of Commons as member for Wycombe, but in 1761 he succeeded his father as earl of Shelburne in the Irish peerage, and Baron Wycombe in the peerage of Great Britain (created 1760). Though he declined to take office under Bute he undertook negotiations to induce C. J. Fox to gain the consent of the Commons to the peace of 1763. Fox affirmed that he had been duped, and, although Shelburne always asserted that he had acted in thorough good faith, Bute spoke of the affair as a “pious fraud.” Shelburne joined the Grenville ministry in 1763 as president of the Board of Trade, but, failing in his efforts to replace Pitt in the cabinet, he in a few months resigned office. Having moreover on account of his support of Pitt on the question of Wilkes’s expulsion from the House of Commons incurred the displeasure of the king, he retired for a time to his estate. After Pitt’s return to power in 1766 he became secretary of state, but during Pitt’s illness his conciliatory policy towards America was completely thwarted by his colleagues and the king, and in 1768 he was dismissed from office. In 1782 he consented to take office under the marquess of Rockingham on condition that the king would recognize the United States. On the death of Lord Rockingham in the same year he became premier; but the secession of Fox and his supporters led to the famous coalition of Fox with North, which caused his resignation in the following February, his fall being perhaps hastened by his plans for the reform of the public service. He had also in contemplation a bill to promote free commercial intercourse between England and the United States. When Pitt acceded to office in 1784, Shelburne, instead of receiving a place in the cabinet, was created marquess of Lansdowne. Though giving a general support to the policy of Pitt, he from this time ceased to take an active part in public affairs. He died on the 7th of May 1805. During his lifetime he was blamed for insincerity and duplicity, and he incurred the deepest unpopularity, but the accusations came chiefly from those who were dissatisfied with his preference of principles to party, and if he had had a more unscrupulous regard to his personal ambition, his career as a statesman would have had more outward success. He was cynical in his estimates of character, but no statesman of his time possessed more enlightened political views, while his friendship with those of his contemporaries eminent in science and literature must be allowed considerable weight in qualifying our estimate of the moral defects with which he has been credited. He was twice married, first to Lady Sophia (1745-1771), daughter of John Carteret, Earl Granville, through whom he obtained the Lansdowne estates near Bath, and secondly to Lady Louisa (1755-1789), daughter of John Fitzpatrick, 1st earl of Upper Ossory. John Henry Petty Fitzmaurice (1765-1809), his son by the first marriage, succeeded as 2nd marquess, after having sat in the House of Commons for twenty years as member for Chipping Wycombe.

Henry Petty Fitzmaurice, 3rd marquess of Lansdowne (1780-1863), son of the 1st marquess by his second marriage, was born on the 2nd of July 1780 and educated at Edinburgh University and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He entered the House of Commons in 1802 as member for the family borough of Calne and quickly showed his mettle as a politician. In February 1806, as Lord Henry Petty, he became chancellor of the exchequer in the ministry of “All the Talents,” being at this time member for the university of Cambridge; but he lost both his seat and his office in 1807. In 1809 he became marquess of Lansdowne; and in the House of Lords and in society he continued to play an active part as one of the Whig leaders. His chief interest was perhaps in the question of Roman Catholic emancipation, a cause which he consistently championed, but he sympathized also with the advocates of the abolition of the slave-trade and with the cause of popular education. Lansdowne, who had succeeded his cousin, Francis Thomas Fitzmaurice, as 4th earl of Kerry in 1818, took office with Canning in May 1827 and was secretary for home affairs from July of that year until January 1828; he was lord president of the council under Earl Grey and then under Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to August 1841, with the exception of the few months in 1835 when Sir Robert Peel was prime minister. He held the same office during the whole of Lord John Russell’s ministry (1846-1852), and, having declined to become prime minister, sat in the cabinets of Lord Aberdeen and of Lord Palmerston, but without office. In 1857 he refused the offer of a dukedom, and he died on the 31st of January 1863. Lansdowne’s social influence and political moderation made him one of the most powerful Whig statesmen of the time; he was frequently consulted by Queen Victoria on matters of moment, and his long official experience made his counsel invaluable to his party. He married Louisa (1785-1851), daughter of the 2nd earl of Ilchester, and was succeeded by his son Henry, the 4th marquess (1816-1866). The latter, who was member of parliament for Calne for twenty years and chairman of the Great Western railway, married for his second wife Emily (1819-1895), daughter of the comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, a lady who became Baroness Nairne in her own right in 1867. By her he had two sons, the 5th marquess and Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice (Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh).

Henry Charles Keith Petty Fitzmaurice, 5th marquess of Lansdowne (b. 1845), was educated at Balliol, Oxford, where he became one of Jowett’s favourite pupils. In 1869 he marriedthe daughter of the 1st duke of Abercorn. As a member of the Liberal party he was a lord of the treasury (1869-1872), under-secretary of war (1872-1874), and under-secretary of India (1880); in 1883 he was appointed governor-general of Canada, and from 1888 to 1893 he was viceroy of India. He joined the Liberal Unionist party when Mr Gladstone proposed home rule for Ireland, and on returning to England became one of its most influential leaders. He was secretary of state for war from 1895 to 1900, and foreign secretary from 1900 to 1906, becoming leader of the Unionist party in the House of Lords on Lord Salisbury’s death.

His brotherEdmond George Fitzmaurice, Baron Fitzmaurice (b. 1846), was educated at Trinity, Cambridge, where he took a first class in classics. Unlike Lord Lansdowne, he remained a Liberal in politics and followed Mr Gladstone in his home rule policy. As Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice he entered the House of Commons in 1868, and was under-secretary for foreign affairs from 1882 to 1885. He then had no seat in parliament till 1898, when he was elected for the Cricklade division of Wilts, and retiring in 1905, he was created Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh in 1906, and made under-secretary for foreign affairs in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s ministry. In 1908 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and a member of the Liberal cabinet, but resigned his post in 1909. He devoted much time to literary work, and was the author of excellent biographies of the 1st marquess, of Sir William Petty (1895), and of Lord Granville (1905), under whom he had served at the foreign office.

For the 1st marquess, see Lord Fitzmaurice,Life of William, Earl of Shelburne(3 vols., London, 1875-1876).

LANSDOWNE, a hill cantonment in India, in Garhwal district of the United Provinces, about 6000 ft. above the sea, 19 m. by cart road from the station of Kotdwara on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901) 3943. The cantonment, founded in 1887, extends for more than 3 m. through pine and oak forests, and can accommodate three Gurkha battalions.

LANSING, the capital of Michigan, U.S.A., in Ingham county, at the confluence of the Grand and Cedar rivers, about 85 m. W.N.W. of Detroit and about 64 m. E.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 16,485, of whom 2397 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 31,229. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the Père Marquette railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Grand river on its way through the city makes a horse-shoe bend round a moderately elevated plateau; this is the commercial centre of the city, and here, in a square covering 10 acres, is the State Capitol, erected in 1873-1878 and containing the State library. On the opposite side of the river, farther N., and also extending across the southern portion of the city, are districts devoted largely to manufacturing. Lansing has a public library and a city hospital. About 3 m. E. of the city, at East Lansing, is the State Agricultural College (coeducational), the oldest agricultural college in the United States, which was provided for by the state constitution of 1850, was organized in 1855 and opened in 1857. Its engineering course was begun in 1885; a course in home economics for women was established in 1896; and a forestry course was opened in 1902. In connexion with the college there is an agricultural experiment station. Lansing is the seat of the Michigan School for the Blind, and of the State Industrial School for Boys, formerly the Reform School. The city has abundant water-power and is an important manufacturing centre. The value of the factory products increased from $2,942,306 in 1900 to $6,887,415 in 1904, or 134.1%. The municipality owns and operates the water-works and the electric-lighting plant. The place was selected as the site for the capital in 1847, when it was still covered with forests, and growth was slow until 1862, when the railways began to reach it. Lansing was chartered as a city in 1859 and rechartered in 1893.

LANSING MAN, the term applied by American ethnologists to certain human remains discovered in 1902 during the digging of a cellar near Lansing, Kansas, and by some authorities believed to represent a prehistoric type of man. They include a skull and several large adult bones and a child’s jaw. They were found beneath 20 ft. of undisturbed silt, in a position indicating intentional burial. The skull is preserved in the U. S. National Museum at Washington. It is similar in shape to those of historic Indians of the region. Its ethnological value as indicating the existence of man on the Missouri in the glacial period is very doubtful, it being impossible accurately to determine the age of the deposits.

SeeHandbook of American Indians(Washington, 1907).

LANSQUENET,the French corrupted form of the GermanLandsknecht(q.v.), a mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. It is also the name of a card game said to have been introduced into France by theLandsknechte. The pack of 52 cards is cut by the player at the dealer’s right. The dealer lays the two first cards face upwards on the table to his left; the third he places in front of him and the fourth, orréjouissancecard, in the middle of the table. The players, usually called (except in the case of the dealer)punters, stake any sum within the agreed limit upon this réjouissance card; the dealer, who is also the banker, covers the bets and then turns up the next card. If this fails to match any of the cards already exposed, it is laid beside the réjouissance card and then punters may stake upon it. Other cards not matching are treated in the same manner. When a card is turned which matches the réjouissance card, the banker wins everything staked on it, and in like manner he wins what is staked on any card (save his own) that is matched by the card turned. The banker pays all stakes, and the deal is over as soon as a card appears that matches his own; excepting that should the two cards originally placed at his left both be matched before his own, he is then entitled to a second deal. In France matching means winning, not losing, as in Great Britain. There are other variations of play on the continent of Europe.

LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN(1729-1778), French landscape painter, was born at Oncy on the 24th of March 1729. His father was a weaver, and he himself began life as a herdboy; but, having attracted the notice of Gille de Reumont, a son of his master, he was placed under a painter at Versailles. Endowed with great facility and real talent, his powers found ready recognition; but he found the constraint of a regular life and the society of educated people unbearably tiresome; and as long as the proceeds of the last sale lasted he lived careless of the future in the company of obscure workmen. Rich amateurs more than once attracted him to their houses, only to find that in ease and high living Lantara could produce nothing. He died in Paris on the 22nd of December 1778. His works, now much prized, are not numerous; the Louvre has one landscape, “Morning,” signed and dated 1761. Bernard, Joseph Vernet, and others are said to have added figures to his landscapes and sea-pieces. Engravings after Lantara will be found in the works of Lebas, Piquenot, Duret, Mouchy and others. In 1809 a comedy calledLantara, or the Painter in the Pothouse, was brought out at the Vaudeville with great success.

See E. Bellier de la Chavignerie,Recherches sur le peintre Lantara(Paris, 1852).

LANTERN(an adaptation of the Fr.lanternefrom Lat.lanternaorlaterna, supposed to be from Gr.λαμπτήρ, a torch or lamp,λάμπειν, to shine, cf. “lamp”; the 16th- and 17th-century form “lanthorn” is due to a mistaken derivation from “horn,” as a material frequently used in the making of lanterns), a metal case filled in with some transparent material, and used for holding a light and protecting it from rain or wind. The appliance is of two kinds—the hanging lantern and the hand lantern—both of which are ancient. At Pompeii and Herculaneum have been discovered two cylindrical bronze lanterns, with ornamented pillars, to which chains are attached for carrying or hanging the lantern. Plates of horn surrounded the bronze lamp within, and the cover at the top can be removed for lighting and for the escape of smoke. The hanging lantern for lighting rooms was composed of ornamental metal work, of which iron and brass were perhapsmost frequently used. Silver, and even gold, were, however, sometimes employed, and the artificers in metal of the 17th and 18th centuries produced much exceedingly artistic work of this kind. Oriental lanterns in open-work bronze were often very beautiful. The early lantern had sides of horn, talc, bladder or oiled paper, and the primitive shape remains in the common square stable lantern with straight glass sides, to carry a candle. The hand lantern was usually a much more modest appliance than the hanging lantern, although in great houses it was sometimes richly worked and decorated. As glass grew cheaper it gradually ousted all other materials, but the horn lantern which was already ancient in the 13th century was still being used in the early part of the 19th. By the end of the 18th century lanterns in rooms had been superseded by the candlestick. The collapsible paper lanterns of China and Japan, usually known as Chinese lanterns, are globular or cylindrical in shape, and the paper is pleated and when not in use folds flat. For illuminative and decorative purposes they are coloured with patterns of flowers, &c. The lanterns carried by the ordinary foot passenger are made of oiled paper. In China the “Feast of Lanterns” takes place early in the New Year and lasts for four days. In Japan the festival of Bon is sometimes known as the “feast of lanterns.” It is then that the spirits of the dead ancestors return to the household altar. The festival takes place in July. The “bull’s-eye” lantern has a convex lens which concentrates the light and allows it to be thrown in the shape of a diverging cone. The “dark lantern” has a shutter or slide arrangement by which the light can be shut off at will. Ships’ lanterns are used as masthead or other signal lights. On Trajan’s column is a representation of a heavy poop-lantern on a ship. The ships’ lanterns of the 16th and 17th centuries were highly ornamental, especially when placed on the poop. At the Armeria Real in Madrid is a collection of these 16th-century ships’ lanterns. The protected cages which contain the lights used in lighthouses are also known as “lanterns” (seeLighthouses).

In architecture a lantern is primarily a framework of timber, with windows all round, to admit ample light, placed on the top of a roof. In a broader sense, it is applied to those portions of buildings which are largely perforated with windows, and more especially to the upper part of the towers of cathedrals and churches, as in the octagon of Ely cathedral, or the tower of Boston church, Lincolnshire. The term is also applied to the entire church, as in the case of Bath Abbey church, which was called the “lantern of England,” from the number of its windows, and St John’s Priory at Kilkenny, the “lantern of Ireland,” on account of the window on the south side of the choir which was 54 ft. long. In the Renaissance style the lantern was looked upon as a decorative feature surmounting the dome, as in St Peter’s, Rome, the Invalides, Paris, and St Paul’s, London.

Magic or Optical Lantern.

The magic or optical lantern is an instrument for projecting on a white wall or screen largely magnified representations of transparent pictures painted or photographed on glass, or of objects—crystals, animals, &c.—carried on glass slides or in glass vessels. If the light traverses the object, the projection is said to be diascopic, if by reflected light, episcopic.

The invention of the magic lantern is usually attributed to Athanasius Kircher, who described it in the first edition (1646) of hisArs magna lucis et umbrae, but it is very probably of earlier discovery. For a long period the magic lantern was used chiefly to exhibit comic pictures, or in the hands of so-called wizards to summon up ghosts and perform other tricks, astonishing to those ignorant of the simple optical principles employed. Within recent years, however, the optical lantern has been greatly improved in construction, and its use widely extended. By its means finely executed photographs on glass can be shown greatly magnified to large audiences, thus saving the trouble and expense of preparing large diagrams. When suitably constructed, it can be used in the form of a microscope to exhibit on a screen the forms and movements of minute living organisms, or to show to an audience delicate physical and chemical experiments which could otherwise be seen only by a few at a time Another application of the optical lantern is found in the cinematograph (q.v.).

The optical lantern, in its simpler forms, consists of the following parts: (1) the lantern body, (2) a source of light, (3) an optical system for projecting the images. The lantern body is a rectangular casing usually made of Russian iron, but sometimes covered with wood (which must be protected by asbestos at parts liable to damage by heat), provided with the openings necessary to the insertion of the source of light, windows for viewing the same, a chimney for conveying away the products of combustion, fittings to carry the slides and the optical system. In the earlier and simpler lanterns, oil lamps were commonly used, and in the toy forms either an oil flame or an ordinary gas jet is still employed. Natural petroleum burnt in a specially constructed lamp by means of two or three parallel wicks set edgeways to the lenses was employed in the sciopticon, an improved lantern invented in America which gave well-defined pictures 6 to 10 ft. in diameter. The Argand gas burner also found application. A great improvement attended the introduction of lime-light,i.e.the light emitted by a block of lime made incandescent by an impinging oxyhydrogen or oxygen-coal-gas flame, and the readiness with which hydrogen and oxygen can be prepared and rendered available by compression in steel cylinders and the increased commercial supply of coal-gas greatly popularized these illuminants. Many improvements have been made on the original apparatus. The lime-cylinders are specially prepared to withstand better the disintegrating effects of the flame, and are mounted on a rotating pin in order that fresh surfaces may be brought into play. Cones of zirconia are also used in the same way; or a thorium mantle in conjunction with alcohol vapour may be employed. Two types of burner are in use: (1) the “blow-through jet,” in which the oxygen is forced through the jet of the burning gas (this is the safest type), and (2) where the gases are mixed before combustion (this is the more dangerous but also the more powerful type). Ether burners are also in use. In one type the oxygen supply is divided into two streams, one of which passes through a chamber containing cotton wool soaked with ether, and then rejoins the undiverted stream at the jet. The application of the incandescent gas mantle is limited by the intensity of the heat emitted and the large area of the source. Of electrical illuminants the platinum and carbon filament lamps are not much used, the Nernst lamp (in which the preliminary heating is effected by a spirit lamp and not by an auxiliary coil) being preferred. But the arc light is undoubtedly the best illuminant for use in the projecting lantern. The actual size of the source is comparatively small, and hence it is necessary to mount the carbons so that the arc remains at one point on the axis of the optical system. It is also advisable to set back the carbons relatively to one another and to tilt them, so that the brightest part of the “crater” faces the lens.Optical System.—In the ordinary (or vertically) projecting lantern the rays are transmitted through a lens termed the “condenser,” then through the object, and finally through another lens termed the “objective.” In the horizontally projecting types the light, after passing through the condenser, is reflected vertically by a plane mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then traverses another lens, then the object, then the objective, and is finally projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or by a right angled glass prism, the hypothenuse face of which is silvered. In episcopic projection, the light, having traversed the condenser, is reflected on to the object, placed horizontally, by an inclined mirror. The rays reflecting the object then traverse the objective, and are then projected horizontally by a mirror or prism. This device inverts the object; a convenient remedy is to place an erecting prism before the lens. The object of the condenser is to collect as much light as possible from the source, and pass it through the object in a uniform beam. For this purpose the condenser should subtend as large an angle as possible at the source of light. To secure this, it should be tolerably large, and its distance from the light, that is, its focal length, small. Since effective single lenses of large diameter are necessarily of long focus, a really good condenser of considerable diameter and yet of short focus must be a combination of two or more lenses. It is essential that the condenser be white and limpid and free from defects or striae.In the earlier lanterns, as still in the cheaper forms, only a single plano-convex lens or bull’s-eye was employed as a condenser. A good compound condenser for ordinary work is that proposed by Herschel, consisting of a biconvex lens and a meniscus mounted together with the concave side of the meniscus next the light. Other types employ two plano-convex lenses, the curved surfaces nearly in contact; or a concavo-convex and a plano-convex lens. Or it may be a triple combination, the object always being to increase the aperture. The focus must not be so short as to bring the lens too near the light, and render it liable to crack from the intense heat. In some lanterns this is guarded against by placing a plate of thin glass between the condenser and the light. If the source of light be broad, an iris diaphragm may be introduced so as to eliminate inequalities in illumination.The function of the objective is to produce a magnified inverted image of the picture on the screen. In toy lanterns it is a simple double-convex lens of short focus. This, however, can only producea small picture, and that not very distinct at the edges. The best objective is the portrait combination lens usually of the Petzval type as used in ordinary photographic cameras. These are carefully corrected both for spherical and chromatic aberration, which is absolutely essential in the objective, although not so necessary in the condenser.Objects.—The commonest objects used for exhibiting with the optical lantern are named “slides” and consist of pictures printed on transparent surfaces. Solid objects mounted on glass after the ordinary manner of mounting microscopic objects are also possible of exhibition, and hollow glass tanks containing organisms or substances undergoing some alteration are also available for use with the lantern. If it be necessary to eliminate the heat rays, which may act deleteriously on the object, a vessel is introduced containing either water or a 5% solution of ferric chloride. In the ordinary slide the pictures are painted with transparent water or oil colours, or photographed on pieces of glass. If parts of the picture are to be movable, two disks of glass are employed, the one movable in front of the other, the fixed part of the picture being painted on the fixed disk and the movable part on the other. By means of a lever the latter disk is moved in its own plane; and in this way a cow, for instance, can be represented drinking, or a donkey cutting amusing capers. In the chromatrope slide two circular disks of glass are placed face to face, each containing a design radiating from the centre, and painted with brilliant transparent colours. By a small pinion gearing in toothed wheels or endless bands the disks are made to move in opposite directions in their own plane. The effect produced is a singularly beautiful change of design and colour. In astronomical slides the motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, the phases of the moon or the like are similarly represented by mechanical means.Dissolving Views.—For this purpose two magic lanterns are necessary, arranged either side by side or the one on the top of the other. The fronts of the lanterns are slightly inclined to each other so as to make the illuminated disks on the screen due to each lantern coincide. By means of a pair of thin metallic shutters terminating in comb-like teeth, and movable by a rack or lever, the light from either lantern can be gradually cut off at the same time that the light from the other is allowed gradually to fall on the screen. In this way one view appears to melt or dissolve into another. This arrangement was first adopted by Childe in 1811.Phantasmagoria.—In this arrangement the pictures on the screen appear gradually to increase or diminish in size and brightness. To effect this a semi-transparent screen of cotton or other material is used, the lantern being behind and the audience in front. The lantern is mounted on wheels so that it can be rapidly moved up to or withdrawn from the screen; and an automatic arrangement is provided whereby simultaneously with this the objective is made to approach or recede from the slide so as to focus the picture on the screen in any position of the lantern. In this way a very small picture appears gradually to grow to enormous dimensions.See L. Wright,Optical Projection(1891); E. Trutat,Traité des Projections(Paris, 1897 and 1901); P. E. Liesegang,Die Projektions-Kunst(Leipzig, 1909).

Optical System.—In the ordinary (or vertically) projecting lantern the rays are transmitted through a lens termed the “condenser,” then through the object, and finally through another lens termed the “objective.” In the horizontally projecting types the light, after passing through the condenser, is reflected vertically by a plane mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then traverses another lens, then the object, then the objective, and is finally projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or by a right angled glass prism, the hypothenuse face of which is silvered. In episcopic projection, the light, having traversed the condenser, is reflected on to the object, placed horizontally, by an inclined mirror. The rays reflecting the object then traverse the objective, and are then projected horizontally by a mirror or prism. This device inverts the object; a convenient remedy is to place an erecting prism before the lens. The object of the condenser is to collect as much light as possible from the source, and pass it through the object in a uniform beam. For this purpose the condenser should subtend as large an angle as possible at the source of light. To secure this, it should be tolerably large, and its distance from the light, that is, its focal length, small. Since effective single lenses of large diameter are necessarily of long focus, a really good condenser of considerable diameter and yet of short focus must be a combination of two or more lenses. It is essential that the condenser be white and limpid and free from defects or striae.

In the earlier lanterns, as still in the cheaper forms, only a single plano-convex lens or bull’s-eye was employed as a condenser. A good compound condenser for ordinary work is that proposed by Herschel, consisting of a biconvex lens and a meniscus mounted together with the concave side of the meniscus next the light. Other types employ two plano-convex lenses, the curved surfaces nearly in contact; or a concavo-convex and a plano-convex lens. Or it may be a triple combination, the object always being to increase the aperture. The focus must not be so short as to bring the lens too near the light, and render it liable to crack from the intense heat. In some lanterns this is guarded against by placing a plate of thin glass between the condenser and the light. If the source of light be broad, an iris diaphragm may be introduced so as to eliminate inequalities in illumination.

The function of the objective is to produce a magnified inverted image of the picture on the screen. In toy lanterns it is a simple double-convex lens of short focus. This, however, can only producea small picture, and that not very distinct at the edges. The best objective is the portrait combination lens usually of the Petzval type as used in ordinary photographic cameras. These are carefully corrected both for spherical and chromatic aberration, which is absolutely essential in the objective, although not so necessary in the condenser.

Objects.—The commonest objects used for exhibiting with the optical lantern are named “slides” and consist of pictures printed on transparent surfaces. Solid objects mounted on glass after the ordinary manner of mounting microscopic objects are also possible of exhibition, and hollow glass tanks containing organisms or substances undergoing some alteration are also available for use with the lantern. If it be necessary to eliminate the heat rays, which may act deleteriously on the object, a vessel is introduced containing either water or a 5% solution of ferric chloride. In the ordinary slide the pictures are painted with transparent water or oil colours, or photographed on pieces of glass. If parts of the picture are to be movable, two disks of glass are employed, the one movable in front of the other, the fixed part of the picture being painted on the fixed disk and the movable part on the other. By means of a lever the latter disk is moved in its own plane; and in this way a cow, for instance, can be represented drinking, or a donkey cutting amusing capers. In the chromatrope slide two circular disks of glass are placed face to face, each containing a design radiating from the centre, and painted with brilliant transparent colours. By a small pinion gearing in toothed wheels or endless bands the disks are made to move in opposite directions in their own plane. The effect produced is a singularly beautiful change of design and colour. In astronomical slides the motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, the phases of the moon or the like are similarly represented by mechanical means.

Dissolving Views.—For this purpose two magic lanterns are necessary, arranged either side by side or the one on the top of the other. The fronts of the lanterns are slightly inclined to each other so as to make the illuminated disks on the screen due to each lantern coincide. By means of a pair of thin metallic shutters terminating in comb-like teeth, and movable by a rack or lever, the light from either lantern can be gradually cut off at the same time that the light from the other is allowed gradually to fall on the screen. In this way one view appears to melt or dissolve into another. This arrangement was first adopted by Childe in 1811.

Phantasmagoria.—In this arrangement the pictures on the screen appear gradually to increase or diminish in size and brightness. To effect this a semi-transparent screen of cotton or other material is used, the lantern being behind and the audience in front. The lantern is mounted on wheels so that it can be rapidly moved up to or withdrawn from the screen; and an automatic arrangement is provided whereby simultaneously with this the objective is made to approach or recede from the slide so as to focus the picture on the screen in any position of the lantern. In this way a very small picture appears gradually to grow to enormous dimensions.

See L. Wright,Optical Projection(1891); E. Trutat,Traité des Projections(Paris, 1897 and 1901); P. E. Liesegang,Die Projektions-Kunst(Leipzig, 1909).

LANTERN-FLY, the name given to insects belonging to the homopterous division of the Hemiptera, and referable to the genusFulgoraand allied forms. They are mostly of large size, with a superficial resemblance to lepidoptera due to their brilliant and varied coloration. Characteristic of the group is the presence on the front of the head of a hollow process, simulating a snout, which is sometimes inflated and as large as the rest of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and apically upturned. It was believed, mainly on the authority of Marie Sibylle de Mérian, that this process, the so-called “lantern,” was luminous at night. Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and made use of a number of specific names, such aslanternaria,phosphorea,candelaria, &c., to illustrate the supposed fact, and thus aided in disseminating a belief which subsequent observations have failed to establish and which is now generally rejected.

LANTERNS OF THE DEAD, the architectural name for the small towers in stone, found chiefly in the centre and west of France, pierced with small openings at the top, where a light was exhibited at night to indicate the position of a cemetery. These towers were usually circular, with a small entrance in the lower part giving access to the interior, so as to raise the lamps by a pulley to the required height. One of the most perfect in France is that at Cellefrouin (Charente), which consists of a series of eight attached semicircular shafts, raised on a pedestal, and is crowned with a conical roof decorated with fir cones; it has only one aperture, towards the main road. Other examples exist at Ciron (Indre) and Antigny (Vienne).

LANTHANUM[symbol La, atomic weight 139.0 (O = 16)] one of the metals of the cerium group of rare earths. Its name is derived from the Gr.λανθάνειν, to lie hidden. It was first isolated in 1839 by C. G. Mosander from the “cerium” of J. Berzelius. It is found in the minerals gadolinite, cerite, samarskite and fergusonite, and is usually obtained from cerite. For details of the complex process for the separation of the lanthanum salts from cerite, see R. Bunsen (Pogg. Ann., 1875, 155, p. 377); P. T. Cleve (Bull. de la soc. chim., 1874, 21, p. 196); and A. v. Welsbach (Monats. f. Chem., 1884, 5, p. 508). The metal was obtained by Mosander on heating its chloride with potassium, and by W. F. Hillebrand and T. Norton (Pogg. Ann., 1875, 156, p. 466) on electrolysis of the fused chloride, while C. Winkler (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 78) prepared it by heating the oxide with a mixture of magnesium and magnesia. Muthmann and Weiss (Ann., 1904, 331, p. 1) obtained it by electrolysing the anhydrous chloride. It may be readily hammered, but cannot be drawn. Its specific gravity is 6.1545, and it melts at 810°. It decomposes cold water slowly, but hot water violently. It burns in air, and also in chlorine and bromine, and is readily oxidized by nitric acid.

Lanthanum oxide, La2O3, is a white powder obtained by burning the metal in oxygen, or by ignition of the carbonate, nitrate or sulphate. It combines with water with evolution of heat, and on heating with magnesium powder in an atmosphere of hydrogen forms a hydride of probable composition La2H3(C. Winkler,Ber.1891, 24, p. 890).Lanthanum hydroxide, La(OH)3, is a white amorphous powder formed by precipitating lanthanum salts by potassium hydroxide. It decomposes ammonium salts.Lanthanum chloride, LaCl3, is obtained in the anhydrous condition by heating lanthanum ammonium chloride or, according to C. Matignon (Compt. rend., 1905, 40, p. 1181), by the action of chlorine or hydrochloric acid on the residue obtained by evaporating the oxide with hydrochloric acid. It forms a deliquescent crystalline mass. By evaporation of a solution of lanthanum oxide in hydrochloric acid to the consistency of a syrup, and allowing the solution to stand, large colourless crystals of a hydrated chloride of the composition 2LaCl3·15H2O are obtained.Lanthanum sulphide, La2S3, is a yellow powder, obtained when the oxide is heated in the vapour of carbon bisulphide. It is decomposed by water, with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen.Lanthanum sulphate, La2(SO4)3·9H2O, forms six-sided prisms, isomorphous with those of the corresponding cerium salt. By carefulheating it may be made to yield the anhydrous salt.Lanthanum nitrate, La(NO3)3·6H2O, is obtained by dissolving the oxide in nitric acid. It crystallizes in plates, and is soluble in water and alcohol.Lanthanum carbide, LaC2, is prepared by heating the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (H. Moissan,Compt. rend., 1896, 123, p. 148). It is decomposed by water with the formation of acetylene, methane, ethylene, &c.Lanthanum carbonate, La2CO3·8H2O, occurs as the rare mineral lanthanite, forming greyish-white, pink or yellowish rhombic prisms. The atomic weight of lanthanum has been determined by B. Brauner (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1901, 17, p. 63) by ignition of lanthanum sulphate at 500° C., the value obtained being 139 (O = 16).

LANUVIUM(more frequentlyLaniviumin imperial times, mod.Civita Lavinia), an ancient city of Latium, some 19 m. S.E. of Rome, a little S.W. of the Via Appia. It was situated on an isolated hill projecting S. from the main mass of the Alban Hills, and commanding an extensive view over the low country between it and the sea. It was one of the members of the Latin League, and remained independent until conquered by Rome in 338B.C.At first it did not enjoy the right of Roman citizenship, but acquired it later; and even in imperial times its chief magistrate and municipal council kept the titles ofdictatorandsenatusrespectively. It was especially famous for its rich and much venerated temple of Juno Sospes, from which Octavian borrowed money in 31B.C., and the possessions of which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby inMélanges de l’école française, 1905, 203). It possessed many other temples, repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by, as was also Commodus. Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city walls exist in the modern village, and above it is an area surrounded by a portico, inopus reticulatum, upon the north side of which is a rectangular building inopus quadratum, probably connected with the temple of Juno. Here archaic decorative terra-cottas were discovered in excavations carried on by Lord Savile. The acropolis of the primitive city was probably on the highest point above the temple to the north. The neighbourhood, which is now covered with vineyards, contains remains of many Roman villas, one of which is traditionally attributed to Antoninus Pius.

SeeNotizie degli Scavi, passim.

(T. As.)

LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA(1810-1882), Italian politician, was born at Casale, Piedmont, on the 15th of February 1810. He studied medicine at Turin, and practised for some years in his native place. He was one of the promoters of the agrarian association in Turin, and took an active part in the rising of 1848. He was elected to the Piedmontese parliament in that year, and attached himself to the party of Cavour, devoting his attention chiefly to questions of economy and finance. He became minister of public instruction in 1855 in the cabinet of Cavour, and in 1858 minister of finance. He followed Cavour into his temporary retirement in July 1859 after the peace of Villafranca, and for a year (1860-1861) was president of the Chamber. He was minister of the interior (1864-1865) in the La Marmora cabinet, and arranged the transference of the capital to Florence. He maintained a resolute opposition to the financial policy of Menabrea, who resigned when Lanza was a second time elected, in 1869, president of the Chamber. Lanza formed a new cabinet in which he was himself minister of the interior. With Quintino Sella as minister of finance he sought to reorganize Italian finance, and resigned office when Sella’s projects were rejected in 1873. His cabinet had seen the accomplishment of Italian unity and the installation of an Italian government in Rome. He died in Rome on the 9th of March 1882.

See Enrico Tavallini,La Vita ed i tempi di Giovanni Lanza(2 vols., Turin and Naples, 1887).

LANZAROTE,an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 17,546; area, 326 sq. m. Lanzarote, the most easterly of the Canaries, has a length of 31 m. and a breadth varying from 5 to 10 m. It is naked and mountainous, bearing everywhere marks of its volcanic origin. Montaña Blanca, the highest point (2000 ft.), is cultivated to the summit. In 1730 the appearance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A violent earthquake preceded the catastrophe, by which nine villages were destroyed. In 1825 another volcanic eruption took place accompanied by earthquakes, and two hills were thrown up. The port of Naos on the south-east of the island affords safe anchorage. It is protected by two forts. A short distance inland is the town of Arrecife (pop. 3082). The climate is hot and dry. There is only a single spring of fresh water on the island, and that in a position difficult of access. From the total failure of water the inhabitants were once compelled to abandon the island. Dromedaries are used as beasts of burden. Teguise (pop. 3786), on the north-west coast, is the residence of the local authorities. A strait about 6 m. in width separates Lanzarote from Fuerteventura.

Graciosa, a small uninhabited island, is divided from the north-eastern extremity of Lanzarote by a channel 1 m. in width, which affords a capacious and safe harbour for large ships; but basaltic cliffs, 1500 ft. high, prevent intercourse with the inhabited part of Lanzarote. A few persons reside on the little island Allegranza, a mass of lava and cinders ejected at various times from a now extinct volcano, the crater of which has still a well-defined edge.

LANZI, LUIGI(1732-1810), Italian archaeologist, was born in 1732 and educated as a priest. In 1773 he was appointed keeper of the galleries of Florence, and thereafter studied Italian painting and Etruscan antiquities and language. In the one field his labours are represented by hisStoria Pittorica della Italia, the first portion of which, containing the Florentine, Sienese, Roman and Neapolitan schools, appeared in 1792, the rest in 1796. The work is translated by Roscoe. In archaeology his great achievement wasSaggio di lingua Etrusca(1789), followed bySaggio delle lingue Ital. antiche(1806). In his memoir on the so-called Etruscan vases (Dei vasi antichi dipinti volgarmente chiamati Etruschi, 1806) Lanzi rightly perceived their Greek origin and characters. What was true of the antiquities would be true also, he argued, of the Etruscan language, and the object of theSaggio di lingua Etruscawas to prove that this language must be related to that of the neighbouring peoples—Romans, Umbrians, Oscans and Greeks. He was allied with E. Q. Visconti in his great but never accomplished plan of illustrating antiquity altogether from existing literature and monuments. His notices of ancient sculpture and its various styles appeared as an appendix to theSaggio di lingua Etrusca, and arose out of his minute study of the treasures then added to the Florentine collection from the Villa Medici. The abuse he met with from later writers on the Etruscan language led Corssen (Sprache der Etrusker, i. p. vi.) to protest in the name of his real services to philology and archaeology. Among his other productions was an edition of Hesiod’sWorks and Days, with valuable notes, and a translation interza rima. Begun in 1785, it was recast and completed in 1808. The list of his works closes with hisOpere sacre, a series of treatises on spiritual subjects. Lanzi died on the 30th of March 1810. He was buried in the church of the Santa Croce at Florence by the side of Michelangelo.

LAOAG, a town, port for coasting vessels, and capital of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Laoag river, about 5 m. from its mouth, and in the N.W. part of the island. Pop. (1903) 34,454; in 1903, after the census had been taken, the municipality of San Nicolás (pop. 1903, 10,880) was added to Laoag. Laoag is on an extensive coast plain, behind which is a picturesque range of hills; it is well built and is noted for its fine climate, the name “Laoag” signifying “clear.” It is especially well equipped for handling rice, which is shipped in large quantities; Indian corn, tobacco and sugar are also shipped. Cotton is grown in the vicinity, and is woven by the women into fabrics, which find a ready sale among the pagan tribes of the mountains. The language is Ilocano.

LAOCOON, in Greek legend a brother of Anchises, who had been a priest of Apollo, but having profaned the temple of the god he and his two sons were attacked by serpents while preparing to sacrifice a bull at the altar of Poseidon, in whose service Laocoon was then acting as priest. An additional motive forhis punishment consisted in his having warned the Trojans against the wooden horse left by the Greeks. But, whatever his crime may have been, the punishment stands out even among the tragedies of Greek legend as marked by its horror—particularly so as it comes to us in Virgil (Aeneid, ii. 199 sq.), and as it is represented in the marble group, the Laocoon, in the Vatican. In the oldest existing version of the legend—that of Arctinus of Miletus, which has so far been preserved in the excerpts of Proclus—the calamity is lessened by the fact that only one of the two sons is killed; and this, as has been pointed out (Arch. Zeitung, 1879, p. 167), agrees with the interpretation which Goethe in hisPropylaeahad put on the marble group without reference to the literary tradition. He says: “The younger son struggles and is powerless, and is alarmed; the father struggles ineffectively, indeed his efforts only increase the opposition; the elder son is least of all injured, he feels neither anguish nor pain, but he is horrified at what he sees happening to his father, and he screams while he pushes the coils of the serpent off from his legs. He is thus an observer, witness, and participant in the incident, and the work is then complete.” Again, “the gradation of the incident is this: the father has become powerless among the coils of the serpent; the younger son has still strength for resistance but is wounded; the elder has a prospect of escape.” Lessing, on the other hand, maintained the view that the marble group illustrated the version of the legend given by Virgil, with such differences as were necessary from the different limits of representation imposed on the arts of sculpture and of poetry. These limits required a new definition, and this he undertook in his still famous work,Laokoon(see the edition of Hugo Blümner, Berlin, 1876, in which the subsequent criticism is collected). The date of the Laocoon being now fixed (seeAgesander) to 40-20B.C., there can be no question of copying Virgil. The group represents the extreme of a pathetic tendency in sculpture (seeGreek Art, Plate I. fig. 52).

Back to Index Next